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The  student's  Hume 


David  Hume,  John  Sherren  Brewer 


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The  Students  Hume 


A  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND 

FROM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  TO  THE  REVOLUTION 
IN   1688 


BASBD  ON  THI  BISTORT  OF 

DAVID     HUME 

IKCORFORATING  THI   OORREOTIONS   AND   ReSEARCHKS  OP  RxCBNT  HiSTORIANB 

CONTINUED  TO  THE  TREATY   OF  BERLIN 
IN   1878 


NBW  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  CORRECTED 

By  J.  S.  BREWER,  M.A. 

XJLTB  PBOnnOB  OP  MODBHX  HI8TOBT  AXD  KM0LI8H  UTBRATUBB,  KOTO'S  OOLLBOB,  LOITDOS 


WITH  AN  APPENDIX  BY  AN  AMERICAN  EDITOR 


lUUSTRATED  BY  MAPS  AND  ENQRAVINQ8  ON  WOOD 


NEW  YORK   • :  •   CINCINNATI    • :  •   CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


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(  HARVARD 
UNIVERSITY! 
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PREFACE. 


The  Studkrt's  Hume  v^as  origmally  pnUiihed  in  1858. 
Its  object  was  to  supply  a  long-aoknowledged  want  in  our 
School  and  College  Literature  ^a  Student's  History  of 
Emoulnd  in  a  volume  of  moderate  size,  ftree  from  sectft^rian 
and  party  prejudice,  C(mtaining  the  results  of  the  researches 
of  the  best  modem  historians,  tracing  more  particularly 
the  development  of  the  Constitution,  and  bringing  out 
prominently  the  characters  and  actions  of  the  great  men 
of  our  country.  That  this  object  has  been  attained  is 
attested  by  the  approval  the  Work  has  received  from  those 
most  competent  to  express  an  opinion  upon  the  subject, 
by  its  continued  use  in  many  of  our  beet  Public  Schools 
and  Colleges,  and  by  the  very  great  and  constant  demand 
for  new  editions  of  the  book.  But  the  progress  of  events, 
and  the  publication  of  many  important  historical  docu- 
ments, public  and  private,  previously  unknown,  induced 
the  Editor  to  subject  the  Work  to  a  thorough  revision ;  and, 
in  order  to  render  the  book  as  perfect  as  possible,  he  called 
to  his  aid  the  late  Professor  Brewer,  who,  possessing  an 
unrivalled  knowledge  of  all  periods  of  English  History, 
was,  perhaps,  the  highest  authority  upon  the  ottly*ct  in 
the  pi^nt  day.  He  bestowed  unwearied  pains  upon  the 
revision  of  the  Work,  and  left  it  ready  for  publication  h 


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yi  FREFACB. 

few  weeks  before  hiB  lamented  death.  A  abort  time 
previously,  he  gave,  in  a  private  letter  written  to  the 
Editor,  the  following  account  of  his  labours  and  the 
principles  which  guided  him  in  the  revision.  The  italics 
are  Mr.  Brewer's. 

"  I  have  brought,"  he  says,  "  the  Work  down  to  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  of  course  with  the  brevity  compatible 
with  your  wish  that  the  Work  should  not  exceed  its 
original  dimensions.  On  the  whole,  I  think  it  is  the 
most  handy  and  complete  Manual  of  English  History 
which  exists  for  Schools, — and  experience  will  prove  it  to 
be  so.  To  keep  the  Work  to  its  title  and  its  size,  to  intro- 
duce the  corrections  necessitated  by  the  progress  of  original 
research,  to  remove  positive  misstatements,  has  required 
no  small  amount  of  care  and  judgment.  But  I  h&ve  been 
guided,  to  ihe  best  of  my  ability,  by  historical  truth,  by 
the  investigations  of  recent  trustworthy  historians,  by  the 
wants  of  the  student,  and  by  my  own  researches,  now  of 
some  years'  standing.  In  the  most  anxious  of  all  periods 
— that  of  the  seventeenth  century — I  have  been  guided  by 
Ranke  and  Rawson  Gardiner,  whose  authority  is  not  only 
the  highest  for  that  period,  but  to  my  mind — and  I  know 
what  I  am  saying — is  now  the  only  authority  worth  re- 
garding. The  research,  the  industry,  the  accui-acy,  the 
candour  of  Rawson  Gardiner  are  unquestionable,  though 
he  is  in  politics  and  religion  inclined  to  the  Parliament 
Btrongly,  and  has  no  liking  for  the  Stuarts :  but  his  more 
equitable  way  of  considering  the  great  controversies  of 
the  times  must  eventually  prevail  against  the  le>s  careful 
statements  and  the  prejudices  of  Brodie,  Macaulay,  Forster, 
and  others  I  need  not  name. 
"  The  popularity  of  the  Work  must  depend  on  its  merits 


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PREFACK  VU 

for  aoonraoj  and  ability,  and  its  suffioienoy  as  a  good 
Manual.  GompetitiYe  examinations  have  entirely  put  it 
out  of  any  schoolmaster  s  power  to  exclude  a  thoroughly 
good  History  from  hiu  schoolroom,  because  he  may  have 
a  sentimental  dislike  to  some  of  its  statements.  I  am 
fiilly  convinced  that  the  road  to  success  i«  by  careful 
investigations  and  temperate  narrative,  showing  the 
reader  that  there  is  another  side  to  the  question  than  that 
which  some  recent  writers  have  presented. 

**  Wherever  there  was  /otr  evidence  for  Hume's  state- 
ments, I  have  retained  them,  and  still  more  f i  equently 
Hume's  estimate  of  motives  and  characters,  when  he  had 
the  /acti  before  him,  because,  though  not  entirely  free  from 
prejudice,  he  had  excellent  good  sense  and  soimd  judg- 
ment." 

The  present  History,  unlike  some  others  of  the  same 
class,  gives  as  full  an  account  of  Celtic  and  Roman 
Britain  as  the  limits  of  the  work  would  allow.  Mr. 
Brewer  strongly  disapproved  of  the  modem  fashion  of 
ignoring  the  Roman  occupation  of  Great  Britain,  and 
starting  at  once  from  the  Anglo-Sax(»n  invasion.  He 
pointed  out,  in  an  article  which  he  wrote  in  the  Quarterly 
Review,*  that  the  Celtic  and  Roman  occupation  of  the 
island  was  closely  connected  with  its  subsequent  history ; 
that  rhe  Saxon  Conquest,  though  a  change  of  the  highest 
moment,  did  not  break  up  society;  and  that  the  Saxon 
State  was  built  upon  the  ruins  of  the  past. 

Ae  much  prominence  as  possible  is  given  in  the 
present  Work  'o  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Constitution  ; 
but  in  order  to  economize  space,  and  at  the  same  time  not 
interrupt  the  narrative,  much  imjH>rtant  information  upon 

♦  See  Qwurterly  Review,  yol.  141,  p.  295,  seqq. 

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VIU  PBETACX. 

this  subject  is  inserted  in  a  smaller  type  in  tbe  '^  Notes 
and  lUustratiQDs,**  where  tbe  student  will  find  an  aooonnt 
of  the  *'  gOTerument,  laws,  and  instltutiuns  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,"  of  the  "Anglo-Norman  Oonbtitution,"  of  the 
"  origin  and  progress  of  Parliament,"  and  of  other  matters 
of  a  similar  kind.  Several  oonstitntional  doouments,  suoh 
as  the  Petition  of  Right  and  the  Bill  of  Bights,  ave  printed 
at  length.  These  Notes  and  Illustrations,  which  contain 
dison>sion8  on  various  other  historical  and  antiquarian 
subjects,  have  been  drawn  up  mainly  with  the  view  of 
assisting  tbe  student  in  further  enqnjines ;  and  with  the 
same  object  a  copious  list  of  authoiities  is  appended. 


NOTE  BY  THE  AMERICAN  EDITOR. 

In  the  portions  of  this  volume  relating  to  America  are  a 
few  errors  and  some  important  omissions.  The  errors  have 
been  corrected  and  the  omissions  supplied  in  some  Supple- 
mentary Notes,  which  may  be  found  immediately  preceding 
the  Index.  At  the  head  of  each  note,  the  page  in  the  text  to 
which  it  refers  is  given ;  while  in  the  text  the  number  of  tbe 
Note  in  tbe  Supplement  making  corrections  or  additions  is 
referred  to. 


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CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


BOOK    I. 
Thx  Bbitonb,  Romakb,  and  AvaxiO-SAxona    B.a  66-aj).  1066. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Tn  Bbrohs  and  thb  Rokaits.    B^a  66-aj>.  460. 


BA  PAOB 

Eadlest  notloM  of  Britain       . .      2 
66-4.  Cssab's  two  invasioiMi . .     . .      7 
A.v. 
43.  Invasion  by  CLAVoros.     Aulas 

Plaudns 8 

fO.  Garactacns  carried  captive   to 

Rome       9 

68-61.  Snetonios  Paulinas.    Mona. 

Boadlcea 9, 10 

78-86.  Britain  sntxlued  by  AfilcoU    10 
130.  Visit  of  Habiuam.  The  Roman 

^aU 11 

139.  Wall  of  Antoninus U 

S09-311.  OonqoesU    and    death    of 

SSVXBUB   u 


▲.D.  PAOB 

886-296.  Uaorpation  of  Caeaubius 

and  Allvctus        

306.  OoirafTAimus  Chi.oku8  diea  at 

York 

867.  Picts  and   Soots   repulsed    by 

TbeodoBias      

888.  Usurpation  of  Maximus  . .  . . 
410.  Departure  of  tlie  Roman  le^^ns 
443.  Last  vain  supplication  to  Aetins 
460.  The  Saxons  are  called  in  . .  . . 
Britain  under  the  Romans 
Christianity  in  Britain  ..  . . 
432.  Oonveraion  of  Ireland  by  St. 

Patrick     16 


A  Gmv's  Vomm  to  Britatn 
K  Tbs  Roman  Walb 


a  Tka  "CooMi  Uttorii 
Di.  neBeotoaod  Plcti 


UttorisSHnoki' 


KOT£B  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 

B.  OovemiBMit  and 

ondar  tiM  BoBM 

r.  AnthoritkifBrlhs 


16 
16 
17 
17 


PlylilniM  of  Brilidn 


18 
II 


CHAPTEB    IL 
Thk  ANOLO-SAXom  tiI(L  tbb  Bnflv  ov  Bobbbt.  a.o.  480-627. 


The  Saxons,  Angtos,  and  Jutes  21 
460.  I.   First  settlement,  of   Jutes 

under  Hkkgwt  and  Horsa  . .  24 
466-473.  Their  baUles.    Kingdom  of 

KaU 25,  26 

477-619.  II.  Second  settlement,  of 

Saxons.  Ella  in  SuMMeee  . .  26 
496-677.  III.  Ckrdic  and  Ctmrio— 

Kingdom  of  Wtuem  26,  27 

626.  IV     Kingdom    <^    the    Au< 

SOUCOHS  27 

660  ?  v.  Kingdom'  of  tike  Sait  Anglu  27 

Norfolk  and  Suffolk 27 

647  ?  VL  Angles  In  yortkumbria  . .  28 

Ida,  king  of  Bemicia      . .     . .  28 

Ella,  king  of  Oeira 28 

617.  Klnndom  of  Northumbria  united 

rfinwrK 28 

1* 


636.  VII.  Kingdom  of  Moreia  under 

Pbmda      28 

The  Htptarehy.    BHtiik  SkUe$    28 

The  BretwaMat        31 

493.  (1)  Ella  of  S^MS 31 

668.  (2)  Gbawuk  of  Wu»em    ..     ..     31 
His  victory  over  .£tbelbertit  at 

Wlmbledoi)       

692.  His  great  defeat  at  Wodesbeorg 

(S)  iBrHKLBSRHT  of  Kent 
697.  His  conversion  by  Augustine . . 
610.  Bishoprics  of  Canterbury.  Lon- 
don, and  Rochester       . .     . . 

616.  (i)  BxDWALD  of  East  Ai^(Ua  . . 

617.  victory  over    £thklfbitb   at 

Nortbumbria 

624.  (S)  Edwin  of  Nortbumbria    . . 

637.  ms  conversion  by  Panlinus    . 


33 


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CONTENTS. 


A.D.  PAQB 

ess.  EdwlnsUlnbyPendaofMeroU  34 

«S4.  (6)  Oswald,  bod  of  iEthelflith  34 

ScoUish  Christianity  in  North- 

umbria      34 

642.  Oswald  slain  by  Penda     ..     ..  34 

665.  m  OswT  kills  Penda  ..  ..  34 
686.  EcoFRiTH  killed  by  the  Picts  at 

at  Necbtansmere     36 

Uterature     in     Northumbria. 

Oreat  monasteTies 36 


A.D.  PAOB 

CMmoQ  and  Bede     36 

793.  BavagesoftheNorUunen       ..  36 

796.  Anarchy  in  Northumbria        . .  36 

688.  Wessex.    Laws  of  In  a     ..     ..  36 

800.  EoBEBT  becomes  king      . .     . .  36 
716-766.  Supremacy  of  Mercia  under 

-fithelbald        36 

766-796.  Its  climax  under  Offa       ..  36 
827.  Uuk>n  of  the  Uocpdoms  ander 

Egbert      38 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 


A.  The  FiMan  In  _ 

B.  TheUeornuuMt 


M 


a  OiltloWoidiiiitksl 


CHAPTER  IIL 

Thb  Avoxx>-Saxoh8  fbom  Tm  UinoK  of  Englahd  uhdbr  Eobbbt  till  nn  Rbom 
or  Cakuts  thk  Dans,  a.d.  627-1016 


830.  Eobbkt  reduces  Wales  ..  .. 
832.  Appearance  of  the  Northmen 
836.  ^TTHRLWuLFand  jEthblstan 
863.  .^thelwulf  goes  to  Rome  . .  . . 
856.  Revolt  of  ^rHSLBALD  . .  . . 
858.  .£thklbald  and  ^Ethelbkrht 
866.  £thblrkdI.    Danish  invasions 

870.  St.  Edmund  of  KaAt  Anglia    . . 

871.  Victory  at  Asbdown 43 

Alfred  tub  Gkkat  ....     . .     43 

875.  First  English  naval  victory     . .    44 
878.  Guthrum  in  Wessex.  Alfred  a 

fugitive  in  At»>elney      . .     . .     44 

Treaty  of  Wedmore.  England 

partitioned.   The  Dandagh  . .    46 

803.  The  Danish  war  renewed         . .     46 

901.  Alfred's  character  and  works  . .     46 

Laws  ascribed  to  Alfred  . .      . .     48 

Edward  I.  THE  Eldrr    ..     ..    48 

922.  Union  of  all  Southeni  Britain        48 

925.  .£thblstan         49 

927.  .Xnnexea  Northumbria     . .     . .     49 
937.  His  victory  at  ^rufian&urA  49 

940.  Edmund  L  THE  Elder     ..     ..    49 
945.  Cumberland    conquered;    and 


given  to  Malcolm,  of  Sootland, 

to  hold  under  Edmund  . .     . .  49 

946.  Edrrd.    Power  of  Dunstan   ..  50 

955.  Edwt.    Quarrel  with  Dunstan  51 

958.  Revolt  of  Edoar      51 

Divorce  of  Elgiva     52 

959.  Edoak  THE  Praceablb  ..     ..  52 
959.  Dunstan  made  archbishop      . .  52 

Laws  of  Edgar 52 

975.  Edward  IL  THE  Martyr  63 

Ecclesiastical  conflicts    ..     ..  53 

979.  .£thbi.red  TI.  the  Unrradt  53 

988.  Death  of  archbishop  Dunstan  54 

993.  Invasion  of  Sweyn  and  Anlaf  54 

997.  The  Danes  again.   Danegdd  . .  54 
1002.  ^tbelred    marries  Emma   of 

Normandy     54 

Nov.  13.  Massacre  of  the  Danes      . .  55 

1013.  SwBTH  conquers  England      . .  66 

1014.  Hisdcath.   Return  of  iEthelred  55 
1016.  Canute's  invasion 56 

Death  of  vEthelred 66 

1016.  Edmund  Ironside  and  Canute  56 

Partition  of  England       ..     ..  56 

Death  of  Edmund 66 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DAiras  AHD  Anglo-Saxons  from  Canute  to  thb  Norman  Conqubbt. 

A.D.  1016-1066. 


I.  Ths  Danish  Kings. 


1017.  Canute    marries    Emma    of 

Normandy     58 

The  four  earldoms 58 

Rise  of  Godwin         59 

1031.  Canute  conquers  Maloolm  of 

Scotland.    Macbeth      ..     ..  60 


of 


1035.  Harold  I.  Harbfoot 

1036.  Murder    of    Alf^^    i 

^thelred        60 

1040.  Hardiganute 61 

Ain«K^  reimpoeed 61 

His  sudden  death     61 


n.  The  Rxstorxd  Linb  of  Cbrdic. 


1042.  Edward  III.  the  Confessor  61 

1051.  Norman  influence 62 

Godwin  banished      63 

William  of  Normandy  visits 

Edward 63 

1062-3.  Return  and  death  of  Godwin  64 


1055.  Power  of  Haroki      64 

1040-54.  ScotUnd:  Duncan,  MacibeUi, 

and  Malcolm         64 

1057.  Return  and  death  of  Edward 
the  Stranger.  Designation 
uf  William  as  suooessor    ..    6i 


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CM>NT£NTS. 


106Y.  Rarold't  octh  to  WnUam 
lOO.  Hwold  ndnoM  Wales    ..     .. 
1066.  Tottig,  earl  of  Northmnbrk, 

depoted  .. 

1066.  Death^Edwwd      

His  character  and  Uwi  ..     .. 


1066.  Election  of  Habold  n 6f 

Invasion  of  Tostig  and  Harold 

Hardrada        67 

Sept.  25.   Battle  of  Stamford  Bridge  67 

Oct.  14.  Battle  of  Hastings    ..     ..  68 

Death  of  Harold      68 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 


▲.  Iba  Goranmcnt.  Unra,  and  Initttatloiu 

o(lh»Ai>8k>4Hn)os  „  70 

B.  Aa^  Oiaoo  lamwui  andlitiniliBii    ^    71 


0.  The  Anglo^Hrao  a 
D.  AnlhorittMlbrlhe 


77 

n 


BOOK  II. 
The  Nobmah  and  Eablt  Plantaobnbt  Kings.    a.d.  1066-1199. 


CHAPTER  V. 
William  L  tb    Oovqusror,  6.  ioa7 ;  r.  1066-1087. 


History  of  Nonnandj  ..     ..  70 
til.  Rolf  the  Ganger  becomes  ooont 

ofNenstria 80 

933.  His  son,  William  Longsword  80 

043.  Richard  I.  the  Fearless  ..     ..  80 

996.  His  son,  Richard  II.  the  Good  81 

1028.  His  brother.  Robert  the  Devil  81 

1035.  His  natural  son.  William  II.  81 

1047.  Secures  Normandy 81 

1066.  WiLUAM  king  of  England    ..  83 

1067.  William  vLdts  Normandj      . .  84 
Revolt  in  England ;  suppressed  86 

1068.  Insurrection   of    Edwin    and 

Morcar 86 

Malcolm    swears    fsal^    to 

William 86 

1069.  New   rebeUion 86 

Landing  of  Danes 86 

1070.  Marriage    of     Maiyvet    the 

Saxon  to  Malcolm       ..     ..  87 


1070.  William  devastates  Yorkshire    87 
Stigand     deposed :     Lisnfiranc 

made  primaie       87 

1071.  ''Camp  of  Refuge"  in  Isle  of 

Ely  taken      88 

Edgar   iEthellng    submito  to 
William 88 

1075.  Insurrectionof  Norman  barons    89 

1076.  Execution  of  earl  Waltheof  . .     90 
1078.  Norman     wars.      Revolt     of 

Robert 90 

1080-1.  Wars    with    Scotland    and 
Wales     

1085.  Threatened  Danish  invaaion. 

Danegeld       

1086.  Dcmeaaay  Book 

1087.  War  with  France     92 

Death  of  William     92 

His  character  and  govemmeot    92 


91 


91 
91 


CHAPTER  VL 
William  On  HnntT  I..  Stepbcv.    a.d.  1087-1154. 


1087.  WiLUAM  n.  RurUB,  h   1060; 
r.  1087-1100      

1088.  RebeUion  of  bishop  Odo  and 

Norman  barons 

1089.  Death  of  Lanftanc 

William's  tyranny 

1090.  Wars     in      N'ormandy     with 

Robert  and  Henry 

1091.  Submission   of  Malcolm   and 


1096. 


1093. 


rjEtheling 

Cumberland  made  an  English 

county 

Firtt  Crumidt , . 

Robert  pledges  Normandy 

Anselm  made  archbishop 

1097.  Quarrel  between  the  king  and 

primate 

1100.  Death  and  character  of  WiUiam 

HkHBT  I.  BSAUCLERK.  h   1070 ; 

r.  1100-1135 

His    charter  to   the   church, 
barons,  and  people      ..     .. 


I  1100.  Incorporation  of  London  ..  99 
96  Henry  marries  Mand,  of  the 

I  Saxon  line     99 

95   ;    1101.  Invasion  of  Robert 99 

95   I    1105.  BaUle  of  Tinchebray      ..     ..100 

95  I    1106.  Conquest  of  Normandy  ..     ..100 
'    1134.  Death  of  Robert       100 

96  I  Death  of  Edgar  £tbelinff      ..  100 
I    1106.  End  of  the  dispute  with  An- 

96   '  selm  about  investitures    ..  101 

I  1120.  Prince  William  drowned  ..101 
96  '  1121.  Henrv marries  Adelals  ..  ..102 
96       1125.  Death  of  the  emperor  Henry 

96  I  v..     husband    of    Matilda, 

97  daui^terofHennrl 102 

1126.  The    English    nobles     swear 

97  fealty  to  Matilda 102 

97       1128.  She    marries  Geoffrey,    count 

of  AnJou        102 

1133.  Birth  of  her  son  (Henry  11.)  . .  102 
1135.  Death      and      character     of 

HenryL        102 


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xii 


OOHTJUIW. 


1136.  8rinini,MM6;r.  1181-1154 
Acknowtodfsd  in  NociBiii^r 

1138.  SoottiBh  invaaioD.    Battle  of 

the  StMMUrd       

1139.  Invasion  of  MatfldA.  QTilwar 

1141.  Stephen   captured,   and   ex- 

cnanfted  for  Robert,  earl  of 
Oloncester 

1142.  Flight  of  Matilda  from  Oxford 
1146.  Death  of  earl  Robort    ..     .. 


FJ«B    )     JLIK 


103 


104 
104 


105 
106 
106 


1146.  Deptlt«M0f  MMMa    ..      ..  101 

1140.  War  renewed  by  Henry      ..  l« 
1160.  Be  fooceeds   bis    fkther  in 

Anjou,  and  marries  Etoanor  106 

His  great  pouecsoionB    .         .100 

He  invades  England      ..     ..  100 

Treaty  of  Widlingfml..     ..  106 

1164.  Death     and     ohanoler     of 

108 


CHAPTER   VII. 
THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINa& 

HbURT  n.   AND  RiCHAXD  L,  A.D.    1164-1190. 


1164.  Hbkht  it.,  5.  1133;  r.  1164- 
1 189.    His  vast  continental 

possefisions 107,  108 

He  restores  order 108 

i  167.  Thomas  Becket  chanoellor  ..     109 

162.  Beoket  archbishop 110 

His  quarrel  with  Henry  110 

U9A.  Constitutumt  qf  Cfarmdon       ill 
Oct.  0.   Conncil  of   Northampton 

Becket's  flight        

11  to.  Ooronadon  of  prince  Henry. . 

Return  of  Becket 

New  quarrel  with  Henry 
)ec.  29.  Murder  of  Becket      . .     . . 

His  character 116 

1171.  Henry  submits  to  the  pope  . .     116 

1172.  Conquest  of  Ireland 

1173.  Rebellion  of  the  king's  sons 

1174.  His  penance  at  Becket'stomb 
BaUlc  of  Alnwick.     William 

the  Lion  taken  prisoner   . . 
1176.  The  Scots  do  homage    ..     .. 


112 
112 
113 

113 
113 
116 


117 
117 
UP 


118 

lis 


Administration  of  Henry 
Itinerant  Justices 

1183-6.  Family  discords.    Deaths  of 
yonng  Henry  and  Geoiftey 

1187.  Jerusalem  taken  by  Saladin 
The  Second  OruMde     . .     . . 

1189.  Rebellion  of  Richard  and  John 
Death  and  character  of  Heiwy 
Richard  I.,  b.  1167;  r.  1189- 

1199.     Third  Oru$ade 

1190.  MeeUng  of  Richard  and  Philip 

at  Veiplay 

1191.  Richarci  in  .Sicily  and  Cypma 
His  marriage  to  Berengana  . . 
Takes  Acre  and  Ascalon 

1 192.  Concludes  a  truce  with  Saladin 
Made  prisoner  by  I^eopold  of 

Austria 

lieague  of  John  with  Philip  . . 

1193.  Richard  before  the  diet 

1194.  Is  ransomed  and  returns 
1199.  His  death  and  character 


▲.  Iba  Anfto-Norman  Oorutltatloo 
B.  AttthoritlMfor 


r  Norman  HbtoiT 


N0TS8  AND  ILLUSTRATlONa 

▲uthorttta  for  Anflo-Noi 


118 
118 

119 
119 
119 
119 
119 


121 
121 
121 
121 
122 

122 
122 
122 
123 
123 


IM 
IIB 


iHklory  «   119 


BOOK    III. 

Deyblophent  of  the  English  CoNSTrruTioK. 

FmOM  TBK  A0CK88IOR  OP  JOHV  TO  TBR  DeaTH  OF  RlOHABI>  IIL,  AJK  lit  ItHjl 


CHAPTER  VIIL 
HOUSE  OP  PLANTAGENET— <*• 

JORV    AXD    HbKRT  III.     A.O.   1199-1172. 


1109.  Jomr,  b.  1 167 ;  r.  1 199-1216 . .  1 32 

Arthur,  duke  of  Brittany  132 
1200.  War  and  treaty  with  Philip 

Augustus  of  France   ..     ..  132 
John     marries    Isabella    <rf 

Angouleme 133 

\902.  War  with  France 133 

neatb  of  Arthur     133 

i04.  Loss  of  Normandy,  et« 133 


1206.  Quarrel  with  Innocent  IIL  ..  ISO 

1207.  ^phen  I^ngton  primate    ..  116 

1208.  Papal  interdict       1S6 

1212.  Excommunication  of  John  ..  136 

1213.  John  becomes  a  rtaml  of  the 

pope  for  England       ..     ..  186 

Philip  makes  war  on  John  . .  136 

Naval  victory  at  Damme     . .  136 

1214.  John  makes  war  in  France  . .  186 


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COirTENTS. 


ZIU 


A^.  TA.QM 

1314.  Battle  of  Doimiiet 186 

OoofederacyofthebftroDs   ..  136 

1316.  John  gnnto  Maoka  Casta  137 
Charter  to  the  city  of  LondoQ  140 
John  obCaina  a  dispensation  139 

1116.  Gtril  war.     I'be  barons  call 

in  prince  Lonls  of  F^ranoe. .  i3t 

Death  and  ch^^iracter  of  John  '  m 

Hekbt     m.,    b.    1307;    r. 

1216-1373      140 

William  Marshal,  earl  ofPem- 

broke.  protector 140 

Cunflrmatioii  of  the  Charter . .  141 

1317.  The  French  depart 141 

1319.  Government  of  Dee  Bodies 

andDeBon^     ..     ..     ..  142 

1334.  War  with  Lonis  Vm 143 

Character  and  goyemment  of 

Henry 143 

1383.  Hubert  de  Bnrgh  dlsmiaeed. 

Foreign  &Toiirites  ..  ..  143 
1336.  Henry  marries    Eleanor   of 

Provenoe      148 

1343.  War  with  Loois  IX 143 

1946,  etc.    UsnrpattoDB  and  ezao- 

tioneofRome    143 


▲.p. 
1266. 

1357. 

1253. 

1358. 


1261. 
1264. 


W66. 


1370. 
1272. 


PAOB 

Prolect  ft>r  the   conquest  of 

JNaples 144 

Richard,    earl   of   CornwalU 

elected  king  of  the  Romans 
Renewal  of  the  Great  Charter 
Disputes    with    the    barons. 

Sfanon  de  Montfort  . 
The  Mad  /  aWtosien^  . 
ProvisioM  qf  Oaford  . 
J^rst    public    docummi    in 

BngUtk        

Treaiy  with  Louis  IX.  . . 
Final  cession  of  Normandy 
The  Barons'  War  . .     . . 
Mediation  of  Louis  IX.  IkUs 
Battle  and  AlUe  of  Lewes    . . 
Parliament  summoned  by  De 

Montfort :  regarded  as  ths 

origin  ftf  the Uouuof  (  om. 

mont      

fiatUe  of  Evesham.   Death  of 

Simon  de  Montfort  . .  . .  148 
The  IHctum  de  KenHwartk . .  148 
Edward  goes  on  a  crusade  . .  149 
Death  and  character  uf  Henry    149 


144 
144 

146 

146 
146 

183 
147 
147 
147 
147 
147 


148 


H0TB8  AND  ILLUSTKATlOJia 


C5HAPTER  IX. 
BOOfflB  OF  PLANTAGBNET— OtrnMiMMfL 


EDWABI>  I.  AND 
mS.  Kdwaxd  I.,  b.  1239 ;  r.  1373 

1307        

First  recognition  of  a  king's 
accessloo  before  his  corona- 
tion: the  ** king's   peace" 

proclaimed 

1374.  His  return  and  coronation   .. 

1379.  His  administration 

Statute  qf  Mortmain    ..     .. 

1383.  Conquest  of  Wales 

Execution  of  Uewelyn . .     . . 

1384.  StatuU  of  WaUM.    IKftfa  of 

Edward,  prince  of  Wales  . . 
1390.  The  Jews  banished  ..  .. 
IJ66.  DMth  of  Akzander  UI.  of 

1390.  SoolUnd,  and  his  granddaugh- 

ter, the  maid  of  Norway  . . 
Oompettto'S  f<v  the  crown  .. 
The  dispute    submitted    to 

Edward        

1391.  His  supremacy  acknowledged 
1393.  John  BalUol  king  of  Scotland 
1894.  War  wHh  Franoe.    AlUance 

of  France  and  Scotland 
1196.  First  moda  parliammt 
UN.  Edivard  conquers  Scotland  . . 

1397.  War  for  recovery  of  Gulenne 
Coi^nnatton  qfthe  C%mrters 

1398.  Beaoe  wUh  Franoe 

UiO.  Death  of  queen  Eleanor 
1319.  Edwftd  marries  Maiganl  of 

Stance  


161    j 

I 

I 


Edward  D.    aj>.  137^1837. 

1297.  RevoH  of  William  Wallace  160 
His  victory  at  Stirling  . .     . .  160 

1298.  Edward's  victory  at  Falkirk  160 

1304.  Reoonquest  of  Scotland  161 

1305.  Execution  of  Wallace    . .     . .  161 
filnce  fUes  to  Scotland  ..     ..  161 

1306.  He  kills  Comyn      161 

His  coronation  at  Scone       ..  161 

His  defeat  at  Methven  ..     ..  162 

190t.  Death  and  character  of  Ed- 
ward 1 162 

Edward  II.,  6. 1284 ;  r.  1307- 

1327       102 

He  marries  Isabella  of  France  168 
1808-1813.  Quarrel  witli  the  nobles 

about  Gavehton 168 

1312.  Execution  of  Gaveston  by  the 

oari  of  Lancaster       . .     . .  164 
1814.  Battle  of  Bannockbum  ..     ..  164 
Parlian^nt  at  York.    Condi- 
tions imposed  on  Edward  164 
1321.  Banishment  of  the  Deepenser*  164 
1822.  Edward  recovers  power        . .  166 
Lancaster  beheaded       . .     . .  166 
1883.  End  of  the  war  with  Scotland  165 

1325.  Coosnlracy  of  queen  IsabelU 
and  Mortimor     166 

1326.  Oh«  war 166 

The  Spensers  hanged    ..     ..  161 

1837.  Deposition    and    murder    of 

Edwaid   166 


163 
162 
162 
153 
168 
153 

154 
155 


156 
166 

ue 

156 
166 

167 

168 
158 
158 
159 
160 
160 


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XIV 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    X. 
HOUBB  OF  PLANT AQEM  ET—amtfmtad. 

EDWABO  III.  AXD  RXOHABD  II.       AJ>.  1S2Y-1399. 


1337. 


FAAB 

Edwabd  IDh  &•  18U;   r. 

1327-18Yt let 

Earl  of  LADoasto' Droiector  ..  167 

Independence  of  SiDotlAad    ..  198 

Fall  of  Mortimer  and  Isabella  169 

David  Brace,  king  of  SooUaod  169 
Edward   Balliol   set   iq»   bj 

England       169 

Berwick  ceded  to  Edward  m.  170 

Expulsion  of  Edward  BaUidl  170 

Battle  of  Halidon  HiU  . .     . .  170 

Balliol  restored      170 

David  II.  rraiUed  tnm  exUe  170 
Edward  claims  the  crown  of 

France 170 

Oreat  nvnl  vi<ter7  off  SIojb  171 

Domestic  disturbances  ..     ..  171 

The  Cliarter  confirmed        . .  171 
Ai&drB  of  Brittany.    Edward 

sommrts  Montfort     . .     . .  172 

Invaidon  of  France       ..     ..  173 

BalUe^f  Crtejf      173 

David  II.  taken  prisoner  at 

Neville's  Cross 175 

1347.  Calais  Uken  by  Edward      ..  175 

1349.  New  war  in  its  defence        ..  176 

Order  of  the  Oarter       ..     ..  176 

Tha  Black  Death 176 

StaMK  of  Labowren    ..     ..  176 

1866.  BaUUt/PoUiers 177 

1360.  Faaoeof-ffrett^y  with  France  179 

1367.  The  Black  Prince  in  Spain  . .  180 

1369.  New  war  with  France  ..     ..  181 

1874.  Loss  of  the  English  oonqneets  181 

1876.  The  Good  Pariiament  ..     ..  181 

Death  of  the  Black  Prince   ..  181 


1328. 
1330. 
1331. 
1332. 


1333. 

1341. 
1337. 

1340. 

1842. 
1346. 


▲.O.  FAOK 

1377.  Death  and  character  of  Ed- 
ward III 182 

Influence  of  parliament       . .  182 

\36l.  Statute  qf  TreoMmM      ..     ..  182 

Statute  qf  Proviiorg      ..     ..  i83 

1863.  Appeals  to  Rome  forbidden . .  183 
Edward    III.   the    father  of 

English  commerce     . .     . .  183 

Frendi  disused  in  pleadings  183 

1877.  Richard    II.,    b.    1366 ;    r. 

1377-1399      183 

1380.  Poll  tax.    RebeUion      ..     ..  184 

1881.  The    insurgents  in   London. 

Death  of  Wat  Tyler  ..     ..  186 

1386.  Richard  in  Scotland      ..     ..  186 

Domestic  troubles 186 

1886.  Council    of    regency    under 

Gloucester 186 

1389.  The  king  resumes  the  govern- 
ment       187 

1888.  Skirmish  of  Cketfy  Cfuue      . .  187 

1394.  Richard  in  Ireland 187 

1396.  Truce  with  France.    Richard 

marrion  Isabella 187 

1897.  Counter  revolution 187 

Murder  of  Gloucester   ..     ..  188 

1898.  Henry,    duke    of    Hereford, 

banished       188 

1399.  Death  of  John  of  Gaunt       . .  188 
Invasion  of  Henry,  now  duke 

of  Lancaster       188 

Richard  deposed     189 

1400.  His  death  and  character       . .  190 
John  WickUflfe  and  Geoffrey 

Chaucer       190 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 
........    191    I    B.  Sutate  of /*r«imii»<r«  (16  Ble.  U.  0.  A 


IR 


CHAPTER    XI. 

THE  HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER. 

HuntT  IV.,  HxKMY  v.,  HnrRT  VI.    a.d.  1399-1461. 

1899.  HnntT  IV.,  b.  1866;  r.  1899-  i    1418.  Death  and  character  of  Henry    196 

1413       192    I               Hbnrt  v.,  6.  1388 ;  r.   1413- 

1400.  Plot  betrayed  bv  Rutland    ..     193  1422       196 

Persecution  of  the  Lollards  ..  193   .             His    youthful   excesses  and 

1401.  SUtuteaffrinst  heresy  ..      ..     198   ,  reformation 196 

First  burning  of  a  heretlo  in  '    1418-18.  Persecution    of  the   Lol- 

England       193                   lards.    Oldcastle  burnt      ..     197 

Insurrection  of  Owen  Glen-  ,    1416.  Invasion  of  France        . .     . .    198 

dowerin  Wales 198    <              BattU qf  Agincourt      ..     ..     198 

1402.  Battle    of    Homildon   HUl.  1417.  Second  invasion  of  France    ..     199 

Douglas  taken 198       1419.  Conquest  ot  Normandy              199 

14i3.  Rebellion    of    the    Pttcles.  Capture  of  Rouen  . .     ....     199 

Battle  of  Shrewsboiy       ..  194       1420.  Treaty    of   Troyes.     Henry 

1406-8.  Deaths      of      aichbilhop  marries  Katharine      . .     . .    200 

Scrupe,    Notttaf^iam,   «Dd  1421.  The  duke  of  Clarence  killed 

Northumberland       ..     ..     194  atBeaug^     200 

1405.  Captivity  of  prince  James  of  1422.  Henrv  dies  at  VincennA     ..    201 

1406.  Scotland  (James  I.)  ..     ..     196  His  character 201 


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CONTENTa 


XV 


A.l>.  PAOB 

1422.  HmniT  VI.  h,  1421 ;  r.  142»- 

1461;  Ob.  1471     201 

Glonoester  protector;  bishop 

Beaufort  fuardian      ..     ..     201 
Charles     VII.    claims     the 

French  crown     202 

1424.  Treaty  with  Scotland  and  re- 

laMt  of  James  1 202 

1427.  Victory     of      Qedfbrd      at 

Verneail        202 

1420.  Joan  of  Arc  raises  the  siege  of 

Orleans 202 

Charles    VII.    crowned     at 

Rbeims 203 

1480-1.  Joan  of  Arc  captured  and 

burnt     204 

1431.  Henry  VI.  crowned  at  Paris      206 
1486.  Death      of     the     duke     of 
1436      Bedford.     The  English  ex- 
pelled fhmj  Paris 208 

1444.  Ttuce  between  England  and 

France 206 

Wabs  of 

1466.  First  battle  of  St.  Atbcmi :—     200 

Henry  taken    prisoner   and 

Somerset  killed 

1460.  The  Lancastrians  defeated  at 

BlonhMth 

The  Duke  of  York's  army 

dispersed  at  LimIIoip  ..     .. 

1460.  Battleof  iVorOompton.  Henry 

enured      

The  peers  dedare  York  helr 
to  the  throne      


206 


200 
210 


210 
210 


210 


▲JK  FAOB 

1444.  BivaliyofGloiioeotu  UKlthe 
Beauforts     

1446.  Henry  marries  Marga.9t  of 

Anjou 206 

Power  of  De  la  Fble,  earl  of 
SuflToIk 206 

1447.  Arrest  and  death  of  Gloucester    206 

1461.  The   English   expelled  trcm 

France 207 

Richard,  duke   of  York  and 

heir  of  Clarence 207 

The  earU  of  Westmoreland, 

Salisbury,  and  Warwick  . . 
1460.  Impeachment  and  murder  of 

^iffolk 

Insurrection  of  Jack  Cade   . . 
F<dmwnd    Beaufort,   duke  of 

Somerset,  minister    . .     . . 

1462.  York  takes  up  arms      . .     . . 

1463.  Birth  of  Edward,  prince  of 

Wales 

1464.  The  duke  of  York  protector 

THX  ROBM. 

1460.  Battle  of  Wakefield.:— 

York  and  Rutland  killed  .. 

1461.  Victory  of  Edward  at  Mor- 
retk  t.     tiwu  I '«  Crott :  Jasper  Tudor 

taken  and  beheaded  . .  . . 
Feb.  17.  Margaret  defeats  Warwick 

•ikSLAVban*      

Feb.  28.  Edward  enters  London    .. 

lfar.3.  Proclahnedking 

losr  OF  THE  Battles  in  thx 

Wabs  of  thb  Rosbs 


207 


208 


200 
200 


200 
200 


211 


211 

211 
211 
211 


212 


CHAPTER  XIL 
THE  HOUSE  OF  YORK. 


Edwabd  IV..  Edward  V..  Richard 
146L  Edward    IV.,    b.    1442;    r.  1478. 

1461-1488      213        1482. 

HU  TictorT  at  Ibwton  . .     ..    214    |    1483. 
Escape  of  Margaret  and  the 

prince  of  Wales 214 

1464.  Battles  of  BedgOej/  Moor  and 

Hexham,       214.215 

4  466.  Henry  in  the  Tower      . .     . .     216 
1463.  Edward    marries     Elizabeth 

Woodvflle 216 

1460-70.  Alliance  of  Warwick  and 

Clarence  with  Margaret    ..     216 

1470.  Invasion  of  Warwick     ..     ..     216 

Flight  of  Edward 216 

Temporary     restoration     of 

Henry  VI 216 

1471.  Edward  IV.  lands  at  Raven- 

spur      216 

Battle  of  Barfut.     Death  of 

Warwick     217        1486. 

Defeat  of  Margaret  at  Tevokn- 
Vurjf.    Murder  of  Edward, 

prince  of  Wales 217 

Death  of  Henry  VI 217 

1476.  Edward  Invades  France        ..    218 
Peace  qf  Peeqwigny      . .     . .     218 


IIL     A  J>.  1461-1486. 

Death  of  Clarence  in  the  Tower  218 

Death  of  MargarrC  of  Anjou  218 

Death  of  Edward  IV 210 

Edward  V.,  b.  1470;  r.  April 

0— June  26.  1483        ..     ..  218 
Violent   proceedings   of  the 

duke  of  Gloucester  210 

He  Is  appointed  protector    . .  210 

Execution  of  Rivers,  etc.     . .  220 

Ebcecution  of  Hastings  ...  221 

Penance  of  Jane  Shore  . .     . .  221 

Gloucester  accepts  the  crown  221 
Murder  of  the  king  and  duke 

of  York        221 

Richard  in., 5. 1460  r.l483- 

1486       222 

Conspiracy  on  behalf  of  Henry, 

earl  of  Kicbmond      ..     ..  222 

Execution  of  Buckingham  . .  223 

Invasion  of  Henry 224 

BatOeqf  ftoiworth         ..     ..  224 
Death  and  character  of  Richard 

m 224 

State  of  the  nation  under  the 

Plantagenets       226 

Invention  of  printing      210  n..  226 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 
<  OriglaaadProvMaofPiirltamMit    ....    SOS    |     &  AutborltlM  for  Book  III. 


Digitized  by 


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xvl 


ODHTEMTS. 


BOOK  IV. 
Tn  HoDn  <v  Tudob.    a.d.  1465-1608 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Hbxt  Vn^  h.  AJ).  14M;  r.  148fr-lB0». 


AJ>.  PAOS 

Epoch  marked  bj  the  Todor 

accession       239 

I486.  Natur«  of  Henry's  title       . .  330 

His  coronation        331 

1486.  He     marries     Elizabeth     of 

York     331 

Abortive  insarrection  of LfOvel  331 

1487.  Insurrection  of  Simnel        . .  333 
1488-91.  Foreign   affairs.      France 

and  Brittany       333 

1491.  Henry  levies  a  Beneeoience  . .  333 

1493.  Henry  invades  France  ..     ..  334 

Treaty  of  Esuples 334 

Perkin   Warheck   personates 

Richard  of  York        ..     ..  334 
ProufB  of  the  death  of  Edward 

y.  and  Richard 386 

1493.  Execution    of    sir    William 

Stanley 336 

1496.  Perkin  in  Ireland   ..     ..     ..  336 

Poynings's  Law     . .     . .       336  n. 

14M.  Perkin  aided  l^  Jaaei  IT. 

ofScotlADd a3« 


▲.D.  FAM 

1497.  Oomish  insorgents  dellMled  at 

Blackheath aM 

Perldn  liindsin  Cornwall;  is 
taken  and  imprisoned       . .     SM 
1499.  Execution  of  Perkin  and  the 

earl  of  Warwick 337 

1601-3.  Marriage     and     death     of 
Arthur,  prince  of  Wales  . . 
1603.    Katharine   of  Arragon  be- 
trothed to  prinoe  Henry  . . 
Margaret  Tudor  married  to 

James  IV 

1603.  Death  of  queen  Elisabeth    . . 

1694.  The  king's  exactions    . .     . . 

Empson  and  Dudley     . .     . . 

1606.  Henry's  matrimonial  negoda- 

tions      

1609.  His  death  and  character 

The  Gt  eat  Tntereour$e  . .     . . 

The  Star  Chamber 

1493.  Discovery  of  Americt  by  Co- 
lumbus   

1498.  Voyage  of  SebMtiui  Ofthoi  •• 


337 
337 
as4 

337 
237 
237 


338 
338 

as9 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


f  Vm.,  b.  1491 ;  r.  1609-1647. 
From  hd  Aoobbbiov  to  thb  Death  op  Wolsbt,  aj>.  1609-1630. 


1609.  Henry's  character  and  min- 

isters :  Surrey  and  Fox    . . 

1610.  Execution   of    Empson   and 

Dudley 

1609.  Henry's  marriage  to  Katharine 
1609-11.  He  Joins  the  Holy  Leagm 

against  Louis  XII 

1611-12.  Fruitless      invasion       of 

France 

1613.  Wolsey  minister 

Naval  action  nt  Conquet 
Uattle  of  the  Spurs        . .     . . 
Battle  of  Flodden  Field. .     . . 
James  IV.  killed 

1614.  Peace   with    France.     Maiy 

Tudor  marries  Louis  XII., 

who  dies,  Jan.  1,  1616     .. 
1616.  Mary  marries  Brandon,  duke 

of  Suffolk     

Wolftey    made   can^nal  and 

chancellor 

1818.  Treaty  with  France.  Tonmaj 

ceded  to  Francis  T 

1619.  Election  of  Charles  I.  of  Spidii 

as  the  emperor  Charles  Y. 


341 
341 


343 
342 
343 
343 
343 
343 


344    , 


246 


1630.  His  visit  to  England     ..     ..346 
Meeting  of  Henry  and  Francis 

near  Calais 346 

1631.  Henry      mediates     between 

Charles  and  Francis  ..     .. 
Execution  of  Stafford,  duke  of 

Buckingham       

Luther   and    the    Protestant 

Reformation        

Henrj'  styled  D^ender  ^  the 

Faith 24V 

Adrian  VI.  pope 247 

1623.  Second  visit  of  Charles  V.  to 

England        247 

War  witli   France  and  Soot- 

land       

1623.  WoUteys dispute  with  parlia- 
ment.   Illegal  taxation  by 

royal  authority  alone 
Confederary  against  France  . . 
Clement  V  I.  pope         ..     .. 

1626.  Battle  of  Pflvia       

Francis  talcen  prisoner . .     . . 
Treaty  between  England  and 

France  


247 
347 


347 


347 


248 
348 
248 
349 
249 


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CONTENTa 


XVll 


A.D.  PAQB 

1625.  Thi&  AmieabU  Loan,  Popular 

(UaooutentB 249 

1526.  Liberation  of  Francis.     His 

league  with  Henry     . .     . .     260 
)527.  Sack  of  Rome  by  the  con- 

suble  Bourbon 260 

Henry  renounces  all  claim  to 

the  French  crown  . .  . .  260 
Henry  desires  a  divorce  . .  251 
Anne  Boleyn 261 


1629.  Trial  legates  Cam- 

peggio  and  Wolsey.     The 

cause  referred  to  Rome     . .  261 

Wolsey's  impeachment  and  &11  262 

Peace  of  Cumbray 253 

Rise  of  Cranmer 263 

The    Universities   consulted 

on  the  divorce     253 

1630.  Arrest  and  death  of  Wolsey  264 


CHAPTER  XV. 
Hbxbt  YUl.—Continued.    From  thk  Death  op  Wouet  to  thb  Death 

OF  THE  KmG,  A.D.  1530-1647. 


267 


268 
268 


i631.  The  whole  clergy  subject  to 

pramunire 266 

Convocation  dedares  the  king 
the  J'roUctor  and  Supreme 
lie  idqftke  Church  <ff  Eng- 
land       266 

1632.  Law   against    levying   ftrst- 

flruits     266 

Sir  Thomas  More  resigns  the 
greatseal      256 

1633.  Private  marriage  of  Henry  to 

Anne  Boleyn  (second  wife)  267 
Archbishop     Cranmer     pro* 

nounces  the  divorce  ..  ..  257 
Elizabeth  bom  atdreenwich    257 

1634.  Acts  of  parliament  completing 

the  ieparatitm  of  the  English 
Church  from  Home    . .     . . 

Establishment  of  the  succes- 
sion to  the  crown.  Fisher 
and  More  sent  to  the  Tower 

Act  qf  tupremacyt  declaring 
the  king  the  only  supbbme 

HEAD   on     BABTH    OP    THE 

CHURCH  OP  England 

Catholics  and  Protestants     . . 

Henry  adheres  to  Catholic 
doctrine        268 

Tyndale's  Bible  forbidden  in 

England       259 

1633-4.  Conspiracy  of  the  Aicrfyifoid 

qfKent 259 

1536.  Execution  of  Fisher  and  More    260 

Papal  excommunication  of 
Henry 260 

Thomas  Cromwell  made  vicar- 
general  261 

1636.  Death  of  queen  Katharine    ..     260 

The  loner  monasteries  sup- 

W pressed 261 
ales  incorporated  with  Eng- 
land        261 

ParUament  dissolved,  having 

sat  rince  1529      261 

Execution  of  queen  Anne    . .     262 
Henry  marries  Jane  Seymour 

(third  wife) 262 

Settlement  of  the  succession       262 
16a«'-7.  Insurrections.      The    PU- 

grimoffe  <ff  Graxx       ..     ..     262 

'MV    Birth  of  a  son  (Edward  VI.)    263 

•Death  of  queen  Jane     ..     ..     263 

Suppreasion   of    the   greater 

monasteries.    New  bi^op- 

rics.    Gifts  to  courtiers   263,264 


1638.  Bull     of    excommunication 

published     264 

CaJxlinal  Pole's  opposition  to 
Henry.  Execution  of  mem- 
bers of  his  funily     . .     . .    264 

1639.  New  parliament     266 

The  nix  Articles 266 

The  king's  proclamation  made 

equal  to  statutes 266 

Cranmer's  Bible  setup  in  the 
churches       266 

1640.  Marriage  and  divorce  of  Anne 

of  Cleves  (fourth  wife)  266, 26*i 
Execution  of  Cromwell  . .  266 
Henry's  fifth  wifie,  Katharine 

Howard 267 

Burning  of  Protestants,  and 

hanging  of  Catholics  . .     . .    267 

1641.  The   countess  of    Salisbury 

beheaded      267 

Trial  and  execution  of  the 
queen  and  others        . .     . .     267 

1642.  War  with  Scotland.    Battle  of 

Solway  Moss 26f 

Birth  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots, 

and  death  of  James  V.  . .  268 
Henry's  scheme  for  uniting 

England  and  Scotland       . .     268 
Frustrated  by  cardinal  Bea- 
ton and  the  Catholics       . .     268 
1543.  League  of  Henry  and  Charles 

against  France 26t 

Henry's  sixth  and  last  wife, 

Katharine  Parr 268 

1644.  Capture  of  Boulogne  by  Henry    269 
New  settlement  of  the  crywn    271 
1646.  French  attempts   at   an   in- 
vasion     269 

Battle  of  Ancrum  Muir  26a 

1546.  Peace  made  with  France  and 

Scotland        269 

1546.  The  first  English  Prayer-hook    269 

1546.  Henry's    theological  dogma- 

tism        27  J" 

Burning  of  Anne  Askew  . .  270 
Danger  and  dexterity  of  queen 

Kathirine  Parr 270 

1547.  Exe<5ution    of    Surrey,    and 

attainder  of  Norfolk  . .  ..  271 
Death  and  character  of  Hen  ry  27 1 
Educational  foundations  of  the 

king  and  Wolsey  ..  ..  272 
Flourishing  state  of  learning 

in  England  ..     ..     ..      ..     272 


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xvm 


(X)NTENT8. 


GHAFTER  XVL 
Edwabd  VL,  ft.  1687  ;  r.  1647-1663. 


A.  a 

PAOB 

1647.  Henry's  wiUMtMMe   ..     .. 

273 

Edwmrd    Seymoar,  earl    of 

Hertford,  protector   ..     .. 

273 

New  titles :  Seymour  made 

dake  of  Somerset      ..     .. 

274 

Progress  of  the  Reformation 

274 

Visitation  of  the  dioceses     . . 

276 

Opposition  of  Gardiner,  Bon- 

ner, and  princess  Mary  .. 

276 

cardinal  Beaton 

276 

Mnkie 

276 

1648.  Mary,  qoeen  of  Scots,  sent  to 

France 

276 

Proceedings  in  pariiament  .. 

276 

Farther  reformation    ..     .. 

276 

1649.  Lord  Seymoar  of    Sadeley 

ezecated      

276 

Wonk^      

276 

A.D.  rxoi 

1660.  Heretics  persecoted.     Joan 

Bocher  burnt     276 

Oenoral discontent— itscauses  276 
1649.  Insurrections  in  Devro  and 

Norfolk        ..     ..     ..     ..    277 

War  with  Scotland  and  France    277 
Fall  of  Somerset.    c*ower  of 

Warwick      278 

166L  Peace  with  France  and  Scot- 
land     ....  ....    279 

Second    Prayer-book.     The 
Fort^two ArHcUM.    ..     ..279 

Warwick  made  dake  of  North- 
umberland   28f 

1662.  Trial  and  execution  of  Somer- 


280 


1668.  Schemes  of  Northumberland. 
Edward  settles  the  crown  on 

lady  Jane  Grey 280 

The  king's  death 280 


CHAPTER  XVn. 


Makt  L,  ft.  1616 ; 

1663.  Proclamation  of  the  lady  Jami 
Mary  acknowledged  as  queen 
Trial  and  execution  of  North- 
umberland   

The  Roman  Catholic  religion 

restored       

Imprisonment    of    Ridley, 

Latimer  and  Cranmer 

Reform  of  the  law  of  treason 

Proposed  marriage  of  Mary 

with  Philip  of  Spain  ..     .. 

1564.  Insurrection  of  Wyatt  ..     .. 

Execution  of  lady  Jane  and 

k>rd  Guildford  Dudley     . . 

The  princess  Elizabeth  . .     . . 

Marriage  of  Kixa  Pmup  and 

qukbiMaky      


166&-166&      Pnup  AXD  Makt,  1664-166& 


283 


288 
284 


284 
284 


286 
286 


286 

287 


287 
288 
288 


1664.  OardinalPolearrivesaslegate, 
and  reconciles  England  with 
Rome 

1666.  The  Marian  persecution 

Burning  of  Rogers,  Hooper, 
Latimer,  and  Ridley . .     . . 

1666.  Execution  of  Cranmer  . .     . . 
Cardinal  Pole  archbishop    . . 

1657.  Commission  to  Bonner,  etc., 

Xinst  heretics 289 
J  becomes  k^ng  of  Spain 

1667.  as  Pfliup  II.  :  involves 
England  in  war  with  France    289 

166&  Loss  of  Calais.  Grief  of  Mary  289 
Her  death  and  character  . .  290 
Death  of  cardinal  Pole  ..  ..  290 
Interconrae  with  Russia     . .    290 


CHAPTER  xvm. 

ft.  1638  ;   r.  1568-1608.      From  hxr  AocssnoH  to  : 
DsATH  OF  Makt,  Qusbv  of  Soots,  a.d.  1558-1587. 


292 


292 


166&  Joy  at  Elisabeth's  accession 

New  councillors.  Bacon  and 

Cecil    Cautious  measures 

for  restoring  Protestantism 

1660.  Coronation  by  the  bishop  of 

Cartisle 292 

Court  of  High  Commission  ..    293 
Acts  of  Supremacy  and  Uni- 
formity  293 

Protestant  blshopa    Parker 

made  primate 293 

Peace  of  Cateau  Cambretit 

with  France       293 

Claim  of  Mary,  queen  ofScoti^ 
to  the  English  crown  294 


1560.  The     Scotch     Reformation. 

John  Knox 294 

1660.  Elizabeth    aids   the  Scotch 

Protestants.     Capitulation 
of  the  French  at  l^ith    . .    296 
Death  of  Mary's  husband, 
Francis  11.  of  France..     ..    296 

1661.  Mary  returns  to  Scotland    ..    296 

Her  troubles 296 

Religious  wars  In  France    . .    297 

1662.  Elizabeth  aids  the   Hugue- 

nots        997 

1663.  The  Thirty  nine  ArUda     . .     298 
Rise  of  Robert  Dudley,  earl  of 

Leicester     298 


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CONTENTS. 


ZIX 


166S.  MtfriMS  of  KuT  to  lord 
Dmmiej.  TheSootofa  Pro- 
tetUnts  take  anna  under 
UraeAriofMnmj  ..  ..  399 
16tC  Morder  of  Binio.  Btith  of 
Junes  (afterwmrds  James 

VI.)      300 

166Y.  Murder  of  Daralej  ..  ..  301 
Mary  merries  Botbwell  ..  302 
The     noUes     take     arms. 

Battle  of  Oirterry  IKU    ..    302 
Mary   imprisoned   at  Loch- 

leven  castle        302 

Her  abdioatioD.     Jamsb  TI. 
king;  Murray  regent       ..    303 
1668.  Maiy's  escape   fh>m    Loch> 
leven;  defeat  at  Langside, 
and  flight  to  England      303,  304 

Trial  of  her  case     304 

16«9.  OooBfiney  of  the  doke  of 

Noriblk.    Rising  and  flight 

of    Northomberland    and 

WeetnHvland     ..     ..    300,307 

IftTO.  Morder  of  the  regent  Murray    307 

Pern  Pins  V.  ezcommnnicates 

RiseofthePicraaiM  '.'.  '.'.  308 
Opposed  1^  Elisabeth  ..  ..  308 
Eibabeth's  relatioai  to  foreign 

Protestanto 308 

Proposed  marriage  with  the 

dokeofAAjon 308 

l^rumy    of    Alra    in  the 

Nekheriawb 309 


A.D.  TAOr 

1670.  EUaabetbproCecto  the  Flemish 

protestanto 309 

1672.  Execndoo    of    Norfolk   and 

Northomberland        ..     ..    310 

Ang.  24.  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew at  Paris       310 

Bevolt  of  Holland  and  Zea- 
land.   Policy  of  EUaabeih    312 

1677-80.  Drake's  voysge  ronnd  the 

world     ..     ...     312 

1679-82    Negodations  for  marriage 

with  the  dake  of  Aqjon    . .     313 

1684.  Conspiradesagainst Elizabeth. 

The  A$$ociation 314 

Dr.  (after  wardscardinal)  Allen 
and  the  seminary  priesta  ..    316 

1683.  Proceedings       against      the 

Pnritans       316 

Primacies  of  Parker:  Grfndal 

(1676);  and  Whitglft  (1683)  316 

1686.  Conspiracy  of  Dr.  Parry      . .  316 

1684.  Mnrder  of  WUliamofOrsnge  316 
1686.  Elisabeth  sends  an  army  to 

the  Netherlands 316 

Expedition  of  Drake  against 
Spanish  America       ..     ..    316 

1686.  Battle  of  Zntphen.     Death  of 

sir  Philip  Sidney        ..  ..  317 
Babington^s  conspiracy . . 

Trial  and   condemnation  of 

Mary,  qaeen  of  Scoto . .  319-20 

1687.  Her  execntion 322 

Elizabeth's  indignation..  ..  324 

King  James  oadfled     ..  ..  824 


318 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

FSOM   THS   EXSCCTIOM   OF   THS    QUBIH   Of  BOOflB  TO  THB 

DsAiH  or  Elisabeth,  a  j».  1687-1603. 


1687.  Philip  prepares  an  inrasion.    326 
Preparations  for  defence     326,  327 

1688.  The  InvtneiUe  ArtMda         327-9 

1689.  Expedition  against  Portonl    329 
Frsnce:  mmdtor  of  Henry  m.    330 

1691.  Elisabeth  assista  Henry  IV.    330 
Rise  of  Robert  Deverenx,  earl 
ofEtsex        330 

1693.  Elisabeth  dictates  to  parlia- 
ment. Measures  against 
Puritans  and  Papisto  330,331 
Heoiy  IV.  alijnres  Protee- 
tantiem.  Elisabeth  still  aids 
him  agataist  Hiilip    ..     ..    331 

1696.  Peace  between   France  and 

SpAin     331 

1694-8.  Spanish  plota  against  the 
qoeen's  life.  Naval  enter- 
prises of  Hawkins,  Drake, 
Raleigh,  etc       ..     ..    331,332 

1I96-7.  Ejroemtions  aipdnst  Gkdix 

andFerrol 382 

1698.  Death  of    Borldgh  and  of 

PhiUpIL     333 


1698.  State  of  Ireland.     Tyrone's 

rebellion       333 

1699.  Essex  in  Ireland     334 

His  return  and  disgrace        . .  336 

Relations  of  Bacon  to  Essex  336 

1601.  Insurrection   of    Essex   and 

Southampton       336 

Execution  of  Essex       ..     ..  336 
1603.  Death     and      character     of 

Elisabeth      337 

Review  of  the  Tudor  period  338 

Augmented    power    of    the 

crown 338 

Exactions    by     BenevoUncei 

and  Monopolit* 339 

Relations  of  the  crown  and 

commons      339 

Administration  of  Justice     . .  340 

Consequences  of  the  Reforma- 
tion          341 

Jealousy  of  the  Court  of  High 

Commibsion        341 

General  state  of  the  natioo  341 

Literature Sia 


A  IhsOsarterslarOhittbw 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

•     ..    MS    I    a  AtrtborMesforPcrlodoffl 


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XX 


CONTENTS. 


BOOK  V. 

The  House    of  Stuart,   to   the   Abdioation  of  Jaksb  IL 
AJ).  1603-1688. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

Ub.  1666;  r.  1603-1635. 


AJ>.  PAGE 

1603.  Quiet  raooessioo  And  title  of 

the  Stuarts 34ft 

Ch«racter  of  James        ..     ..     346 
His  Scotch  comtiere      ..     ..     346 
Services  of  RoUrt  Cecil,  after- 
wards earl  of  Salisbury      . .     347 
OoDspiracy     in     favour     of 

ArabelU  Stuart 347 

The    Main   and    Bye   plots. 
Trial  of  Raleigh 347 

1604.  llie   Hampton    Court    con- 

ference :  iUs  failure  . .  . .  347 
Fint  parliament.     Tonnage 

and  poundage  granted  . .  348 
Peace  with  Spain.    The  cause 

of  Holland  renounced       . .     348 

1605.  The  Gunpowder  plot     . .     348-350 

1607.  Proposed  union  of  England 

and  Scotland        350 

1608.  Taxes   raised  by  the  king's 

authority      351 

1610.  Beginning  of  contests   with 

parliament 361 

The    Great    Omtract,   com- 
muting feudal  rights        . .  351 
Murder  of  Henry  IV 361 

1611.  Distfomtion  of  parliament  351 
Ireland.   Settlement  of  Ulster  351 
The   order   of  baronett  in- 
stituted    352 

1612.  Death   of  Henry,  prince  of 

Wales 352 

1613.  Princess  Elisabeth  married  to 

the  elector  palatine    ..     ..     352 
Rise  of  Robert  Carr,  earl  of 
Somerset.     Murder  of  sir 
Thomas  Overbury      . .     . .    352 

1615-22.  Condemnation  and  pardon 
of  Somerset  and  his  coun- 
tess          352,353 

1615.  Rise  of  George  YilUers,  duke 

of  Buckingham 353 

1606-10.  Beginningof  English  colo- 
nization. Settlements  in 
Virginia  and  Newfoundland    354 

160e-9.  Charters  to  the  East  India 

Company     354 


A.D.  PAOB 

1612.  First  English  factory  at  Surat  354 

1617.  Raleigh's  expedition  to  Guiana  354 

1618.  His  return  and  execution     . .  366 
1614.  James's    $econd — called   the 

Addled— parliawunt  . .  856 
1611-14.  Negociatlons       for      the 

Spanish  match 3S3 

1618.  The  elector  palatine  chosen 

king  of  Bohemia  . .  . .  356 
Beginning    of     the    Thirty 

TeaiJf  War 366 

1620.  Battle  of  Prague.    Palatinate 

overrun        366 

Emigration  of  the  *•  Pilgrim 
Fathers "  to  New  Eng- 
land        376 

1621.  Discontent.      Third  parlior 

ment  of  James  [ 356 

Impeachment    and    fall    of 

lord  Bacon 366 

rhe   commons   espouse   the 

elector's  cause 367 

Rupture  with  the  king.    The 

FrotesUxtion        368 

1622.  Parliament  dissolved.    Mem- 

bers imprisoned 368 

James   raises   money   by  a 

Benevolence        358 

Negociations  for  the  Spanish 

match  renewed 358 

1623.  Prince  Charles  and  Bucking- 

ham visit  Spain 359 

The  match  broken  off  by 
Buckingham       360 

1624.  James's  fourth  parliament. 

Its  temper 360 

Enforcement  of  laws  against 

CathoUcs      

Act  against  monopolies 
Impeachment  of  the  earl  of 

Middlesex     ..     ..     . 
Army  sent  to  Holland  under 

count  Mansfeld 

War  with  Spain.   Treaty  with 

France 

1625.  Death     and     character     of 

James  1 961 


360 
360 


360 
361 


361 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

,  b.  1600;  r.  1625-1649.    From  his  Acckssiox  to  thb  CoMMSHcnaDrr 
OF  THB  Civil  Wab,  a.d.  1625-1642. 


1625.  The  king  marries  Henrietta 

Maria  of  France 362 

His  Jimt  parliament.     The 
"country  party"       ..     ..     363 


1625.  Small  subsidies.  Tonnage  and 

poundage  for  one  year      . .    363 
Religious   grievances   before 
supply 363 


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CONTENTS. 


XXI 


AJ>.  PAGE 

1626.  Gbarlea  dissolTM  the  parlia- 

ment     363 

Expedition  against  Cadis     ..     364 
Aid  to   France   against   the 
ProtesUntd  in  Rochelle    . .     364 

1626.  Seamd  parliament;  of  same 

spirit  us  the  first  ..  ..  364 
Proceedings  against  Bncking- 

ham.  Dissolution  ..  ..  365 
Charles  raises  money  without 

consent  or  parliament  . .  365 
Loans     and     benevolences. 

^Ip-money.    General  loan    366 

1627.  War  with  France.    Backing- 

ham's  expedition       . .     . .  366 

1628.  Third  parliament 367 

The  Pbtitiox  op  Right       . .  368 
Proceedings  against  Bucking- 
ham and  Manwaring . .     . .  368 

Assassination  of  Bucking- 
ham bj  Felton 369 

Surrender  of  the  Protestants 
in  Rochelle 369 

1629.  Dispute   about  tonnage  and 

poundage     370 

Parliament  dissolved.  Mem- 
bers imprisoned 371 

1632.  Death  of  sir  John  Eliot  in  the 

Tower 371 

1629-40.  Eleven  years   without   a 

parliament 371 

Charles   practically  absolute    372 
His     advisers  —  Wentworth 
(afterwards   earl  of  Straf- 
ford), Laud,  and  others     . .     372 
Laud's    innovations   tf^  the 

church 372 

Arbitrary  means  of  taxation 

revived 372 

1634.  Court  of  SUr  Chamber  . .     . .     373 
Sentence  on  Prynne       . .     . .     373 
Edict  for  Sunday  sports      . .     373 
Power  and  character  of  arch- 
bishop Laud        374 

1637.  Ship-money  sanctioned  by  the 
Judges.  Refusal  and  trial 
of  John  Hampden     . .     . .     375 

1630.  Puritan  emigration.    Charter 

of  Massachusetts        . .     . .  376 
1637.  Di80ont«>nt      in        Scotland. 

Laud's  liturgy 376 

Subscription  of  the  Covenant  377 
1638-9.  The  general  assembly  abo- 
lishes episcopacy       . .     . .  377 
1639.  Pacifkation  with  ScotUnd    ..  378 
1610.  /bur «A— called  the  Short— 

parliament 318 

Riots  ii>  London     379 


A.D.  PAGB 

1640.  Attack   on    Court  of   High 

Commission 379 

War  with  the  Scots.    Battle 

of  yewtmm        379 

Newcastle  taken.  Joint  com- 
mission at  Ripon       380 

Council  at  York.    Agreement 

with  the  Scots     380 

Nov. -3.  >VrA--called  the   Loko— 

PARLIAMEKT  380 

Lenthall  chosen  speaker, 
Strafford  impeached  ..     ..     380 

Proceedings  against  delin- 
quents    381 

Sp^hes  of  members  first 
published       381 

Reversal  of  sentences  on 
Prynne,  etc 382 

1641.  Demolition  of  images,  altars, 

and  crosses 382 

Committee     of    Scandalous 

Ministers      382 

Act  for  triennial  parliaments    382 
Trial,  attainder,  and  execution 

of  Strafford 383-6 

Act  for  continuance  of  par- 
liament   386 

The  Star  Chamber  and  High 

Commission  abolished  . .  386 
The  king  in  Scuthind  ..  c.  386 
Rebellion    and   massacre   in 

Ireland 366 

Proceedings   in    parliament. 

The  Jiemonstrance  388 

Conflicts  between  Houndheads 

And  CavalieiS       389 

Protest  and  impeachment  of 

the  bishops 389 

1642.  Attempt  of  Charles  to  arrest 

the  five  nu  mbers       . .     . .     390 

The  king  withdraws  from 
London 391 

The  commons  occupy  Hull, 
Portpmouth,  and  the  Tower    392 

They  claim  to  command  the 
militia 392 

The  que<n  goes  abroad;  the 
king  to  York       392 

Rallying  of  both  parties       . .     393 

Charles  refused  entrance  to 
Hull       393 

Zeal  of  I^ndon  for  the  parlia- 
ment       393 

Their  inadmissible  conditions    393 
Aug.  22.  The  king  sets  up  his  Btan- 
dcrd  at  Nottingham.     Be- 
ginning of  the  Civil  War  or 
Great  Jiebellion 394 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Xntof  th*  PstitlonorfUcht 


555 


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XXll 


OONTENTBL 


CHAPTER  XXn. 
OffABtiW  1.— CbwWmnC    Fbom  th«  GoMMiKciinDiT  of  thb  Cnm.  Wax  to 

m  TSIAI.  AMD  SXBCimOM  OF  THE  KlXO,  A  J>.  164a-lM9. 


A.l>.  PAOS 

iMa.  Tbe  two  ptitfes  Hid  Itelr 

foroes SM 

Oct.  2S.  Battle  of  JIVeUB     ..     ..    8M 
The  king  threatens  London. 

Skirmish  at  Armtford     ..    400 
Charles  at  Qzlbrd.    NeBod*- 


1048.  Oampaicn  of  1643 
Skirmish  of 


Ckalgrum  FUUL, 
of  HampdsQ 
Snooess  of  the  rojalists  in  the 


Bopert  takes  Bristol  and  be- 
sieges Oloooester 

First  baUle  of  NewhoiT. 
Death  of  lord  Falkland     .. 

Rise  of  sir  Thomas  FaiiDuc 
and  Ollrer  Cromwell . .     . . 

Actions  in  the  north. 


Stoge  of  HnlL    Oonspiraoj  of 

Hotham       

Scotland.  The  SoUwtn'Leoffm 

and  Oovenamt     

The  At$ewM^  <f  JHvinei  at 

Westminster       ..     ..404, 
Ormond  sends   troops   flrom 

Ireland 

1044.  Royal  parliament  at  Oxford.. 
An  eiKise  imposed  bj  both 

parliaments 

Fairfiix  defeats  the  Irish  at 

Ifantwiek 

Jaly  S.   Victory  of  Fairflhx   and 

Cromwell  at  MartUm  Moor 
Cfnpredy  Bridge.    Snooess  of 

Charles  in  the  west    ..     .. 
Surrender    of    Skippon     at 

Plymouth 

Second  battle  of  JVeiobitry    . . 
Growing  power  of  the  Indo- 

pendenU      

1046.  The  SdJ-denying  Ordinamco 
The  army  under  FairCuc  and 

Cromwell     

Abortive  conferences  at  Ux- 

bridge 

Trial  and  execution  of  Laud 
Victories  of  Montrose  in  Scot- 


401 
401 
401 
402 
403 
402 
40S 
403 


New  modd  of  the  P^Ui^ 
mentary  army.  Different 
spirit  of  the  royal  forces  . . 

Campaign  of  1646 

Decisive  defeat  of  Charles  at 
NatOfy 

Fairfax  in  the  west.  He 
takes  Brldgewater,  Bath, 
etc        

Surrender  of  Bristol.  Disgrace 
ofRupert     


407 
408 

408 

409 
400 

410 

410 
410 

411 

411 
412 


1041.  Defeat  of  Montrose  at  FhUip- 

haogh    

The  prince  of  Wales  leavw 

England       

Charles  at  Oxford.    Negoda'- 

tions     

Discovery     of    Glamorgan's 

commission  in  Ireland 

1646.  Charles  flies  to  the  Scots  at 

Newark        

1647.  They  seU  him  to  the  parlia- 


412 


413 

414 

Charles  at  Holmby 414 

DeathofEssex       416 

Attempts  to  reduce  the  army. 

The  a4Mator« 416 

Charles  seised  and  brought  to 

the  army      416 

Camp   at   Hounslow   Heath. 

Submission  of  parliament . .  417 
Charles  at  Hampton  Court  . .  418 
Cromwell's  policy  and  cha- 
racter. Tike /.eveUert  ..  418 
Flight  of  Charles  to  the  Isle  of 

Wight 419 

Cromwell  reduces  the  army 

under  discipline 419 

Deliberations  about  bringing 

the  king  to  trial 419 

Counter  proposals  of  tbe  king 

a«d  parliament 419 

Charles  attempts   to  escape 

ftom  Carisbrooke  ..  ..  420 
1648.  Vote  against   further  interw 

course  with  him 420 

1647-8.  The  Mngagement    of    the 

Scots  with  Charles  ..  ..  420 
1648.  Tbe  fleet  declares  for  the  king  420 
Presbyterian  ascendency  . .  420 
Treaty  made  with  the  king  at 

Newport       420 

Tbe  army  carries  Charles  to 

Hurst  Castle 421 

Defeat  of  the  ScoU  by  Crom- 
well        421 

Fairfax  takes  Colehester  ..  421 
Bemonxtrance  of  die   army 

with  parliament  ..  ..  421 
Thearmy  marches  on  Lundon  422 
Parliament  confirms  the  treaty  422 
"  Colonel  Pride's  purge  "  . .  422 
The  Rump  parliament  . .  . .  422 
1640.  The  High  Court  <^  Justice 

voted     422 

Jan.  20-27.  Trial  of  the  king . .  . .  423 
Jan.  30.  Execution  and  character  of 

Charles  1 426 

House  of  Lords  and  monarchy 

abolished      426 

ExecuUon  of  Hamilton,  GapeU 

afld  Holland..     ..     ....    496 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Digitized  by 


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CONTENTS. 


XXill 


CHAPTER  XXUI. 

fHB  OOttOVWSALTE.     AJ».  1<49-I66(li 


ie4«.PBllei  ki 


Ez0- 

438 
Feb.  6.  Charles  II.  proclAimed'kfaiK 

inScoiUod 438 

Onnond  in  Ireland        ..     ..  438 
Cromwell     appointed     lieu- 
tenant and  genend     ..     ..  438 

He  reduoee  Ireland 438 

1660.  Szecution  of  Montrose  ..    488,  431 

Charles  II.  in  Scotland        ..  431 
Sept.  3.  Cromwell  defeats  Leslie  aft 

Donbar 483 

166L  Charles  crowned  at  Soone    ..  433 

He  marches  into  Engiand    ..  483 

Septs.   Battle  of  Worcester        ..  433 

Es^pe  of  Charles 433 

Settlement  of  the  Common- 

wealth 434 

Naval  exploits  of  Blake       . .  434 

Peace  with  Portugal      ..     ..  434 
Colonies    and    dependencies 

subdued       434 

Scotland  reduced  bj  Monk  ..  436 

Disputes  with  Holland        ..  436 

fkvriffatUm  Act      436 

1863.  First    Dutch    war.     Blake, 

Tromp,  and  De  Ruyter    ..  438 
Parliament  attempts  to  reduce 

thearmy 43Y 

166a,  Cromwell  expels  the  parlia- 
ment        48Y 

Council  of  state 437 

Banbonet'  Parliament       ..  437 

Cbomwxll  Protector    ..     ..  438 
1664.  Peace  with  Holland.     First 

Trtaip  qf  Westmintter     ..  440 
Sept.  3.  CiumwelVs  llrt<jNirIiaaiefi<.* 

dlsflolv^  Jan.  33, 1666     ..  440 
1666.  RoTalist  insurrection.    MIU- 

tarj  despotism 441 

Alliance  with  France  agsinsft 

Spain 443 


A.D.  PAOB 

1666.  Blake's  exploits  agalmft  AI- 

gierh  and  Tunis 443 

Cspture  of  Jamaica       ..     ..  443 

War  declared  by  Spain        ..  443 

1667.  Last  exploits  and  death  of 

Blake 443 

1668.  The  Protector's  Hoimd  f»r- 


1667.  Cromwell  refuses  the  crown  444 
The   HwmbU  PetUian   and 

Advice 446 

1668.  A  House  of  PMrs 446 

Parliament  dissolved     ..     ..  446 

Dunkirk  taken  fh>m  Spain  ..  448 

Discontents  and  plots   ..     ..  446 

Alarm  of  Cromwell       ..     ..  446 

His  death  and  character       ..  447 
His  foreign  poli<7 ;  manners ; 

family 447 

RicuABn    Cromwell     Pro- 
tector :    Heniy    Cromwell 

governor  of  Ireland   ..     ..  448 
1668.  New  parliament.    Council  of 

officers 448 

Parliament  dissolved    ..     ..  449 

Richard  abdicates 449 

The  Long  Parliament  restored 

and  sfpiin  expelled    ..     ..  448 

Lambert's  Onapit/toe^^^^  468 
Monk,  in  Scotland,  declares 

for  the  parliament    . .     . .  4  68 
The  Long  Parliament  again 

assembled     460 

1680.  Monk  enters  London    ..     ..  460 
The   Long    Parliament  dis- 
solves itself 461 

Monk's  correspondence  with 

Charles 461 

The  ConvmHon  Pauiamitinlt  461 

1\m  Declaration  qf  Brtda  ..  462 

Proclamation  of  Charles  IL  . .  462 

May  29.  He  enters  London     ..     ..  462 


CHAPTER  XXIV, 
Craslbs  IL,  6.  1830;  r.  1660-1886,  on  fbom  1648,  AOOORonro  to  thb  lioal 
XBUKOHIMO.     From  «hi  Bwxobatioh  to  thb    Pbaob  or  Ndcbodbh,  a.i>. 
166&-1678. 


660.  Character  of  Charles  II. 

His  ministers,  Albemarle  and 

Clarendon 

General    pardon,    excepting 

the  regicides  and  others   .. 
Revenue.       Abolition       of 

kniriits*  service 

Punishment  of  the  regicides 
rhe  Convention  Parliameni 

dissolved      

rhe  army  disbanded     . .     . . 
Ejected  clergy  reinstated 
liie  liturgy  restored     ..     .. 
1881.  The  Scottish  parliament 

Hie    Covenant     renounced. 

Episcopacy  restored  ..     .. 


468 


466 


466 
466 

466 


1661.  Execution  off     Argyte    and 

Guthrie        466 

The  Satoy  Conference  ..     ..     466 

Second  parliament.  Its  re- 
actionary temper       ..     ..     466 

Corporation  Act,     Oath   of 

Non-resistanee 466 

IWi,  Aetof  CHiformUv        ..     ..    466 

Charles  marries  Catharine  of 
Brsganza.  Portugal  cedes 
Tangier  and  Bombay..     ..    467 

Trial  of  Vane  and  Lambert 
Execution  of  Vane     ..     ..    467 
Aug.  34.  A.  AirMoioRieio  ..     468 

Presbyterian  clergy  ejected..     468 

Sale  of  Dunkirk  to  Franco  ..     468 


Digitized  by 


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ZZiT 


CONTBNTa 


1063.  Declaration  of  indulgence  to 

dissenters     468 

Last  separate  taxing  of  the 

clergy 468 

1664.  The  lYiennial  Act  repealed      46t 
Vht  OonveiUide  Act     ..     ..    46t 
Capture  of  New  Amsterdam, 
henceforth  called  New  York    464 

XM6.  Saxmd  Dutch  War 469 

Battle  of  ^dtcbay 460 

Tlifi  Oreat  PUunte  <i^  London  461 
Parliament  at  Oxford  ..  ..  461 
The  FlTe>mile  Act 461 

1666.  War  declared  1^  France  and 

Denmark      460 

Four  days'  sea-fight  with  the 

Dutch  and  Frendi  . .  . .  462 
The  Oreat  Fire  of  London   ..     463 

1667.  The  Dutch  fleet  in  the  Thames  464 
Feace  of  Breda  with  Holland 

and  France 464 

Fall  and  exile  of  Clarendon  464 
The  ai6a<  ministry      ..     ..     466 

1668.  Triple  Alliance  of  England. 

Holland,  and  Venice..     ..    466 

1670.  Secret  Treaty  qf  Dover  with 

Louis  XlV. 466 

1 670-1 .  Crimes  of  Colonel  Blood   . .    467 

1671.  Dilutes    with    the    Dutch. 

Recal  of  Temple        ..     ..     468 

1672.  The  bankers'  funds  in  the 

exchequer    seized.      First 


AJ>.  PAOB 

nucleus  of   the   National 
DeU       468 

1672.  l%ird  war  with  Holland.  Sea- 

fight  off  Southwold  Bay  ..  468 
Louis     XIV.    overruns    the 

United  Provinces  ..  ..  469 
William,   prince  of  Orange 

(afterwards  William  IIL)  469 
Murder  of  the  De  Witts  at 

Amxterdam 469 

William  elected  stadtholder      479 

1673.  Parliament  condemns  the  de* 

claration  of  indulgence  . .  470 
Th^nttAct.    Resignation  of 

the  duke  of  Turk       470 

Lord   Shaftesbury  leader  of 

the  opposition     471 

He    is    dismissed   fVom  the 

chancellorship 4T1 

Danby  chief  minister    ..     ..    471 

1674.  Separate  peace  with  the  Dutch    471 
1675-7.  Conflict  in  parliament      ..    472 

Repeated  prorogations      ..     472 

1676.  Second  secret  treaty  of  Charles 

with  Louis 473 

Bribery  of  members  of  parlia- 
ment by  France 473 

1677.  Marriage     of     William     of 

Orange  to  princess  Mary  . .     473 

1678.  Pcttc*  qf  yimeauen  between 

France  and  Holland  ..     ..    473 


A.  I^st  and  Corporation  Aeti 
&  TbeActoTUnlfonnltr 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

....    478    I    C.  ImmuuItyorJorlM     „    m 
......     474     I 


CHAPTER    XXV. 
Charles  IL— Continued,    Fbom  thb  Pbace  or  Nucvouuf  to  ths  Dsath  ov  nn 

KlKQ.  AJ».  1678-1686. 


\^1B.  The  Popith  Plot.    Oatcs     ..    477 

Murder  of  sir  Edmondsbury 
Godfrey.  Zeal  of  Danby 
and  the  parliament    ..     ..     479 

Act  excluding  papists  from 
parliament 480 

Oates  and  Bedloe  accuse  the 
queen 481 

Impeachment  of  Danby       . .     481 
1679.  The    "Pension    Parliament" 

dissolved      481 

Victims  of  the  plot.  General 
alarm 482 

Charles's  third  parliament  . .     482 

Tlie  duke  of  York  goes  abroad    483 

James,  duke  of  Monmouth. 
His  character      483 

Choice  of  spcAker.  Impeach- 
ment ot  batiby 483 

Question  of  a  pardon  barring 

impeachment      484 

(1701.  Finally  decided   by  Act  of 

Settlement,  wote)       ..     ..     484 
7679.  New  privy  council;  Shaftes- 
bury president    484 

Exclusion  Bill  against  Che 
duke  of  York       484 


1679.  Stopped    by    dissolution    of 

parliament 484 

The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  . .  486 
Prosecution  of  papists  . .  . .  486 
Disturbances     in     Scotland. 

Severity  of  Lauderdale  . .  485 
Murder  of  archbishop  Sharps    486 

1679.  Battles  of />rumc/o(7  and  ^t/i- 

well  Bridge.  Duke  of  York 

lord  high  commissioner  ..  486 
Shaftesbury  dismissed  . .  . .  486 
Monmouth  goes  abroad . .  . .  486 
Halifax,    Sundorland,    Law- 

ren«*e  Hyde,  ar.d  Godolpbin  486 
The  Meal-tub  PU'l  got  up  by 

Dangerfield 486 

Anti- popery    demonstrations 

in  London 487 

Party-names    of    Addressers 

and   Abhor rers.  afterwards 

Whigs  And  Ihries       ..     ..     48T 

1680.  Presentment   of   Shaftesbury 

agoinst  the  duke  of  York  . .  488 
Charles'K  fourth  parliament. 

Its  violence 488 

The  Exclusion    Bill  thrown 

out  by  the  peers 488 


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CONTENTS. 


XXV 


A.1X  PAOB 

1080.  Trial  and  execution  of  lord 

Stafford.    Popular  reacticm 

against  the  plot 489 

1081.  DiaeolnUon  of  parliament  ..  490 
Ftftk  patiiatMtU,  at  Oxford  490 
Both  parties     assemble     In 

arms      490 

Violence  of  the  commons    .  490 

Parliament  dissolved    ..     ..  490 

The  king's  declaration  ..     ..  491 

Popular  reaction 491 

Dryden's     **  Absalom     and 

Achltophel*' 491 

Execution  of  Goll^  ..  ..  491 
Bill      against      Sbaftesbury 

ignored 492 

1882.  Condemnation  and  flight   of 

Argyle 492 


493 

492 


493 
493 


A.D.  TAiam 

1082.  The  duke  of  York's  retnm  to 

England       

Hali&x  and  the  IWmmerf  .. 
Charters  of  London,  etc,  for- 
feited      

Plot  on  behalf  of  Monmouth 
Flight  and  death  (1083)  of 

Shaftesbury 493 

1683.  The  Rye-bouse  plot.    Flight 

ofUonmonth      494 

Trial  and  execution  of  Russell 
and  Sidney 490 

1084.  Oates  imprisoned 490 

Pardon    fnd   banishment  of 

Monmouth 490 

Ascendency  of  the  duke  of 
York      490 

1085.  Death  and  character  of  Charles    490 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Hsbtsi  CotpQi  Act    »    .. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 


Jauks  II.,  b.  1033 ;  r. 

1085   The  king's  declaration  to  tlie 

councU 499 

Taxes  levied  bv  proclamation  500 
Gbaract:r  of  the  new  parlia- 
ment      600 

Punishment  of  Oates  ..  ..  500 
Invasion    and    execution    of 

Aigyle 600 

Monmouth's  invasion  ..  ..  501 
Battle  of  Sedgemoor.    Execu- 

tion  of  Monmouth  501,502 

Cruelties  of  Kl  rke  and  Jeffineys. 

The  ••  Bloody  Assise  "  602.  503 
The    king's    declaration    in 

favour  of  Oithollc  ofllcers  503 
Louis  XIV.  revokes  the  Edict 

ofNantcs      503 

French  Protestant  refugees  in 

England       603 

D<jtmis8al  of  Rochester . .  . .  604 
1080.  The    dispenrirg    power   af> 

firmed  by  the  Judges  . .  604 
Catholic  lords  on  the  privy 

council 604 

1085-0.  Violence  of  Tyrconnel  in 

IreUnd 504 

1080.  High  Commission  revived  . .  504 
Biflliop  of  London  suspended  505 
Penal  laws  suspended  . .     . .     605 

Embassy  to  Rome 605 

1087.  Papal    nuncio   In     England. 

(Catholic  bishops 606 

Charters  of  corporations  an- 
nulled.   Attempt  to  pack 

a  parliament       500 

NOTES  AND  ILLD.STRATIONS. 
AatboritiMftirtlMretfodoftheStiMrtB 


600 

sot 


1086-1688;  ob.  1701. 

1087.  The  Universities.  Magdalen 
College.  Oxfbrd 

1087-8.  First  and  second  declara- 
tions of  Indulgence    . .     . . 

1088.  Petition  of  the  seven  bishops 
treated  as  a  libel.  Their 
trial,  and  acquittal  . .     507,  608 

1088.  Birth  of  James  Francis  £d- 
JoDclo.   ward,  prince  of  Wales     ..     608 
Invitation  to  William,  prince 

ofOranse 609 

Terror  of  James     610 

William's  declaration   ..     ..     611 
Nov.  5.  His  landing  at  Torbay,  and 
progroes  In  the  west  . .     . . 
Disaflection  of  the  army 
Flight  of  the  princess  Anne . . 

Flight  or  James      512 

He  is  taken  at  Sheemess  and 

brought  to  London  ..  ..  613 
William  enters  London  ..  618 
James  sails  for  France . .  . .  613 
Be  abdicates  by  leavinfi  the 

kingdom* 613 

Debates  of  the  Convention   . .     616 
13.f  The  crown  offered  to,  and 
accepted  by,  William  and 

Mary      

Settlement  of  the  succession 
Declaration  of  Hightt  ..  .. 
Review  of  the  Stuart  dynasty 
Progress  of  tlx  nut  Ion  ..  .. 
Commerce.  Colonics.  In- 
crease or  wealth 618 

Literature,  science,  and  art . .     619 


611 

611 
512 


1089. 
Feb 


016 
516 
516 
510 
617 


*  TIm  ciact  data  of  Jamai  Il.'a  abdication  Is 
taehnkalty  reckoned  fhrni  hli  fltaht  from  White- 
haO  on  December  11.  when  he  threw  the  great 
Mai  Into  the  ThMnea  aad  diaMred  the  forms  of 


t  According  to  the  Old  fftpt*.  then  used  in 
RngUod.  this  date  fell  within  the  ytnr  1688.  as 
the  new  jrasr  began  on  March  SS.  Btit  it  was 
alwajrs  the  ctntom  to  reckon  an  hUtortcal  pemt 
beginoing  on  January  1. 


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XXVl 


CONTENTa 


BOOK  VL 
Fbox  thb  BsvoLonoN  of  1688  to  thb  Teas  1878. 


CHAPTER    XXVIL 

WILLIAM  m.  Ain>  Mast  n.— Willlui,  b.  16M;  r.  1689-1  tOl 
Maet,  b,  1663;  r.  1689-16M. 


A.1K  FAOS 

1689  Cbaracter  of  WUUam  IIL    ..    623 
The  OonTentioo  tfecIarM  itself 

aparlUmeot       633 

FiniMuHnyAet 634 

No^Jurora.  MeraHonAct..  634 
FaUoreofaUempto  to  revise 

the  UtorffT 634 

SootUnd.    Victory  end  death 

ofOandee 626 

James  Id  Ireland 636 

Siege  of  LoDdonderry  ..  ..  636 
Yiolent  measures  of  the  Irish 

parllameni 636 

Relief  of  Londenderry  ..  ..  636 
Battle  of  Newton  Butler  ..  636 
Successes  of  Schomherg  ..  636 
Garrickfergus  taken      ..     ..     636 

BiLLorRiOHTS      63Y 

Change  of  ministers.    Danby 

(now  lord  Carmarthen)     . . 
1690.  Second  parliament  of  William 

and  Mary      

William  in  Ireland.    BattU 

qf  the  Boynt        

James  leaves  Ireland    . .     . . 
William  takes  Wexford,  etc 

Siege  of  Limerick      ..     ..638 
Sea-flight  off  Beadiy  Head    . .    638 


63Y 
63Y 


63t 
638 


^^  PAOB 

1691.  Qinkell  takes  Athlone..  ..  639 
FacifieatioH  qf  Liwteriek  ..  639 
NoiJuring  bishops  deprived. 

Tillotson  primate      . .     .  639 

William  in  Holland      ..     ..  639 

Louis  takes  Mens 639 

1692.  TIm  MoMocre  qf  Olenooe  ..  630 
WUliam  in  Holland      ..     ..  631 

Jacobite  intrigues 631 

Ounp  of  James  at  La  Hogue. 

His  manifesto     631 

^iritofMaiy.  Naval  victory 
of  La  Hogue.  Institution  of 

Oreenwich  Hospital  (1696)  633 

William  loses  Namur   . .     . .  633 

DetetAed  at  SUinkirk   ..     ..  633 

1693.  Defeated  at  linden  ..  ..  633 
The  Smyrna  fleet  cut  <^  633 
Liberty  qf  tkeprtu  by  expiry 

of  the  Licensing  Act . .     ..  634 

1694.  Unpopularity  of  William  ..  633 
Disaster    at    Brest    through 

Marlborough's  treason      . .  633 

Tritnnitil  ParliamenU  Act..  633 
Deaths  of  Tillotson  and  queen 

Mary  (Dec  28) 633 

Tenlson       archbishop       of 

Oanterbniy 638 


William 
1696.  General     corruption.       The 

speaker  expelled 

Inrpeachmcnt  of  the  dijjce  of 

Leeds(Danby) 

New  Statute  qf  Treawnt 
William  Ukes  Namur  . .     . . 

1696.  Conspiracy  of  Barclay,  etc.  . . 
The  Loyal  As»ociation  to  de- 
fend tlie  king      

1697.  Attainder  and  execution  of 

Fenwick        

Qe^  10.  /'eaceqf  Ryivfick    ..     .. 
1697-8.  Reduction  of  the  army  .. 

1698.  The  Spanish  eucceuion 
The  first  partition  treaty      .. 
Parliament     dismisses     the 

Dutch  guards      

1700.  Resumption     of    grants    of 

estates  in  Ireland  . .  . . 
Second  partition  treaty  . .  . . 
Death  of  Ciiarles  II.    Crown 

bequeathed  to  Philip  V.  .. 
The  emperor  begins  the  War 

qf  the  finish  Sucotttion.. 
Changes  of  ministry  ..     .. 


in.  ALOMic,  1694-1702. 

1700.  The  OoMnet     641 

634  Death     of    the     duke     of 

Gloucester 641 

634        1701.  William's  JLTth  parliament, 
634  tory  \  Harley  speaker       . .     641 

636  Act  or  Sbttlrmrmt      ..     ..     641 

636  Exclusion  of  placemen  from 

parliament 642 

636  Parliament     condemns     the 

partition  treaties        ..     ..     643 
636  Dismissal  and  impeachment 

636  ofministers         643 

637  Orand  Alliance  of  England, 

637  Holland,  and  the  empire  . .     643 

639  James  II .  dies  at  St.  Germains    643 

Louis  XIV.  acknowledges  his 
639  son  as  king 643 

Preparations  for  war     . .     . .    643 

639  William's  sizth  parliament, 

640  whig      643 

1702.  Attainder  of  the  •«  pretended 

640  prince  of  Wales"      ....    649 

Act  qf  Abjuration        ..     ..    644 

643  Death  of  William 6a 

641 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 
i  of  RIghti.     "Art  act  for  decUring  the  rishta  and  UlMCtlM  of  the  whM.  and  Mttflaf 
)  of  the  crown  (1689)" ..,...» 


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CONTENTS. 


XX  VU 


CHAPTER  XXVm. 
Qunv  Ann,  6.  16«5;  r.  1703-1714. 


AA  PAOB 

1102.  The  inliiiBliT;Godolphin,eto.    649 
Marlborongb  made  oapCilii- 
general.  Intima^of  Anne 
and  Udy  Marlborough      ..    660 
War  declared  againrt  Fraooe 

and  ^pain 650 

Marlborough  hi  Flanders    . .    660 
Naval     anooesa     at     Ylgo. 

Benbow'0  actloa  and  death    650 
Annt'B  JntparUaanetU      ..    661 
llkanks  to  Mariborongh.    He 
reoeives  a  dakedom  and  a 
pension 661 

1703.  Marlborongh  hi  Flanders    ..    661 
The  archdnke  Charles  titnlar 

UngofSpafai       661 

N07.26.  Theyreotttorm 662 

1704.  Battle  of  BkfiAeim 662 


Capture  of  Qibraltar 

1706.  Pwerboron^  in  Spahi  ..     .. 

1706.  Battle  of  AuniZIiet       ..     .. 

Mi^o^rca  and  Ivixa  taken 

The  ardidake  Charles  wins 

and  loses  Madrid        ..     .. 

1704.  Scotland.    Act  af  abfMtib^  .. 

1704-6.  HostUft   resolations  of  the 

English  parliament  ..     .. 

1706.  Cooimissioners  frame  articles 

ofunSon       

1707.  Ukiov    of    Eholasd    asd 

SooiLAKB  (May  1)  ..  .. 
Firti  jwriiament  ^  QrtoJt 

Britain  (Oct.  23j  ..  .. 
Gampaignsin  Spain,  Qennany, 

andatsea 

Loss  of  sir  doodesl^  Shovel 

andhisfleet        

1708.  Alarm  of  invasion       ..     .. 

Victory  of  ^g 

Battle  of  OiMlenanie      ..     .. 
Capture  of  Lille  and  Minorca 

1709.  Battle  of  JKOpte^uet     ..     .. 
Capture  of  Mons     

1710.  Campaigns  in  Flanders  and 


668 
664 
664 


666 


666 

660 

667 
667 
667 
667 
667 
668 
668 


Spain.    Surrender  of  Stan- 
hope at  Brlhuega       ..     ..    668 

1704.  Rise  of  Harley  and  St.  John    650 

The  whiff /unto     550 

Lady      Marlborough      sup- 
planted by  Abigail  Hill  659 

1708.  Treason  of  Gregory.  Dismisssl 

of  Harley  and  St.  John     . .     559 

1709-10.  Sermon      and      trial     of 

Dr.  Sacheverell  ..     ..    669.560 

1710.  The  whig  ministry  displaced 

by  Harley  and  St.  John   ..     660 
Anne'iJ  fourth    parliament. 
The  people  tory 661 

1711.  Harley  stabbed  by  Guiscnrd    661 
Harley  made  earl  of  Oxford 

and  lord  high  treasurer  ..  66*i 
Oecational   Conformity  and 

Schism  Actt        562 

The   archduke   becomes  the 

emperor  Charles  y  1 562 

Conferences  for  peace  opened 

at  Utrecht 562 

Creation  of  twelve  new  peers    563 

1712.  Censure   and    retirement   of 

Marlborough       563 

Cardonnel  and  Walpole  ex* 

pelled  the  house         ..     ..    563 
Ormond      succeeds      Marl- 
borough In  Flanders  . .     . .    563 
His  separation  from  the  allies    563 

1713.  The  Pkack  OF  Utbicht      ..    663 

1714.  Treaty  if  BoMtadt         ..     ..     564 
Struggle  between  the  Jacob- 
ites and  Hanoverians       ..     664 

Death  of  the  piincess  Sophia 

of  Hanover 566 

Harley  supplanted  by  Boling- 

broke     566 

Anne's   illness.    The    wbigs 

frustrate  Bolhtgbroke  . .  565 
Death  and  character  of  the 

queen 565 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
HOUSE  OF  BRUNSWICK. 
aiOBGI  L,  6.  1660;  r.  1714-1727. 
1714.  Quiet  accession  of  the  new 


nsal  line 
An^  of  < 


'  George  I.  and  his 
0on.    His  character  ..     .. 
Whig  ministry.  Marlborough 

captain-general 

1716.  New  parliament 

Impeachment     of     Oiflbtd* 
Bolingbroke,  Ormond,  eto. 

1716.  Death  of  Louis  XIV 

The  regem  Orleans       . .     . . 
Insurrection  of  Mar,  Forster, 

etc        

Kov.  13.  Battles  of   Proton  and 

Shtrifmuir 

1716-16.  The  Pretender  in  Scotland 


1716.  Executions      671 

666       1716.  Jacobite  foeUng      671 

The  Septennial  Act       ..     ..     571 

607  The  king  viaita  Hanover      ..     672 

1717.  Alliances  with    France   and 

668  HoUand        672 

668  Quarrel  with  Charles  XII.  of 

Sweden        673 

608  Stanhope   first   lord  of  the 

668  treasury       673 

609  Designs  of  the  Spanish  minis- 
ter Alberoni        573 

1718.  Stanhope   forms   the    Quad- 
ruple Alliance    673 

Defcat  of  the  Spanish  fleet  off 
670   '  CapePassaro       676 


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XXVIU 


CONTENTS. 


A.l>.  PAOX 

17ao.  Spain   Joins   the   Quadrnple 

Alliance       bU 

Townsbend  and  Walpole  Join 

the  minLrtry       574 

Quarrel  between  the  Icing  and 

the  prince  of  Wales   . .     . .  574 

1719-20.  The  South  Sea  Bubble     ..  574 

1721.  Attacks  on  the  ministry      ..  675 

Death  of  Stanhope 575 

Ck)miption  among  ministers 

and  courtiers       576 

1722.  Walpole  chief  minister  ..  576 
Parliament  di!«solved  . .  . .  576 
Death  of  Marlborough  (and 

the  duchess,  1744)      ..     ..  576    l 

NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 
Hm  CoDTOoatloD  of  the  Bn^Ui  Church  „ 


A.D.  PAOB 

1723.  Banishment    of    Atterbury. 

Return  of  Bolingbroke     . .  576 
1724  Ireland.  ••  Wood'shalfpenoe." 

Swift's  Drapiet's  Lettert . .  576 
1725.  Scotland.    Disturbances  about 

the  beer  Ux        577 

Order  of  the  Bath  revived    . .  577 
Foreign  aifairs.    Treaties  of 

Vienna  »n&  Hanover . .  577 
Spain  and  the  emperor  against 

England,  France,  and  Ru.«i8ia  57  7 

1727    Hostilities  with  Spain   ..     ..  677 

Peace  qf  Paris       578 

Death  of  George  1 578 


878 


CHAPTER  XXX. 
Gborob  II.,  h.  1683;  r.  1727-1760. 


1727.  His  character  and  famUy     ..     680 
Walpole  supported  by  queen 
Caroline        581 

1729.  Peace  with  Spain 682 

1730.  Rupture  between  Townshend 

and  Walpole       582 

1737.  Quarrel   betwoen    Frederick, 
prince  of  W^alee,  and  the 

king      682 

Bolingbroke's  "  Patriot  King  "    582 
Death  of  queen  Caroline     . .     682 

1739.  Quarrel  with    Spain.     Fable 

of  "Jenkins's  Ears".,  ..  682 
Rise  of  William  Pitt  .,  ..  683 
Decline  of  Walpole       ..     ..     683 

War  with  Spain      584 

1739-41.  Vernon's  attack  3n  Porto 

Bello  and  Carthagena       . .     584 
1740~A.  Anson's  voyage  round  the 

world      684 

1741.  TVu'rdjxirZiametU  of  George       684 

1742.  Defeat    and    resignation    of 

Walpole.      He   is   created 

earlofOrford      685 

His  death  (1745) 688 

Ministry  of  Pulteney  and 
Wilmington.  Enquiry  into 
Walpole's  administration        686 

1740.  De^ith  of  the  emperor  Charles 

VI 686 

Queen  Maria  Theresa  . .  . .  685 
1740-8.  War  of  the  Austrian  Sue- 

ceision 585 

Frederick  11.  In  Silesia . .     . .     685 

1742.  England      supports      Maria 

Theresa 686 

Cession  of  Silesia  to  Prussia    686 

1743.  Battle  qf  DetUngen       ..     ..     586 
Ministry  of  Pelham       ..     ..     587 

1744.  Prince  Charles  Edward  . .     ..     587 

War  with  France 688 

Ministerial  chnntres       ..     ..     688 

1746.  Qimdruple  Alliance  of  Eng- 
land, Holland,  Austria,  and 
S.«xony  ,.     ..     ..     ..     ..     688 

Death  of  Charles  VII 688 


1746.  Francis  I.  emperor 
BaUlt  qf  Fbntenoy , 


Capture  of  Cape  Breton 
Prlnc    ~     ■     ■    ~     • 


588 
688 
689 
589 
691 
692 
692 
592 


ince  Charles  in  Scotland 
BattU  of  Preston  Pans 
His  march  into  England 
Panic  in  Tendon     . .     . . 
Charles  retreats  from  Derby 

1746.  Battles  of  Falkirk  Moor  and 

CuUiid^i.  Escape  of  prince 
Charles.    Executions       593,  594 

Pacification  of  the  High- 
lands      595 

Ministry  and  character  of 
Chetterflcld 596 

1747.  Naval  victories  of  Anson  and 

Huwke 595 

1748.  Resignation   of  Chesterfield. 

Ministry  of  Bedford  ..     ..     696 
Peace  qf  A  ix-la-  (  hapelfe     . .     596 
1762.  Chesterfield's    reform  of  the 

calend  ir       595,  596 

Later  llf^of  the  Young  Pre- 
tender (ob.  1788)..             ..     596 
Death  of  hU  brother,  cardinal  • 
York  (1807) 696 

1760.  Pelbam's  reduction  of  the  in- 

terest on  the  debt      ..  597 

1761.  Death  of  Frederick,  prince  of 

Wales 597 

Death  of  Pelham     597 

MinlNtry  of  Newcastle  . .     . .     697 
1755.  Hostilities    with    France    in 

America        597 

Threats  of  Invasion       . .     . .     598 
1766.  Ivosfl  of  Minorca      698 


1767.  Execution  of  admiral  By  ng 
1756-7.  Newcastle's  resignation  and 

recal      

1767.  First  ministry  of  Pitt    ..     .. 

1756.  TT'aty  of  VersailUM  against 

Pnissia         

1766-63.  The    Seren    rears'   War. 
England  joins  Prussia 

1757.  Convention  of  Klostcr  Seven. 

Loss  of  Hanover         . .     . . 


599 


599 
600 


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CONTENTS. 


XXIX 


▲Jk.  rAQE 

IfftT.  Dlignoe  of  the  doln  of  Cimi- 

berUnd  (06.  1766)     ..     ..  MO 

17U.  Pitt's  popuUritT 600 

GoDvention  with  PtiubIa      . .  600 

War  in  India  and  Africa      . .  601 
Gonqmest  of  Cape  Breton  and 

Prinoe  Edward's  Island    ..  601 
Expeditions    against     Cber- 

bonrg  and  St.  Ifalo    ..     ..  601 

Hanorer  won  back        ..     ..  601 


AJ>.  FAOB 

1758.  Successes  of  Frederick  II.    ..  601 
1769.  Naval  victories  on  the  French 

coast      601 

Battle  of  Minden.     Disgrace 

of  lord  George  SackviUe   ..  003 

Invasion  of  Canada       ..     ..  603 
Capture  of  Quebec  and  death 

of  Wolfe       603 

1760.  Conquest  of  Canada       . .     . .  603 

Deathof  (jeorgell 603 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

liOBOK  III.,  b.  1738;  r.  1760-1830.    Fbom  the  Kino's  Accbssiok  to  tiik  Rbooonition 
OF  Amrrican  Imdepkndrmcb  akd  tub  Peace  or  Versailles,  a.d.  1760-1783. 


(760.  Person  and  spirit  of  the  young 

king.  His  ministry  ..  ..  605 
Influence  of  Bute 605 

1761.  The   king    marries   princess 

Charlotte  of  Mecklenburg  605 
Negodatiuns.      Capture     of 

Belleisle,     Dominica,    and 

Pondicherry 606 

The    ftimilv    Oompaet     of 

France  and  Spain  ..  ..  606 
Pitt's   reelgnation;    bononrs 

and  rewards        606 

1762.  War  with  Spain      6<n 

Aid  to  Portugal      607 

Newcastle  resigns 607 

Ministry  of  Bute C07 

Military  successes.     Capture 

of  Havannah,  Manilla,  etc.     607 
>763.  Peace  qf  Paris.    End  of  the 

Seven  Years' War      ..     ..     608 
liise  and  progrtu  qf  the  In- 
dian Empire       608 

1746-55.  Contest  between  Dupleix 

andaive      609 

1756.  SursJah  Dowlah.    The  Black 

/Tote  at  C-alcutta 609 

1757.  Battle  OP  Plasst.    /bundo- 

tion  qf  Indian  empire      . .     609 
1761  Surrender     of    Pondicherry, 

The  Camatic  secured        . .     610 

1763.  Bute  resigns.    George  Gren- 

viUe  prime  mlninter  . .     . .     610 
No.  45  of  the  Sortk  Briton  . .     610 
1763-4.  Contest  of  Wilkes  with  par- 
liament and  the  law  courts     611 
General       warrants       pro- 
nounced illegal 611 

1766.  American  jitomp  Act     ..     ..     611 
State  of  the  thirteen  North 

American  CoLOKiss ..     ..    612 
Violent    opposition    to    the 
stamps  in  America    . .     . .    612 

Illness  of  George  III 613 

Resignation  of  Grenville      ..     613 
First  ministry  of  lord  Rock- 
ingham  613 

1766.  PiU's  opposition  to  the  Stamp 

Act.    Its  repeal 614 

Second     ministry     of    Pitt, 
created  earl  of  (Latham   . .     614 

1767.  His  illness  and  seduskm      . .    616 
Townshend's  taxes  on  Ame- 
rica.   Hisdeath 616 


1767.  Lords  North  and  Hillsborough 

in  the  ministry 616 

1768.  Second  parliamenl  ..  ..  615 
Fresh  contest  with  Wilkes  ..  615 

Riots  in  America 616 

The   taxes    repealed,  except 

that  on  tea 616 

1769.  Resignation      of     Chatham. 

Ministry  of  lord  North      ..  616 

1770.  Chatham  opposes  the  Ameri- 

can measures      ..     ..     ..  616 

1772.  The /foyoi  Jfarrto^  Act      ..  617 

1773.  New  tea  duty  in  America  617 
Petition  fruBS  Massachusetts 

rejected         617 

Franklin  and  Wedderbum  ..  617 

Resistance  in  America  . .     . .  617 

Riots  at  Boston        618 

1774.  Virginia  Joins  the  resistance  618 
Congress     at     Philadelphia. 

Declaration  of  righU        ..  618 

1776.  Anurican  War       618 

Sktrmish  at  Lexington        ..  619 

Second  congress      619 

Obx>iioB  Washington  ..     ..  619 

BatUe  qf  Bunker's  UiU       . .  619 

1776.  Lord  Howe  evacuates  Boston  620 
July  4.  Declaration  of  Isdefkn- 

DRNCE  of  the  Unite i  States 

qf  Aorth  Amei'ica  621 

French  sympathy.  1^  Fayette  621 

1777.  Opposition  of  Chatliara  .  . .  632 
Trial  of  Home  Tooke  . .  . .  622 
Capitulation  of  Saratoga  622 

1778.  Alliance  between  France  and 

America       623 

Parliament     renounces     the 

right  to  tax  the  colonies  . .  623 
Proposal  to  recognize  Ameri- 
can independence  opposed 

by  Chatham.    Hisdeath  ..  623 
French    fleet     in    America. 

Battle  of  r«AafiC        ..     ..  624 

Spain  Joins  against  England  624 

Threats  of  an  invasion  . .     . .  624 

Exploits  of  Paul  Jones         . .  625 

1779.  Siege  of  Gibraltar 626 

1780.  Lord   George    Gordon's  «'No 

popery "  riots      626 

Naval  victoiy  of  Rodney      ,.  627 

The  Armed  yrntrality..      ..  627 

War  with  the  Dutrh      ..     ..  628 

1781.  Lord    Comwallis   capitulates 


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CX)NTENTa 


▲J).  liiOB 

At  Tork  Town.     Vtatoil 

end  of  the  war  in  Amerioa     029 

1T8X  L088  of  Minorca     $» 

Bemlniion  of  the  oommona 

against  the  war 629 

North  resigns.  Rockingham's 

seoood  ministry 629 

First  appearance  of  Slieridan 

and  tne  younger  Pitt  . .  630 
Ireland  obtains  legislative  in- 

dependence 639 

Pitt's  first  motion  for  reform 

<^  parliament     630 

Burke's  reeolntion  for  refi>rm 

«r  the  pmiioD  list      ..     ..    630 


▲J)^  PAOB 

1781.  Rodney^   Tloloiy  anr  Dn 

Oraise 639 

Death  of  Rockingham  ..     ..    631 
Ministry  of   Shelbome  and 

PIU       631 

Sinking  of  the  Royal  Qwrgt     631 
Siege    and    reUef    of    CUb- 

nltar 632 

Peaoeqf  Pari*  with  America. 
Recognition   of    Am^can 

independence      633 

1T83.  Peace    qf    VenaiUei    with 

France  and  Spain      ..     ..    633 
Treaty  with  the  Dntch..    ..    633 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 


Ok>boi  m. 


Fbom  thb  Pbaob  or  Ybbsaillis  to  thb 
FiAOS  or  AiOBiia,  A.n.  1783-1802. 


630 


630 
636 
636 

636 

636 

635 
636 

636 


1783.  Lord  Shelbnme  resigns 
Goalition  ministry  of  North 

and  Fox.  Fox^tlndUBIU 
Ministers  dismissed  ..  .. 
William  Pttt  prime  mlnistar 

1784.  Defeated  on  his  IndU  BiU    . . 
Has  a  n^Jofity  in  a  new  par- 
liament.   Aet/or  India  .. 

The  Board  of  Control    ..     .. 

1784-6.  Financial  reforms      ..     .. 

1786.  Treaty    of   commerce    with 

Fruice 

1785.  Pitt's  JUiftrm  Bill  thrown  ont  636 

1786.  The  prince  of  Walea  and  Mn. 

Fitzherbert 636 

Review  of  Indian  ki$tory    . .    636 

1765.  Lord  aive's  return  to  Calcntto   636 

1767.  Hisadministration  and  return    637 

1768-70.  War  with  Hyder  AH       . .     637 

Famine  in  Bengal 637 

1773.  Lord  North's  RegulaHng  Act    637 
Warren   Hastings    the   first 

governor-general       ..     ..    637 

1774.  Death  of  CUve 638 

Administration  of  Hastings       639 

1778.  Capture  of  the  French  settle- 

mente  In  India 630 

1778-83.  War  with  Hyder  AU  and 
Tippoo  Sahib      

1782.  Exactions  of  Hastings.  The 
Begums  of  Oude 

1783-6.  Peace  with  Tippoo  ..  .. 
Retirement  of  Hastings 

1786.  Lord  Comwallis  governor- 
general 


639 


640 


640 
1786-05.^Trial  of  Hastings      ..    640,641 
1788-0.  The  king's  illnees  and  re- 
covery    641 

1789.  The  Fkrkch  Rkvolctiov  ..  641 

1790.  Burke's  "Reflections"  ..     ..  642 
RioU  at  Binninffham    ..     ..  642 

1791.  Flight  of  Louis  XVI 643 

1792.  First  coaUtion  against  France  643 
September  massacres.  FcUmy. 

Retreat  of  Brunswick       . .  643 

179S.  Execution  of  Louis  XVI.     ..  643 
Fnuice  declares  war  against 

England  and  Holland      ..  644 


1793.  Siege  of  Toolon      

Napolbow  Boraf abtb  . .     . . 

1794.  Decree    of    the    Convention 

against  Pitt 

The  duke  of  York  in  Flanders 

Battle  of  ^tewnw 

Frendi  conquest  of  Belgium 

and  Holland 

1794-6.  Naval  succeeses.    Nblsoh 

1794.  Lord  Howe's  victory     . .     . . 
Prosecutions     for     sedition. 

Trial  of  Hardy,  etc 

1795.  Defection  of  Prussia      ..     .. 
The  Quiberon  expedition 
Capture  of  West  India  islands 

and  Cape  of  Oood  Hope    . . 

1796.  Alliance  of  France  and  Spain 

against  England 

Bonaparte's     campaign     in 

Attempts  at  invasion.  French 
fleet  in  Bantry  Bay    . .     . . 

Bank  Restriction  Act.  Cash 
payments  suspended  . .     . . 

1797.  Great  scheme  or  invasion  by 

France  and  Spain      . .     . . 

Battle  qf  St.  Vincent.  Honours 
to  Jervis  and  Nelson . . 

Mutinies  at  Spithead  and  the 
Nore       660, 

Battle  qf  Oamperdown.  In- 
vasion fhistrated       . .     . . 

Peace  of  Ounpo  fbrmio  be- 
tween France  and  Austria 

1798.  Bonaparte's     expedition     to 

Egypt 

SattUqftheMU 

Honours  to  Nelson        . .     . . 

1799.  Alliance  of  England,  Russia, 

'  and  Turkey  against  France 

Battte  of  Stockack.  Suwarov 
in  Italy  and  Switzerland  . . 

English  and  Rnmian  expedi- 
oon  to  Holland 

The  Helder  taken.  Capitula- 
tion of  the  duke  of  York  . . 

Bonaparte  in  Egypt      . .     . . 

Repulsed  from  Acre     . .     . . 


647 
647 
647 

647 
647 
648 

648 

648 


649 

649 

660 

651 

652 

652 

652 
653 
653 


654 

654 
654 
654 


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CONTENTS. 


•ymri 


A.l)b  PAOB 

ITM.  His  itlam  and  espolriooof 

the  dutmben  (Nor.  t)     ..    «66 
Kew  oonttitotkm  of  Franoe. 
Boiuipaite  flnt  oootQl      ..    «66 

Itte.  Irish  rebellion       666 

*.801.  Uhiow    or  Obxat  Britadi 

AHD  Ibblakd  (Jan.  1.)    ..    666 
The  title  of  •'  King  of  Franoe  " 

dropped 666 

Ftrtt    ParUammU    <f    tke 

United  Kin(fd4m       ..     ..    666 
Pitt  on  relbrm  and  the  C^Uu>- 

Ucdalma     666 

1800.  Bonaparte  croeaes  the  Alps. 
BatUea    of   Miutngo    and 

Hokenlindm      667 

1901.  Peace  qflMneviUe 667 

BriUshc^nre  of  Malta      ..    667 
1800.  The  emperor  Paol's  hosttlUy 


▲J>.  PA«B 

to  England.    Armed  nea- 

trallty  of  the  north    ..     ..  667 

1801.  Resignation  of  Pitt 667 

Ministry  of  Addington  ..     ..  667 

The  northern  league     ..     ..  668 

BcUUeqf  Copenhagen   ..     ..  668 

Death  of  Paul 668 

Treaty  qf  St.  PeUrtburg      ..  668 
Preparations    for     invasion. 

Attacks  on  Boulogne        . .  669 

English  expedition  to  Egypt  659 

Battle  of  ^/ieaecndria    ..     ..  660 
Capitulation  of  the  French  in 


1802.  March  27.  Peace  <tf  Amient 
Bonaparteoonsul  for  life 
His     codn,    administration, 
and  code  of  laws        ..     ..    661 


661 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
OiOBOB  Hl^'  'Omtiuued.    Vaou  the  Pkacb  op  Amnn  to  thb  Dbath 

OP  thb  KiXG,  XJ>.  1802-1820. 


1802.  Hostile     ftellngs     between 

Franoe  and  England  ..     ..  663 
Trial  of  PeUieTfor  a  Ubel  on 

Bonaparte 663 

1803.  Message  to  parliament         ..  663 
Violence  of  Bonaparte  to  lord 

Whltworth 664 

May  18.  War  declared     664 

Gamp  at  Boulogne.  Volunteers  664 

1804.  Addington  resigns 664 

Pitt  again  prime  minister    . .  664 
Postponement    of    Catholic 

emancipation     664 

War  with  Spain     ..     ..     ..  666 

May  18.    Napolbob  I.  bmpbbor 

OP  THB  Fbbboh 666 

Seixure  and  murder  of  the 

duke  d'Enghien 666 

1806.  Impeachment  of  MelTiile    ..  666 
League  of  Enghmd,  Russia, 

Sweden,  and  Austria        ..  666 
Napoleon  crowned   king  of 

Italy      ..     ..     666 

Oct.  20.  Capitulation  of  Ulm  ..     . .  666 

Dec  2.  Battle  qf  AutterlitM   ..     ..  666 

Oct.  21.  Battlb  OP  Tbapaloab   ..  667 

Death  of  Nelson 669 

1806.  Jan.  23.  Death  of  PHt.    His 

character     669 

Ministry  of  **A11  the  Talents  " 

— Grenville,Fox,etc       ..  669 

Negodations  for  peace  . .     . .  670 
Kingdoms  given  to  Napoleon's 

brothers       670 

Ferdinand  TV.  expelled  ftom 

Naples 670 

The  British  in  Calabria  ..     ..  670 

Battle  of  Jfoida     670 

Double  dealing  of  PmaU    . .  670 

Battleof,XBna 670 

The  French  in  Berlin.    The 

Berlin  decree      670 

bept  13.  Death  and  character  of  Fox  670 


671 
671 


672 
672 


673 


673 
673 


674 
674 


1807.  Dismissal    of   the   ministry. 

The  slave-trade  abolished. . 
Ministry  of  Portland  ..  .. 
War   between    Turkey   and 

Russia 

July?.  Peace  qf  TUtit.   Alliance  of 

Franoe  and  Russia  . .  . . 
Esmedition     to  Copenhagen. 

The  Danish  fleet  seized  . . 
Treatv  of  France  and.  Spain 

against  Portugal 673 

Junot  enters  Lisbon.    Flight 

of  royal  family  to  Brazil  . . 

Milan  Decree  against  British 

commerce 

1808.  French    invasion    of    Spain, 

and  deposition  of  Charles 

IV 

Joseph  Bonaparte  made  king 

of  Spain 

The  Seville  Junta  proclaims 

Ferdinand  VII 674 

1808.  English  aid  to  Spain  ..  ..  674 
The  Peninsular  War  .  . .  674 
Sir  Arthur  Welle  slay's  victory 

at  Vimiera 676 

Omvention  of  Cintra.     The 

French  evacuate  Portugal . .  676 
Advance    and   retreat  of  sir 

John  Moore 676 

1809.  Battle  of  Oorunna.    Death  of 

Moore 676 

Abuses  in   the  army.     The 

duke  of  York  resigns 
Wcllesley  in  Portuiptl  . .     .. 
.  Passage  of  the />(mro     ..     .. 
BatUeof  TWatJcm.  Wellesley 

made  lord  Wblli>gton  .. 
He    retreats      to     Portugal. 

French  armies  in  Spain 
New   war  of  Napoleon  with 

Austria.  Battles  of  £leihnfiAZ, 

Atpem^  and  Wagram      677,  676 


676 
677 
677 

677 

677 


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X3cai 


CONl'ENTa 


1809.  peoMpf  SchCfibrunn 
Captivity  of  Pius  VII 

1810.  Marriage  of  Napoleon  to  MtrU 

Louisa  of  Austria       . .     . . 

Expedition  to  Walehtren 

Expedition  to  Calabria  . .     . . 

Ionian  isles  acquired     . .     . . 

Duel  between  Canning  and 
Gastlereagh.  Ministry  of 
Spencer  Perceval       . .     . . 


PAOB 

678 
678 

678 
678 
678 
678 


679 


1810.  Sir  F.  Burdett  sent  to  the 

Tower «7« 

Siege   of  Cadiz.      MasMna's 

advance  into  Portugal      . .     679 

Battle  of /Tutoco 680 

Lines  of  Tnits  redraw . .  . .  680 
Bemadotte  made  crown  prince 

ofSweden     680 

Final  mental  malady  of  the 

king      681 


Thb  Regenct  of  Gbobob,  Pbincb  of  Wales. 


1811.  Retreat  of  Massena  . .  . .  681 
Battles  of  Bamna,  PuerUei  de 

OHoro,  and  Albuera  ..     681,  682 

First  siege  of  Bad^ox    ..     ..  682 

a81 2.  Perceval  shot 682 

Lord  Liverpool  prime  minister  682 
Wellington      takes      Ciudad 

Rodrigo  and  Bad^jox  . .     . .  683 

Tuly  22.   Battle  of  .'iilamanca     . .  683 

Madrid  occupied     683 

The  Orders  in  Oouncil . .     . .  684 

War  with  America 684 

Treaty  of  Russia  and  Sweden 

against  France.   Napoleon's 

expedition  against  Russia  684 

1813.  Wellington     advances     into 

Spain.     Battle  of  Vittoria  686 

Battles  of  the /^r«we«        ..  686 

Capture  of  San  Sebastian  . .  686 
Wellington    enters     France. 

Battle  of  .V twite 686 

Rise  of  the  continent  against 

Napoleon      686 

Battles  of  Luteen  and  Bautten  686 

Napoleon's  obstinacy     ..  686 

Austria  Joins  the  coalition  . .  686 
Oct.  16-1 8.  Oreat  defeat  of  Napoleon 

at  Uipsic     687 

The  allier.  cross  the  Rhine  . .  687 

1814.  Wellington  defeats  Soult  at 

OrtfuM  and  Jbulouse  . .     . .  687 
XndqfthePeniruularWar  687 
Napoleon's    defensive    cam- 
paign in  France 687 

Mar.  31.    The  allies  enter  Paris    . .  688 
April    4.    Napoleon   abdicates    at 

Fontainebleau       688 

His  banishment  to  Elba       . .  688 

May  3.  Louis  XVITL  restored       ..  688 

May  30.  Peace  of  Paris 688 

Visit  of  the  allied  sovereigns 

to  England 688 


1814. 


1813. 
1814. 


689 


689 
689 
68S 
689 
690 
690 
690 
690 
690 
692 
692 
692 


Honours  and  rewards  to  the 
duke  of  Wellington    ..     .. 

American  War.  Action  of  the 
Shannon  and  Chesapeake . . 

Washington  t^ken.    Repulse 
at  New  Orleans '1816) 
Dec.  24.  Treaty  qf  Okent        ..     .. 

1815.  Congress  at  Vunna      ..     .. 
Escape  of  Napoleon 

Mar.  19.  Flight  of  Ix)ui8  XVIIL  .. 
Napoleon  enters  Paris  . .  . . 
Campaign  in  Belgium  . .  . . 
Quairer  Bros  and  Ligny 
June  18.  Battlk  of  Waterloo  . . 
Napoleon's  second  abdication 

The  allies  in  Paris 

I>oui8  X VI n.  restored  ..     .. 
Napoleon  surrenders  on  board 

the  BelUrophon 692 

He  is  banished  to  St.  Helena. 

His  death  (May  5,  1821)  . .     693 
Second  peace  of  Paris  . .      . .     693 

The  ffoly  Alliance 693 

Settlement  of  Europe  by  the 

congress  at  Vienna    . .  693 

Distress  and  discontent . .     . .     693 
The  oom-taw 693 

1816.  Bombardment    of     Algiers. 

Suppression  of  piracy 

1817.  Habeas  rbnmi  suspended    .. 
Trials  fbr  libel  and  sedition . . 
Trials  of  William  Hone 
Death  of  princess  Charlotte  . , 

1818.  Congress  of   Aix-la-t^hapeUe 
Death  of  queen  Charlotte     . . 

1819.  Repeal  of  the  Bank  Restric- 

tion Act.  Cash  payments 
resumed  (May  1,  I82I)     .. 

"  Peterloo  massacre  "   . .     . . 

lx)rd  Sidmouth's  Six  Acts    . . 

Death  of  the  duke  of  Kent  . . 

Death  and  character  of  George 
III 


1820. 


694 
694 
694 
694 
694 
694 


695 
695 
695 
695 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

Orobqb  rV.  AKD  William  IV.    a.d.  1820-1837. 

QeoKQE  IV.,  b.  1762  ;  r.  1820-1830. 


1820.  Cato-street  conspiracy   .'.     . .    696 
Trial  of  queen  Caroline . .     . .     696 

1821.  Her  death 697 

1322.  Ministerial    changes.      Peel 

and  Canning.  Suicide  of 
lord  Londonderrv  (C^stle- 
reagh) 697 


1823.  Commercial  and  financial  re- 
forms       698 

1825.  Financial  panic:  bank  failure  698 
Establishment  of  joint  stock 

banJcs 698 

The  Catholic  claims       . .      . .  698 

Daniel  O'Con noil 698 


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CONTENTS. 


XXXUl 


1835.  Vow  of  the  duke  of  York    . . 

lt)2Y.  Hi8  death 

Lord  Liverpoors  illness. 
Canning  prime  minister  . . 
cession  of  Wellington,  Peel, 

and  Eldon 

Death    of   Canning.       Lord 

Goderich  prime  minister  . . 

BetltU  qf  A'avarino      . .     . . 

1829.  Independence  of  Greece 

ri832.  Otho  king  of  Greece  (deposed 

I  1862)  

I  1864.  Georgel.kineof  the  Hellenes 
I  England  cedes  the  Ionian 

[^  Islands  to  Greece     ..     .. 


AGE    1  A  J».                                                                     i»  \0E 

698    I  1828.  Wellington  prime  minister  . .     C9t 

698  Repeal  of  the  Test  and  Cor- 

I  poration  Acts      69C 

698  Resignation  of  the  *•  Canning  " 

I  ^P*"y     700 

698  Election  lor  Clare  and  return 

ofO'Coniiell Too 

699  1829.  OaUholic  emaneipation  . .     . .     700 
669    I  1830.  Death  and  character  of  George 

699  IV 7.     701 

Popular  improvement  ..     ..     701 

699    I  1825.  The     first    passenger    rail- 

699  way        701 

I  1830.  The  Liverpool  and  Manchester 

699    I  line  opened 701 


WiLUAM  IV.,  b.  1766;  r.  1830-1837. 


1830.  The  second  French  Revolution  701 
Charles    X.  deposed;    Louis 

PhiUppeking     701 

Liberal  complexion  of  the  new 

parliament 702 

The  duke  of  Wellington  de* 

Clares  against  reform  . .  702 
Defeat  and  resignation  of  the 

ministry       702 

Ministry  of  earl  Grey  ..     ..  702 

1831.  Reform  Bill  defeated     ..     ..  702 

New  parliament 703 

Second  Reform    Bill  thrown 

out  by  the  lords 703 

The  Asiatic  cholera       ..     ..  703 

1833.  The  Reform  Bill  passed    ..  703 

Its  principal  provisions       . .  704 

1833.  First  reformed  parliament  . .  705 

The  "  Contervativet "  led  by 

sir  Robert  Peel 704 

Abolition  of  negro  slavery  . .  705 
Irish    Church   TemporcUities 

Act        705 


1833.  New  charters  to  the  Bank  ot 

England  and  the  EaM  India 
Company.  The  trade  with 
China  thrown  open    . .     . .     706 

1834.  Division  in  the  ministry.  Lord 

Grey  resigns       706 

Ix>rd  Melbourne  premier     . .     706 

yew  poor-law         705 

Conservative  reaction  . .  . .  706 
Miniiiters  dit^niis^cd  . .  . .  706 
First  minibtry  of  .^ir  Robert 

Peel       706 

1835.  Lord      Melbourne's     second 

ministry       706 

Clow  alliance  with  O'Connell  706 
Act  for  Municipal  Ji^orm  . .     706 

1836.  AdstbrlHutnters'man'iagts 

and  Kegisiratum  qf  Birth*, 
■  MOLrriagtiy  and  l)eath$    . .     706 
EccUiiaitical  Commution  and 

Tithe  Commutation  Act$  . .     706 

1837.  Death  of  William  IV 706 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 


QUBIH  Victoria,  b. 

1837.  Separation    of  Hanover  and 

EngUind       707 

1837.  Canadian  rebellion  ..  ..  708 
1840.  Union  of  the  Canadas  ..  ..  708 
ri867.  The  Dominion  of  Canada 

L  under  a  viceroy       ..     ..  708 

1837-8.  Rise  of  the  ChaHi$ti        . .  708 

1839.  Riots  at  Newport 708 

1838.  The   Anti-Com-Law  League. 

Richard  Cobden 708 

1840.  Marriage   of  the    queen    to 

PRHICR  Albkrt 708 

1839.  Committ4fe    of    council    for 

education      709 

1840.  Uniform  Penny  Post    . .     . .  709 

1841.  Fall  of  the  ministry  ..  ..  709 
Second  parliam  nt  ....  709 
Ministry  of  «ir  R.  Peel . .     . .  709 

1842.  Qradnated  duty  on  corn        . .  709 
Inwme  tax  revived       . .     . .  709 
(yConnell's  aicitation  fox  re- 
peal of  the  Union  709 

1843-4.  His  arrest,  imprisonment, 

and  death  (1847)        ..     ..  709 

2* 


709 
710 


710 
710 


1819.     AJ>.  1837-1878. 

1845.  Endowment    of    Maynooth. 

Queeu's  Colleges  in  Ireland 
Bad     harvest     and      potato 

disease.  Corn-laws  doomed 
Resignation    and    return    to 

office  of  sir  R.  Peel     . .     . . 

1846.  Repeul  of  ilie  corn-laws 
The  now  prolrclionint  party. 

Lord  .Stanley  (carl  of  lierby) 

ai'd  Mr.  Disraeli 710 

Defeat  of  sir  U.  Peel.  Ministry 
of  lord  John  Russell  .,     ..     711 

1847.  Distres>  in  England       ..     ..     711 
Famine  In  Ireland 711 

1848.  Reb.'llion    of    the    "Young 

Ireland  "  party 711 

EfTecis  <.f  emigration  and  the 

Encumbered  Estates  Act  . .     711 
mrd      Ficnch     lievolution. 
Louis  Philippe  e.\  pel  led    ..     711 
April  10.  Abortive  c;bartlsi  demon- 
stration In  London     ..      ..     711 

1849.  Repeal    of    the    Savigation 

Acts       711 


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CONTENTS. 


I 


A.D.  FAOX 

1869.  Detlh  and  diManUir  of  sir 

Bob«rtP«el 711 

1860-1.  OithoUc  Uahoprks  fbnoded  713 

BoeUtioitieal  TUUt  Act      ..  113 

1851.  ExhlbtUon  in  Hyde  Park     ..  713 
Dec.  3.  Coup  d:Hat  of  Louis  Na- 

polron  Bonaparte  in  France    713 
Dismiaaal    of    lord    Palmer- 
ston       713 

1852.  Defeat   of  lord   J.    Rumell. 

Lord  Derby's  first  ministry  713 

Death  of  Wellington  ..  ..  713 
Dec.  3.  Napoleon  II L  emperor  of  the 

French 713 

Fall  of  lord  Derby's  ministry  713 
Coalition    ministry    of    lord 

Aberdeen     713 

1853.  Mr.  Gladstone's  first  budget  713 
War   between    Russia    and 

Turkey.   Alliance  between 
England  and  France  . .     ..     713 

1854.  War  with  RuasU 714 

iHvation    qf    the    Crimea. 

Battle  of  the  .ilma     ..     ..  714 

Siege  of  Sevastopol 714 

Battle  of  BotoJUami      ..     ..  714 

Battle  of  rnXeermafm     ..     ..  716 

1865.  Fall  of  the  government       . .  716 

Ministry  of  lord  Palmerston. 

Secession  of  **  Peelites  "    . .  716 

Mar.  3.   Death    of   the    emperor 

Nicholas       716 

Naval  operations 716 

Austrian  occupation  of  the 
prlndpaliUes.     The   alliea 

joined  by  Sardinia     ..     ..  716 
iapt.  10.  Fall  of  Sevastopol.    War 

in  Asia 716 

^M.  Peace  qf  Parit      717 

1957.  Japan.   New  war  with  China  717 

Coalition  against  Palmerston  717 

Fyth  parliament 717 

Indian  Mutiny       717 

Review  of  Indian  kittory  . .  717 
2792.  Alliance  of  Tippoo  Sahib  with 

the  French 717 

1798.  Lord  Momington  (marquess 

Wellesley)  governor-gene- 
ral   717 

1799.  Capture    of    Seringapttam. 

Death  of  Tippoo 717 

1803.  MahratU  war.      Battles  of 

Aftaye  vaidi  ArgoMm  . .     ..     717 
War  with  Sdndiah.    Capture 

of  Delhi  and  Agra     ..     ..     718 
Annihilation   of  French  in- 
fiuenoe  in  India         ..     ..     718 

1805.  Qovemments  of  loidi  Com- 

wallis  and  Mlnto       ..     ..     718 

1813.  LordMoira  (marquees  Hast- 
ings) governor-general     . .     718 
War  with  the  MidirattaB  and 
Pindarees      718 

1823.  Lord      William      Bentinck 

frovemor-general        ..     ..    718 

1826.  Fli^!     war    with    Bnrmah. 

Capture  of  Bhurtpore        ..     718 

1836.  Lord     Auckland     governor- 
general        Hi 


AJ>.  PAOI 

1838-40.  First  Aiishan  War.    Shah 

Soojah  set  up  at  Oabul      . .     718 

1841.  Afghan  insurrection.    Brttiah 

army  destroyed 718 

Lord  Elleuborough  gOYOiior- 
general 718 

1842.  Recapture  and  evacuation  of 

Oabul 718 

1848.  Battle  of  Jfesanae,  and  ood- 

quest  of  Scinde 719 

1844.  Sir    Henry  (afterwards  lordj 

Hardinge  governor-general    719 

1846-6.  War      with     the     Sikhs. 

Aliwal  KD^  Soltyraon  ..     ..     719 

1848-9.  Second  Sikh  War,  and  con- 
quest of  the  Punjab  ..     ..    719 
Thb  British  Empibb  oveb 
ALL  Indla 719 

1856.  Annexation  of  Oude      ..     ..     719 

1857.  Mutiny  of  the  sepoys.    Loss 

and  recapture  or  Delhi     719,  720 

1858.  Final  suppression  of  the  re- 

bellion by  lord  Clyde  ..  720 
Orsini's    conspiracy    against 

Napoleon  in 720 

Threats  against  England     . .     730 

The  Vcluntetn      720 

Fall  of  lord  Palmerston  . .  721 
Second    ministry     of     lord 

Derby 720 

The   government    of    India 

placed  under  the  Crown  . .  721 
Admission   of  the  Jews  to 

parliament  721 

1869.  New   oath   for  members  of 

parliament         721 

Defeat  of  the  government  on 

reform         721 

Sixth  parliament 721 

Lord     Palmerston's    second 

ministry       721 

War  of  France*  Sardinia,  and 

Austria,  in  Italy 721 

1860.  Enterprise      of      Garibaldi. 

Liberation  of  the  two  SicUies    723 

1861.  The  kingdom  of  Italy  . .     . .     722 
Great  prosperity.    Financial 

measures  of  Mr.  Gladstone    722 

1860.  Mr.     Cobden's     commercial 

treaty  with  France     ..     ..  722 

End  of  the  Chinese  wars      . .  723 

1861.  Death  of  the  Prince  Consort  723 

1862.  Second  Exhibition  of  Industry  723 
1861-5.  American  civil  war    . .     . .  723 

Cotton  famine  in  Lancashire  723 
1864-6.  The     Danish    war     about 

Schleswig-Holstein    ..     ..724 

1866.  Death  of  lord  Palmerston   . .  734 

Review  of  his  r.tlninistration  724 

Earl  Russell's  second  ministry  726 

1866.  Seventh  parliament       ..     ..  72S 

Reform  Bill  defeated     736 

Lord  Derby's  third  adminia- 

tration 785 

War  of   Prussia  and   Italy 

against  Austria t38 

BaUle  of  SmJohjo 736 

Supremacy  of  Pruss^n 736 

Venetia  united  to  It  a!  ;        ..  t9i 


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C30NTENTS. 


XXXV 


A.D      ^ ^       ^  PAQB 

l8Ct  BttootA  Mfom  Or  pttUuMDl  Y96 
1867  S.  Expedition  to  AfyasIniA  ..  YM 
1866-7.  Fenian  agiUtion  in  Ireland  736 
1868.  AboUtionof  pablicexecations  726 
Mr.  DisraelPB  first  adminis- 
tration   *  726 

Ministry  of  Mr.  Oladatooe  ..    727 
Eighth  paHiawient        ..     ..    727 
1866.  Disestabliiilimeni  of  the  Irish 

chnrch 727 

Imprisonment  for  debt  abo- 

ifiaied 727 

Abolition  of  religions  tests  tai 

the  universities 727 

1910.  Irish  Land  Act       727 

IfatUmal  Education  Act      ..    737 
War    between    France    and 
(termany.     Capture     and 
deposition  of  Napoleon  HL    727 

1871.  Siege  of  Paris 728 

I'eace  cf  VenaHUi       ..     ..    728 
William  L  proclaimed  Qennan 

emperor       728 

1873.  Death  of  Uie  ez-emperwr  Na- 
poleon   728 

1873-8.   Snbeeqnent  history  of  the 

French  republic 728 

1870.  New  treaties  for  the  indepen- 

dence of  Belgium      ..     ..    729 

1871.  Purchase  of  army  commisiioiiB 

abolished      729 

Russia  gets  rki  of  the  neu- 
trality of  the  Black  Sea    ..  729 
lllneesofthe  prince  of  Wales  729 

1872.  The  Alabama  daimM    ..     . .  729 
Act  for  ballot  at  parliamentary 

elections       729 

1873.  Mr.  Oladstoiie's  Irish  Unirer- 

slty  BiU  deiieated       ..     ..    730 
Act  for  a  Suprtme  Qmrt  tjf 

JudiaUure 730 

1873-i.  The  AfJkantoe  ITar    ..     ..    730 

1874.  Oonserrative  reaction.  Sudden 

dissolution  of  parliament . .  730 
Mr.  Disraeli's  second  adminis- 
tration    730 

JVinih  parUameiU 731 

Annexation  of  the  FUi  Islands  731 

1875.  New  sinking  ftind 731 

Prince  of  Wales  in  India     . .  731 

1876.  Lord  Lytton  viceroy  of  India  732 
The  oueen  proclaimed 

Emf&bsb  or  India      . .    732 
Purchase  of  shares  in  theSoes 

Canal     732 

Mr.   Disraeli   made   earl    of 

Beaoonsfleld        732 

Afbirs  of  Turkey 732 

1876.  War  with  ServU  and  Mon- 

732 


AJk  PAOB 

Atrodtlei  in  Bolgana  . .  . .  732 
Designs  of  Russia.  Conference 

at  Constantinople      ..     ..  733 

1877.  War  of  Russia,  Roumania,  and 

Servia  against  Turkey        .  733 
Approach  of  the  Russians  to 

Constantinople 734 

1878.  ParliMnent  summoned  ..  ..  734 
Divisions  in  the  cabinet  . .  734 
The  British  fleet  in  the  Sea  of 

Marmora      ..     734 

Treaty  of  San  Ste&no  ..     ..  734 

English  preparations    . .     . .  735 

Lord  Salisbury's  circular     . .  735 

Congress  and  Treaty  qf  BtrHm  735 
Defensive    alliance    between 

Great  Britain  and  Turkey  737 

British  occupation  of  Cyprus  737 

The  second  Afghan  War     . .  737 

Depression  of  trade      . .     . .  738 

Death  of  princess  Alice       ..  738 


Review  of  the  period  since 
the  Revolution 738 

Advance  and  security  of  poli- 
tical rights  738 

Growth    of   England    as    a 
European  power 738 

Colonial  and  Indian  empire  . .    738 

Increase  of  trade,  wealth,  and 
population 739 

Potteries.     Cotton  manufao 

tures     739 

1776.  James  Watt's  steam-engines     739 

Spinning  machines  of  Har- 
greaves  and  Crompton      . .     739 
1756-9.  Canals.       The     duke     of 

Bridgewater        739 

Roads    and  coaches.     Mao- 
Adam    739 

1801.  First  act  for  a  pubUc  railway    739 

Mall  coaches.     Old  and  new 

postal  systems 740 

crease  in  steam- vessels  since 
1816       740 

Other  recent  inventions       . .    740 

Foreign  commerce.    Results 
of  free  trade  740 

Increase  of  population.    The 
decennial  census        . .     . .    740 

Increase  and  reduction  of  the 
National  Debt     741 

Moral    condition.      Religion 
and  missions       743 

Mitigation   of   the   criminal 
law.    Education        ..     ..     743 

Literature  and  art 744 


HOTBS  AND  ILLnSTRATlONa 

A.PoorU«i     .     »     M     ..     74B    I    D.  AothoritlM  for  tbe 

B.  Corn  Uwi     .......     ~     »..    746  Book  VI •     » 

CVcv^atteUvi  M     ........    747        tL  BtatS  0<  ths  B«|if wentaHon 


la 

..    747 
-     ~    74r 


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XXXVl  CONTEinS. 

TABLES. 

FAOI 

Sovereigns  of  KngUnd  since  the  Conquest     749 

The  prindpal  European  Sovereigns  fhnn  the  period  of  the  Conquest         . .     750-753 
The  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  from  the  time  of  the  Reformation         . .     . .     752-753 

GENEALOGICAL  TABLES. 

A  A.  Dewent  of  Victoria  L  from  Egbert 764 

A.  The  House  of  Cerdic       ..            755 

B.  Tbe  Anglo-DaniRblcingsofEngUind 756 

C.  Fnmily  of  Earl  Godwin 756 

D.  The  Norman  line 757 

£.  The  House  of  Plantamnet— 

,.    Part  I.    From  Henry  II.  to  Edward  1 768 

F.  „    Part  II.    Descendants  of  Edward  I.  and  his  brother  Edmund  Crouchbacic  759 

G.  The  House  of  Lancaster.      Descendants   of  John    of   Gaunt.      Also    the 

docendantsof  Thomas  of  Woodstock 760 

H.  The  House  of  York.  Descendants  of  Lionel  of  Antwerp  and  Edmund  I^angley  761 
I.   The  kings  of  France,  from  Philip  III.  to  Charles  VIL  (In  illustration  of  the 

wars  between  England  and  Fiance)      762 

K.  Tlw  House  of  Tudor       763 

L.  Tlie  House  of  Stuart       764 

H.  The  House  of  Brunswick      765 

Also  (in  the  body  of  the  work)— 
The  descendants  of  John  II.  of  France.     (In  illustration  of  the  French  wars 

of  Henry  V.)       197 

I'ho  descendants  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain.     (To  lUnstrate  the  question  of  the 

Spanish  succession) 638 

supplkmbntary  not£8 766 

Indkz      781 


LIST  OF  SEPARATE  MAPS. 

1.  Roman  Britain To  face  16 

2.  Saxon  England ,,  48 

3.  English  Possessions  in  France  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.      \ 

4.  English  Possessions  in  France  at  the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  [    „  112 

1360       .* t 

5.  England  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses „  208 

6.  England  in  the  Great  Rebellion       „  400 

7.  Engli.sh  Possessions  in  North  America ,,         612 

8.  A  Chart  of  the  World,  showing  the  British  Possessions 

and  the  dates  of  acquisition     ,,         7^ 


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HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 


Stonehen;; 


BOOK    I. 

THE  BEITONS,  ROMANS,  and  ANGLO-SAXONS. 

B.C.  55— A.D.  1066. 


CHAPTER  L 

THE  BRITONS   AND  ROMANS. 

§  1.  Earliest  notices  of  Britain.  §  2.  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Britain 
were  Celts  of  the  Cymric  stock.  §  3.  Religion  of  the  Britons.  §  4.  Knights 
and  bards.  §  5.  Manners  and  customs  of  the  Britons.  §  6.  British 
tribes.  §  7.  Casar's  two  invasions  of  Britain.  §  8.  History  till  the 
invasion  of  Claudius.  §  9.  Caractacus.  §  10.  Conquest  of  Mona ; 
Boadicea.  §  11.  Agricola.  §  12.  The  Roman  walls  between  the  Solway 
and  the  Tyne,  and  between  the  Clyde  and  the  Forth.  §  13.  Saxon 
pirates ;  Caran^ius.  §  14.  Picts  and  Scots.  Departure  of  the  Romans. 
§  15.  Appear  to  Aetius.  Groans  of  the  Britons.  The  Saxons  r^ailed  in. 
§  16.  Condition  of  Britain  under  the  Romans.  §  17.  Christianity  io 
Britain. 


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THE  BBITONS  AKD  ROMANa 


Chap.  i. 


§  1.  The  south-western  coasts  of  Britain  were  probably  known  to 
the  Phoenician  merchants  several  centuries  before  the  Christian  era. 
The  Phoenician  colonists  of  Tartessus  and  Gades  in  Spain,  and 
especially  of  Carthage,  were  attracted  to  the  shores  of  Britain  by 
its  abundant  supply  of  tin,  a  metal  of  great  importance  in  antiquity 
from  the  extensive  use  of  bronze  for  the  manufacture  of  weapons  of 
war  and  implements  of  peace.  It  would  seem  that  this  metal  was 
originally  obtained  from  India,  since  the  Grecian  name  for  tin 
is  of  Indian  origin,  and  must  have  been  brought  into  Greece, 
together  with  the  article  itself.*  Accordingly,  when  the  voyagers 
obtained  tin  in  Cornwall  and  Devon,  whose  high  and  indented  shores 
might  easily  be  mistaken  for  islands,  these  parts  were  called  the 
Cassiterides  or  the  Tin-islands,  a  name  by  which  they  were  known 
to  Herodotus  t  in  the  fifth  century  before  the  Christian  era.  Later 
writers  mention  the  Britannic  Islands  as  Albion  and  lernet  in- 
cluding in  the  former  England  and  Scotland,  in  the  latter  Ireland. 
The  origin  of  the  word  Britain  is  di8puted,§  but  that  of  Albion 
is  perhaps  derived  from  a  Celtic  word  signifying  "  white,"  a  name 
probably  given  to  the  island  by  the  Gauls,  who  could  not  fail  to  be 
struck  with  the  chalky  cliffs  of  the  opposite  coast 

In  addition  to  the  Phoenician  merchants,  the  Greek  colonists  of 
Massalia  (Marseilles)  and  Narbo  (Narbonne)  carried  on  a  trade  at 
a  very  early  period  with  the  southern  parts  of  Britain,  by  making 
overland  journeys  to  the  northern  coast  of  GauL  The  principal 
British  exports  seem  to  have  been  tin,  lead,  skins,  slaves,  and  hunt- 
ing-dogs employed  by  the  Celts  in  war.  When  the  Britons 
became  more  civilized,  com  and  cattle,  gold,  silver,  and  iron,  and 
an  inferior  kind  of  pearl,  were  added  to  the  list.  An  interesting 
account  of  the  British  tin-trade  is  given  by  Diodorus  Siculus,  a 
contemporary  of  Julius  C£esar.||  Diodorus  relates  that  the  in- 
habitants near  the  promontory  of  Belerium  (Land's  End),  after  the 
tin  was  formed  into  cubical  blocks,  conveyed  it  in  waggons  to  an 
island  named  Ictis  (supposed  to  be  St.  Michael's  Mount),  since  at 
low  tides  the  space  between  that  island  and  Britain  became  dry. 
At  Ictis  the  tin  was  purchased  by  the  merchants  and  carried  over 
to  GauL 

§  2.  The  fabulous  tale  of  the  colonization  of  the  island  by  Brut 
the  Trojan,  the  great  grandson  of  ^Eneas,  deserves  no  other  attention 
beyond  the  influence  it  has  exercised  on  English  literature.     It 


*  The  Greek  name  for  tin  is  hoMsiterot 
(ftaaairtpot^  which  evidently  comes  from 
the  Sanecrit  koitira. 

t  iiL  116. 

X  The  native  name  of  Ireland  seems  to 
hare  been  Eri,  or  .fiWn,  as  to  thisdaj.  It 


is  also  called  Irit,  Ivemia,  and  Eibemia. 

$  It  is  probably  from  a  Oeltio  word, 
britk  or  brit,  "  pointed,"  because  the  in- 
habitants stained  their  bodies  with  »  blue 
colour  extracted  from  womL 

y  T.22. 


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Chap,  l 


THE  EARLIEST  INHABITAKTS 


8 


lias  no  claim  to  be  admitted  even  as  a  traditional  element  in  the 
history  of  Britain.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  inhabitants 
of  Britain,  when  it  was  first  known,  were  Celts,  who  peopled  the 
island  from  the  neighbouring  continent.  The  Celts  were  divided 
into  t\70  great  branches,  the  Qael  and  the  Cymry,  the  former  of 
whom  now  inhabit  Ireland  and  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  and  the 
latter  the  principality  of  Wales.  It  has  been  thought  by  some 
that  traces  of  an  earlier  Ghtelic  population  might  be  found  in  parts 
of  England,  Wales,  and  the  Scottish  lowlands;  but  the  more 
cautious  of  modem  enquirers  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the  great 
mass  of  the  Britons,  like  the  Gauls  of  the  continent,  were  Cymry,* 
and  that  the  Welsh  are  descended  from  the  ancient  inhabitant& 
In  proof  of  this  it  may  be  sufficient  to  mention  that  most  of  the 
Celtic  words  which  still  exist  in  the  English  language  are  clearly 
to  be  referred  to  the  Cymric  and  not  to  the  Gaelic  dialect. 

The  Gallic  origin  of  the  ancient  Britons  is  expressly  affirmed  by 
Caesar,  who  says  t  that  the  maritime  parts  of  the  island  were  in- 
habited by  Belgic  Gauls,  who  had  crossed  over  from  the  mainland 
for  the  sake  of  plunder.  The  language,  the  manners,  the  govern- 
ment, the  religion  of  both  were  the  same;  and  many  tribes  in 
Britain  and  Belgic  Gbul  had  similar  names.  But  the  inhabitants  of 
the  interior,  he  adds,  were  indigenous,  according  to  tradition ;  from 
which  we  can  only  infer  that  the  earlier  immigrations  of  the  Celts 
took  place  long  before  the  memory  of  man;  and  that  the  less 
civilized  tribes  had  been  driven  inland  before  the  Belgic  invaders. 
Tacitus,  who  derived  his  information  from  his  father-in-law 
Agricola,  supposed  {  that  the  red  hair  and  large  limbs  of  the 
Caledonians  indicated  a  Germanic  origin ;  and  that  the  dark  com- 
plexion of  the  Silures,  their  curly  hair,  and  their  position  opposite 
to  Spain,  furnished  grounds  for  believing  that  they  were  descended 
from  Iberian  settlers  from  that  country.  But  these  are  evidently 
mere  conjectures,  to  which  Tacitus  himself  seems  to  have  attached 
little  importance,  for  he  adds  that  upon  a  careful  estimate  of 
probabilities  we  must  believe  that  it  was  the  Gkiuls  who  took 
possession  of  the  neighbouring  coast.§ 

§  3.  The  connection  of  the  Britons  with  the  Celts  of  (Jaul  is  further 
shown  by  their  common  religion.  Cajsar,  indeed,  was  of  opinion 
that  Druidism  had  its  origin  in  Britain,  and  was  transplanted  thence 
into  Gaul ;  and  it  is  certain  that  in  his  time  Britain  was  the  chief 


*  This  istbe  pliml  of  the  Wdab  Ofmr^; 
and  the  country  of  Wales  Is  called  CjfmHi 

federation),  Latiniied  into  Cambria. 

t  Bell.  Oall.  T.  12.  Belgic  Oaul  watthe 
tBgion  between  the  Rhine,  the  Seine,  and 
(be  Marne.    Its  people,  the  Be2^  were 


a  sitperior  race  to  the  QaUi  between  the 
Seine,  the  Marne,  and  the  Loire. 

%  Agrlcol.  o.  11. 

0  The  question  of  an  Iberian,  or  Basque, 
settlement  in  the  sooth-west  is  still  open 
to  discnssion. 


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4  THE  BRITONS  Ain>  ROMANS.  Chap,  l 

seat  of  tho  religion  and  the  principal  school  where  it  was  taught. 
But  this  circumstance  only  shows  that  tho  common  faith  of  the 
Celt  had  been  preserved  in  its  greatest  purity  by  the  remotest 
and  most  ancient  tribes,  who  had  been  driven  by  the  tide  of  emi- 
•  gration  into  this  island. 

The  religion  of  the  Britons  was  a  most  important  part  of  their 
government,  and  the  Druids,  who  were  their  priests,  possessed  great 
authority  among  them.  Besides  ministering  at  the  altar  and 
directing  all  religious  duties,  they  presided  over  the  education  of 
the  youth;  they  enjoyed  immunity  from  war  and  taxes;  they 
possessed  both  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction;  they  decided  all 
controversies  between  states  as  well  as  among  private  persons,  and 
whoever  refused  to  submit  to  their  decrees  was  subjected  to  the 
severest  penalties.  The  sentence  of  excommunication  was  pro- 
nounced against  the  offender;  he  was  forbidden  access  to  the 
sacrifices  or  public  worship ;  he  was  debarred  all  intercourse  with 
his  fellow-citizens ;  he  was  refused  the  protection  of  the  law ;  and 
death  itself  became  an  acceptable  relief  from  the  misery  and  infamy 
to  which  he  was  exposed.  Thus  the  bonds  of  government,  which 
were  naturally  loose  among  so  rude  and  turbulent  a  people,  were 
strengthened  by  the  terrors  of  religion. 

No  species  of  superstition  was  ever  more  terrible  than  that  of  the 
Druids.  Besides  the  severe  penalties  which  it  was  in  the  power  of 
the  priests  to  inflict  in  this  world,  they  are  said  to  have  inculcated 
the  eternal  transmigration  of  souls.  They  practised  their  rites  in 
dark  groves  or  other  secret  recesses.  To  throw  a  greater  mystery 
over  their  religion,  they  communicated  their  doctrines  to  the 
initiated  only,  and  strictly  forbade  them  to  be  committed  to 
writing.  In  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life,  however,  when  writing 
was  necesMiry,  they  employed  Greek  characters  or  a  sort  of 
hieroglyphics  formed  from  the  figures  of  plants.  Of  the  nature 
of  their  rites,  except  their  veneration  for  the  oak  and  the  mistletoe, 
little  is  known.  When  a  mistletoe  was  discovered  growing  upon  an 
oak,  a  priest  severed  it  with  a  golden  knife ;  on  which  occasion 
a  festival  was  held  under  the  tree,  and  two  milk-white  bulls  were 
offered  in  sacrifice.  The  Druids  worshipped  a  plurality  of  gods,  to 
whom  Cajsar,  after  the  Roman  fashion,  applies  the  names  of  the 
deities  of  his  own  country.  The  attributes  of  the  god  chiefly 
worshipped  among  them  appear  to  have  resembled  those  of  Mercury.* 


*  The  stupendous  ruins  of  StonehenRe, 
situated  in  Salisbury  Plain,  and  of  Ave- 
bury,  in  Wiltshire,  were  formerly  sup- 
posed to  be  the  remains  of  Druidical 
temples,  but  they  are  not  mentioned  by 


to  what  age  we  should  refer  these  and  other 
rude  stone  monuments  of  the  pre-historic 
Britons,  such  as  the  cromlecki^  which 
were  once  called  Druidical  altars,  but  are 
now  proved  to  have  been  tombs.    In  the 


any  ancient  writer.    It  is  quite  uncertain  '  compound  word  ktone-henge^  the  latter 


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Chap.  i. 


THE  DRuroa 


They  inculcated  reverence  for  law  and  fortitude  under  suffering. 
They  taught  their  disciples  to  observe  the  stars  and  to  investigate 
the  secret  powers  of  nature.  A  term  of  twenty  years  was  commonly 
devoted  to  the  acquisition  of  the  knowledge  which  they  imparted. 
They  chose  their  own  high-priest,  but  the  election  was  not 
unfrequently  decided  by  arms. 

In  some  countries,  human  sacrifices  formed  one  of  the  most 
sanguinary  features  of  Drnidical  worship.  The  victims  were 
generally  criminals,  or  prisoners  of  war,  but,  in  default  of  these, 
innocent  persons  were  sometimes  immolated;  and  in  the  larger 
sacrifices  immense  figures  made  of  plaited  osiers  were  filled  with 
human  beings  and  then  set  on  fire.  The  spoils  of  war  were  often 
devoted  by  the  Druids  to  their  divinities ;  and  they  punished  with 
horrible  tortures  all  those  who  dared  to  secrete  any  portion  of  the 
consecrated  offering.  These  treasures,  kept  in  woods  and  forests, 
were  secured  by  no  other  guard  than  the  terrors  of  religion ;  and 
this  conquest  over  human  cupidity  may  be  regarded  as  more 
extraordinary  than  any  acts  of  courage  and  self-devotion  to  which 
men  were  prompted  by  their  exhortations.  No  idolatrous  worship 
ever  obtained  such  an  ascendancy  over  mankind  as  that  of  the 
ancient  Grauls  and  Britons ;  and  the  Romans,  finding  it  imix)8sible 
after  their  conquest  to  reconcile  these  nations  to  the  laws  and 
institutions  of  their  masters,  so  long  as  Druidism  maintained  its 
authority,  were  at  last  obliged  to  abolish  it  by  military  force ;  a 
violence  which  had  never  in  any  other  instance  been  practised  by 
these  tolerating  conquerors. 

§  4.  The  British  bards  were  a  sacred  order  next  to  the  Druids. 
They  sung  the  genealogies  of  their  princes,  and  comiwsed  lyric  as 
well  as  epic  and  didactic  poetry,  accompanying  their  songs  with  an 
instrument  called  the  chrotta  or  crowder.  Next  to  the  Druids,  the 
chief  authority  was  jwssessed  by  their  chieftains,  or  heads  of  their 
clans — the  equity's,  as  Ccesar  calls  them.* 

§  5.  Abeady,  before  the  arrival  of  Cfesar,  the  south-eastern  parts  of 
Britain  had  made  the  first  and  most  requisite  step  towards  a  civil 
settlement;  and  the  Belgic  Britons,  by  tillage  and  agriculture, 
had  greatly  increased.  Other  inhabitants  of  the  island  still  main- 
tained themselves  by  pasture:  they  were  clothed  with  skins  of 
beasts:  they  dwelt  in  round  huts  constructed  of  wood  or  reeds, 
reared  in  the  forests  and  marshes  with  which  the  country 
abounded.    They  easily  shifted  their  habitations,  actuated  either  by 


half,  henge.  probably  signifies  the  impost, 
wbkli  is  suapcnded  on  two  uprights,  and 
ooDsequently  the  word  might  be  iii*ed 
in  any  oase  in  wjiich  one  atone  was  sus- 


pended on  two  or  more  others. — Gaeai 
in   Proceedings  qf  Pkilologioal  Society^ 
vol.  vi.  p.  33 
•  De  Bell  GaU.  vl  13-17. 


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6  THE  BRITONS  AND  ROMAl^a  Ohap.  I. 

the  hopes  of  plunder  or  the  fear  of  an  enemy.  Even  the  convenienoe 
of  feeding  their  cattle  was  a  sufficient  motive  for  removing ;  and  as 
they  were  ignorant  of  all  the  refinements  of  life,  their  wants  and , 
their  possessions  were  equally  scanty  and  limited. 

The  Britons  tattooed  their  bodies,  staining  them  blue  and  green 
with  woad,  as  a  sort  of  "  war-paint ; "  a  custom  long  retained  by 
the  Picts.  They  wore  checkered  mantles  like  the  Gaul  or  Scottish 
Highlander;  their  waists  were  circled  with  a  girdle,  and  metal 
chains  adorned  the  breast.  The  hair  and  moustache  were  suffered 
to  grow,  and  a  ring  was  worn  on  the  middle  finger,  after  the 
fashion  of  the  Grauls.  Their  arms  were  a  small  shield,  javelins, 
and  a  pointless  sword.  They  fought  from  chariots  (esseda,  covihi) 
having  scythes  affixed  to  the  axles.  The  warrior  drove  the  chariot, 
and  was  attended  by  a  servant  who  carried  his  weapons.  The 
dexterity  of  the  driver  excited  the  admiration  of  the  Romans.  He 
would  urge  his  horses  at  full  speed  down  the  steepest  hills  or  along 
the  edge  of  a  precipice,  and  check  and  turn  them  in  full  career. 
Sometimes  he  would  run  along  the  pole,  or  seat  himself  on  the 
yoke,  and  instantly,  if  necessary,  regain  the  chariot.  Frequently 
after  breaking  the  enemy's  ranks  he  would  leap  down  and  fight  on 
foot;  meanwhile  the  chariot  was  withdrawn  from  the  fray,  and 
posted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  afford  a  secure  retreat  in  case  of 
need.  Thus  the  Britons  were  enabled  to  combine  the  rapid  evolu- 
tions of  cavalry  with  the  steady  firmness  of  infantry.  GaBsai 
describes  the  British  towns  as  mere  clusters  of  huts,  defended  by 
their  position  in  the  centre  of  almost  impenetrable  forests.  They 
were  secured  by  a  deep  ditch,  and  a  fence  or  wall  of  felled  trees.* 

§  6.  The  Britons  were  divided  into  many  small  nations  or  tribes, 
As  their  chief  property  consisted  in  their  arms  and  their  cattle,  it 
was  impossible,  after  they  had  acquired  a  relish  for  liberty,  for  their 
princes  or  chieftains  to  establish  despotic  authority  over  them. 
Their  governments,  though  monarchical,  were  free,  like  those  of 
other  Celtic  nations ;  and  the  common  people  seem  to  have  enjoyed 
more  freedom  than  among  the  nations  of  (Jaul  from  whom  they 
were  descended.  Each  state  was  divided  into  factions :  it  was 
agitated  with  jealousy  or  animosity  against  its  neighbour:  and 
while  the  arts  of  peace  were  yet  unknown,  war  was  the  main 
occupation,  and  formed  the  chief  object  of  ambition,  among  the 
people.t 


*  But  Cesar's  observation  was  limited, 
and  British  earthworlcs,  enclosing  per- 
manent habitaUons,  are  found  in  open 
situations,  and  especially  on  bill-tops. 

f  Tbe  British  tribes  with  whom  the 
Romans  became  acquaiuted  by  Caesar's 


Invasfoo  were  mainly  the  following:— 

1.  The  Oanta,  under  four  prinoee,  in* 
habited  Kent.  They  derived  their  name 
fhnn  the  Celtic  Oaint,  or  open  country. 

2.  The  Trinobantci  were  seated  to  the 
north  of  tbe  Thamee,  and  between  that 


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B.O.  66-64.  CiESAR'S  INVASIONa  7 

§  7.  At  the  close  of  the  fourth  campaign  in  his  Gkillic  war% 
GiBSAB  invaded  Britain  with  two  legions  in  the  end  of  August, 
B.O.  55.  Aware  of  his  intention,  the  natives  were  sensible  of  the 
'  unequal  contest,  and  endeavoured  in  vain  to  appease  him  by  sub- 
mission. After  some  resistance,  he  landed,  with  two  legions  (about 
8000  men),  either  at  or  near  Deal,*  obtained  some  advantage  over 
the  Britons,  obliged  them  to  promise  hostages  for  their  future 
obedience,  but  was  constrained  by  the  necessity  of  his  affairs  and 
the  approach  of  winter,  to  withdraw  his  forces  into  Gaul.  Believed 
from  the  terror  of  his  arms,  the  Britons  neglected  the  performance 
of  their  stipulations ;  and  Cassar  resolved  next  summer  (b.c.  54)  to 
chastise  them  for  their  perfidy.  He  landed  unopposed,  apparently  at 
the  same  spot,  with  five  legions,  numbering  above  20,000  men ;  and 
though  he  found  a  more  regular  resistance  from  the  Britons,  who 
were  now  united  under  Cassivelaunus,t  one  of  their  petty  princes, 
he  discomfited  them  in  every  action.  Advancing  into  the  country, 
he  passed  the  Thames  in  the  face  of  the  enemy  at  a  ford,  probably 
Cowey  Stakes,  just  above  Walton,  in  spite  of  the  piles  which  the 
Britons  had  driven  into  the  bed  of  the  river.J  The  valiant  defence 
of  Cassivellaun  was  frustrated  by  the  submission  of  the  Trinobantes 
and  other  tribes.  Caesar  took  and  burned  the  forest  fortress  at 
Verulamium,  the  modern  St.  Albans  ;  restored  his  own  ally, 
Mandubratius,  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Trinobantes ;  and  having 
compelled  the  inhabitants  to  fresh  submission,  he  returned  with 
his  army  into  Gaul. 

§  8.  The  civil  wars  which  ensued  prepared  the  way  for  the 
establishment  of  imperialism  in  Rome,  and  saved  the  Britons  from 
the  impending  yoke.  Augustus  was  content  with  levying  duties 
on  British  commerce  in  the  ports  of  Graul,  and  with  embassies 
sent  from  the  island.  Apprehensive  lest  the  same  unlimited  extent 
of  dominion,  which  had  subverted  the  republic,  might  also  over- 
whelm the  empire,  he  recommended  his  successors  never  to  enlarge 
the  territories  of  the  Romans.  Tiberius,  jealous  of  the  fame  which 
might  be  acquired  by  his  generals,  made  the  advice  of  Augustus  a 
pretext  for  inactivity.  Almost  a  century  elapsed  before  another 
Boman  force  appeared  in  Britain;    but  the  natives  during  this 


liver    and    the   Stour,   In   the  preeent 
ooonttes  of  Middlesex  and  Essex. 

3.  The  nsnimo^m,  perhaps  the  same  as 
the  Iceni  of  Tiicitus,  dwelt  in  Norfolk, 
Suffolk,  and  Cambridgeshire. 

4.  The  Heffontiaci  inhabited  parU  of 
Hants  and  Berks. 

6.  The  AncaUtes  and  BUfrod  inhabited 
parts  of  Berks  and  WUts. 
«.  Tb«  auti<  appear  to  have  beea  the 


tribe  of  which  GaasiTelaanns  was  the 
chief,  and  the  same  as  the  catuveUauni  in 
Herts,  with  their  capital  at  Vemlamiam. 

*  8ee  Notes  and  IliustraUons  (A). 

t  Later  Welsh  writers  caU  him 
Ccuwallon, 

%  The  historian  Bede  menttons  tbe  re- 
mains of  these  piies  as  existing  in  his  owb 
time,  in  the  eighth  centoiy. 


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8 


THE  BRITONS  AND  ROMANa 


Obap.  t. 


Gold  Goln  of  Cunobelln  or  Cnnobelinus. 
Obverse :  (r]Aiiv  (C^ttinulodunuin);  ear  of  com. 
Rever«e :  cvno  (^Cunobelinua) ;  horse  to  right. 


period  kept  up  an  intercourse  with  Rome.  By  this  means,  as 
well  as  from  their  commerce  with  Gaul,  where  the  Roman  power 
had  been  completely  established,  they  derived  some  tincture  of 
Roman  civilization;  and  the  coins  of  Cunol>elin,  the  Oymbeline  of 

8hakesi)eare,  who  ruled  at 
Cam  ulod  unum  (  Colches- 
ter\  as  well  ns  those  of 
TasciovanuK,  probably  his 
father,  display  the  influ* 
ence  of  Roman  art,*  and 
a  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
alphabet. 

The  mad  sallies  of  Cali- 
gula, in  which  he  menaced 
Britain  with  invasion,  served  only  to  expose  himself  and  the  empire 
to  ridicule.  At  length  a  British  exile  named  Bcricus  instigated  the 
emperor  Claudius  to  undertake  the  reduction  of  the  island,  and 
AuLus  Plautius  was  des|Mitched  thither  (a.d.  43)  at  the  head 
of  four  legions,  augmented  with  Gallic  auxiliaries.  He  marched 
through  the  southern  counties  to  the  Thames,  which  he  crossed, 
probably  at  Walliogford,  gaining  a  great  battle  over  the  sons  of 
Ciinol)elin,  and  pursued  the  Britons  to  the  marshes  about  London.f 
Claudius  himself,  finding  matters  sufficiently  prepared  for  his  re- 
ception, took  a  journey  into  Britain  and  received  the  submission  of 
sc'veral  British  states, the  Cantii,  Atrebates,  Regni,  and  Trinobantes, 
who  were  induced  by  their  possessions  and  more  cultivated  manner 
of  life  to  purchase  f)eace  at  the  expense  of  liberty.  Claudius  took  the 
city  of  Camulodunum  (^Colchester)y  where  a  colony  of  veterans  was 
subsequently  established;  and  the  south-eastern  |iarts  of  Britain 
were  formed  into  a  Roman  province.t  ^^  tlds  invasion  Vespasian, 
the  future  emperor,  distinguished  himself,  and  at  the  head  of  the 
Second  Legion  fought  thirty  battles,  stormed  twenty  towns,  and 
subdued  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

§  0.  The  other  Britons,  under  the  command  of  Caractacus,  a  son 
of  Cunobelln,   still   maintained   an   obstinate   resistance,  and   the 


•  There  are  many  other  coins,  inscribed 
with  names  of  British  princes,  furnishing 
materials  for  a  conjectural  account  of  the 
political  state  of  various  tribes.  Others, 
the  rudeness  of  which  shows  native  work- 
manship, confirm  Caesar's  statement  that 
the  Britons  used  money  before  liis  invasion. 
(Bell.  Gall.  v.  12,  where  nummo  a "r«/ is  the 
genuine  reading  )  Their  types,  borrowed 
from  Greek  coins,  seem  to  prove  that  the 
«rt  WM  derived  from  the  Ureek  colonies 


in  Southern  OauL— See  Evans's  Ancient 
British  Coins. 

t  There  is  some  reason  to  suppose  that 
London  (/.^ndtntum,  "the  hiU  of  the 
marsh")  had  its  origin  from  the  camp 
which  Claudius  pitch«>d  on  the  high 
ground  of  the  present  city,  which  then 
rose  above  the  marshes  formed  by  the 
unembanked  Thames. 

J  Of  course  the  emperor  claimed  all 
Britain  as  belonging  to  this  provinot. 


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AJi.  43-61. 


ROMAN  CONQUEST. 


Romans  now  made  little  progress  till  Obtobius  Scapula  was  sent 
over  (a.d.  50).  Uuder  Scapula  a  line  of  Roman  camps  was  drawn 
across  the  island,  from  the  Severn  to  the  marshes  of  the  Nen.  The 
Iceni*  were  reduced  after  a  desperate  and  brilliant  struggle;  the 
league  of  tbe  Brigautes  f  was  surprised  and  dispersed  by  the  rapid 
march  of  the  Roman  general,  and  the  Roman  eagles  dominated  over 
the  greater  part  of  Britain.  But  the  Silures  and  Ordovices  J  still  held 
out,  and  it  was  not  till  after  nine  years  of  warfare  that  the  camp 
of  Oaractacus  was  stormed,  and  his  residence  was  captured  by  tbe 
Romans,  and  with  it  his  wife  and  family.§  Caractacus  himself 
sought  shelter  at  the  court  of  Gartismandua,  queen  of  the  Brigantes, 
whom  he  had  formerly  befriended,  but  by  whom  he  was  treacher- 
ously surrendered  to  the  conquerors  (a.d.  50).  He  was  conveyed 
to  Rome,  where  his  magnanimous  behaviour  procured  him  better 
treatment  than  the  Romans  usually  bestowed  on  captive  princes. 
But  even  after  the  capture  of  their  leader  the  Silures  still  held  out, 
and  offered  so  determined  a  resistance  that  Ostorius  is  said  to  have 
died  of  vexation. 

§  10.  ITie  Romans  did  little  towards  the  further  subjugation  of 
the  island  till  the  appointment  of  Suktonius  Paulinus,  in  the 
reign  of  Nero,  a.d.  58.  After  three  years  of  successful  warfare, 
he  resolved  on  reducing  the  island  of  Mona,  or  Anglesey,  the  chief 
seat  of  the  Druids,  which  afforded  a  shelter  to  the  disaffected  Britons. 
The  infantry  crossed  the  strait  in  shallow  vessels,  taking  the 
cavalry  in  tow  where  tbe  water  was  too  deep  to  afford  a  footing  for 
the  horses.  The  Britons  endeavoured  to  obstruct  their  landing  by 
force  of  arms  and  the  terrors  of  religion.  Women  intermingled  with 
the  soldiers  ran  up  and  down  with  flaming  torches  in  their  hands, 
and,  tossing  their  dishevelled  hair,  struck  no  less  terror  into  the 
astonished  Romans  by  their  bowlings  and  their  cries,  than  did  the 
solemn  array  of  the  Druids,  with  uplifted  arms,  uttering  prayers 
and  imprecations  on  the  invaders.  But  Suetonius,  exhortmg  his 
troops  to  disregard  tbe  menaces  of  a  superstition  they  despised,  im- 
l^elled  them  to  the  attack,  drove  the  Britons  off  the  field,  burned 
the  Druids  in  the  fires  they  had  prepared  for  their  enemies, 
destroyed  the  consecrated  groves  and  altars  ;  and  having  thus 
triumphed  over  the  religion  of  the  Britons,  he  thought  his  future 
progress  would  be  easy  in  reducing  the  people  to  subjection.  But 
the  Britons,  taking  advantage  of  his  absence,  rose  in  arms ;  and, 
headed  by  Boadicea,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  whose  daughters  had  beeik 


*  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Cambridgeshire, 
f  Between  the  Humber  and  the  Tjne. 
i  The  Silures  inhabited  South  Wales; 
the  Ordovices  North  Wales. 


^  Perhaps  Caer  CaradoCt  situated  on  a 
hlU  in  Shropshire  near  the  conflueooe  of 
the  Clan  and  Teme. 


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10 


THE  BRITONS  AND  BOMANa 


Chap,  l 


defiled  and  herself  scourged  with  rods  by  the  Roman  tribunee, 
sacked  and  burnt  Oamulodunum,  the  colony  of  their  insulting 
conquerors.  Suetonius  hastened  to  the  protection  of  London, 
already  a  flourishing  commercial  town ;  but  found  on  his  arrival 
that  it  would  be  requisite  for  the  general  safety  to  abandon  the 
city  to  the  merciless  fury  of  the  enemy.  London  was  reduced  to 
ashes;  such  of  the  inhabitants  as  remained  in  it  were  cruelly 
massacred  ;  the  Romans  and  all  other  strangers  were  put  to  the 
sword  without  distinction.  The  same  fate  befel  Verulamium.  No 
less  than  70,000  ))ersons  su£fered  death,  with  cruel  tortures,  in  the 
sack  of  the  three  cities ;  and  the  Britons,  by  rendering  the  war  thus 
bloody,  seemed  determined  to  cut  off  all  hopes  of  peace  or  com- 
position with  the  enemy.  This  cruelty  was  revenged  by  Suetonius 
in  a  great  and  decisive  battle  (a.d.  61),  where  80,000  of  the  Britons 
are  said  to  have  perished.  Boadicea  herself,  rather  than  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  eilraged  victor,  put  an  end  to  her  life  by  poison. 
Suetonius  was  recalled  soon  after. 

§  11.  After  a  brief  interval  Gerialis  received  the  command  from 
Vespasian  (a.d.  70),  and  by  his  bravery  propagated  the  terror  of  the 
Roman  arms.  Julius  Frontinus  succeeded  Cerialis  both  in  authority 
and  reputation  ;  but  the  man  who  finally  established  the  dominion 
of  the  Romans  in  this  island  was  Julius  Aoricola,  who  governed 
it  seven  years  (a.d.  78-85),  in  the  reigns  of  Vespasian,  Titus,  and 
Domitian.    • 

This  able  general  formed  a  regular  plan  for  subjugating  Britain, 
and  rendering  its  acquisition  useful  to  the  conquerors.  After  sub- 
duing the  Ordovices,  and  again  reducing  Mona,  which  had  revolted, 
he  carried  his  victorious  arms  northwards.  In  the  third  yeiir  of  his 
government  he  marched  far  into  Caledonia,  the  region  now  culled 
Scotland ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  erected  a  line  of  fortresses 
between  the  firths  of  the  Clyde  and  the  Forth.  He  extended  his 
conquests  along  the  western  shores  of  Britain,  and  even  meditated 
an  expedition  into  Ireland.  In  the  sixth  and  seventh  years  of  his 
administration  he  made  two  incursions  into  Caledonia,  in  the  latter  of 
which  he  gained  a  great  and  decisive  victory  over  the  inhabitants 
under  their  leader  Ghilgacus,  at  the  foot  of  the  highland  hills.* 
During  the  last  year  of  his  government  his  fleet  took  possession  of 
the  Orkneys,  and  confirmed  the  opinion  that  Britain  was  an  island. 

But  whilst  occupied  with  these  military  enterprises  he  neglected 
not  the  refinements  of  peace.    He  introduced  laws  and  civilization 


*  Hm  place  of  the  battle  la  onkDown. 
The  Mont  Orampitu  (or.  aa  the  best  MSS. 
haT«  a,  Onmpiui)  of  Tadtua  baa  no 
name  anawering  to  it  in  native  Scotch 


geography;  tmt,  at  the  revival  of  learning, 
the  name  waa  tranaferred  from  the  paget 
of  TacUui  to  the  range  now  called  the 
Orampiana. 


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A.D.  61-286. 


AGRICOLA — CARAUSIUa 


11 


among  the  Britons,  taught  them  the  arts  and  conveniences  of  life, 
reconciled  them  to  the  Roman  language  and  manners,  instructed  them 
in  letters  and  science,  and  employed  every  expedient  to  render  the 
chains  which  he  had  forged  for  them  hoth  easy  and  agreeable. 
Taught  by  experience  how  unequal  their  own  force  was  to  resist 
the  Romans,  the  inhabitants  gradually  acquiesced  in  the  dominion 
of  their  masters,  and  were  incorporated  into  that  mighty  empire. 

§  12.  This  was  the  last  durable  conquest  made  by  the  Romans ; 
and  Britain,  once  subdued,  gave  no  further  disquietude  to  the  victor. 
The  Caledonians  alone,  defended  by  barren  mountains,  sometimes 
infested  the  more  cultivated  parts  of  the  northern  frontiers.  To 
repel  their  attacks,  Hadrian,  who  visited  this  island  (a.d.  120),  built 
a  stone  wall  and  an  earthen  rampart  between  the  river  Tyne  and 
the  Sol  way  Firth,  called  the  Roman  or  Picts'  Wall,  of  which  con- 
siderable remains  still  exist*  Lollius  Urbicus  (a.d.  139),  under 
Antoninus  Pius,  erected  another  rampart  of  earth  between  the  firth 
of  Forth  and  Alcluith  (Dunbarton)  on  the  Clyde,  called  the  Wall 
of  Antoninus,  and  now  known  by  the  name  of  Qneme's  Dyke.  But 
these  fortifications  did  not  prove  adequate  to  check  the  incursions 
of  the  Caledonians  and  Maeata9,t  who  at  length  became  so  formid- 
able, that  the  propraetor,  Virius  Lupus,  was  not  only  obliged  to  buy 
off  their  attacks,  but  even  to  solicit  the  presence  of  the  aged  emperor 
Severus  himself.  Severus  came  accordingly,  attended  by  his  two 
sons,  Caracalla  and  Gbta  (aj>.  208);  and,  although  he  was  so 
afflicted  with  the  gout  that  it  was  necessary  to  carry  him  in  a 
litter,  he  proceeded  through  an  almost  impassable  country  to  the 
extremity  of  the  island,  with  the  loss  of  50,000  men.  Having  made 
a  treaty  at  the  frith  of  Cromarty  with  the  natives,  by  which  they 
agreed  to  cede  a  considerable  portion  of  their  territory,  he  returned 
to  York,  where  he  shortly  afterwards  expired,  a.d.  211.  Imme- 
diately after  his  death,  his  son  Caracalla,  eager  to  grasp  the  empire, 
enter^  into  a  truce  with  the  northern  tribes,  and  hastened  back  to 
Rome. 

§  13.  Except,  however,  on  its  northern  frontier,  Britain  under  the 
Roman  dominion  enjoyed  profound  tranquillity,  till  in  the  third 
century  of  our  era  it  began  to  be  disturbed  by  new  enemies.  These 
were  the  Frank  and  Saxon  pirates,  whose  descents  upon  the  eastern 
and  southern  coasts  at  last  became  so  troublesome,  that  the  western 
emperor,  Maximian,  fitted  out  a  fleet  at  Boulogne  for  its  defence 
(a,d.  286  t).    But  his  commander,  Carausius,  fortifying  the  great 


•  Sec  Notes  and  lUustratioiw  (B). 

t  All  the  Britons  north  of  the  Roman 
frontier  were  called  by  the  collective 
name  of  CaUdoniani,    The  M»at»  seem 


to  have  been  the  people  between  the  wallf 
of  Hadrian  and  Antoninos. 

X  A  century  later  we  find  this  coast, 
fh>m  the  Wash  to  Sussex,  defended  by  a 


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12 


THE  BRITONS  AND  ROMANS. 


Chap,  i. 


power  with  which  he  was  thus  invested  by  an  alliance  with  the 
Saxons  themselves,  asserted  his  own  supremacy  in  Britain,  and 
thus  Compelled  Maximian  to  acknowledge  him  as  his  associate  in 
the  empire.  In  294  Carausius  was  assassinated  by  his  own  officer 
AUectus,  who  in  turn  usurped  the  imperial  title  and  retained  it  till 
296,  when  he  was  defeated  by  the  army  which  Constantius  Chlonis 
led  against  him.  Constantius  Chlorus  died  at  York,  in  306,  where 
his  son,  Constantine  the  Great,  assumed  the  title  of  Caesar. 

§  14.  In  the  early  times  of  the  Roman  dominion  in  Britain,  the 
northern  parts  of  the  island  were  inhabited  by  the  Caledonians  and 
Maeata3,  but  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  these  names 
were  supplanted  by  the  Picts  and  Scots,  wild  and  savage  tribes, 
whose  destructive  inroads  were  long  a  terror  to  the  civilized  inhabi- 
tants of  Britain.  The  name  of  Picts  (Pictiy  i.e.  painted)  appears 
to  have  been  only  a  new  Latin  term  for  those  ancient  Caledonian 
tribes  who  preserved  their  independence  under  the  llomans,  and 
maintained  possession  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  island  till  the 
later  invasion  of  the  Irish  Scots.*  All  ancient  writers  agree  in 
representing  Ireland  as  the  proper  home  of  the  Scots ;  and  for 
several  centuries  that  island  bore  the  name  of  Scotia.  The  Scots 
who  invaded  Roman  Britain  appear  to  have  made  their  inroads  by 
sea  on  the  north-western  shores,  having  perhaps  established  them- 
selves on  parts  of  the  Caledonian  coast  and  the  adjacent  islands. 

In  (he  year  367,  under  the  reign  of  Valeutinian  I.,  the  Scots  and 
Picts,  from  the  west  and  north,  and  the  Frank  and  Saxon  pii-ates, 
landing  on  the  south-eastern  shores,  overran  the  Roman  province, 
and  penetrated  as  far  as  London.  They  were  repulsed  the  next 
year  by  'i'heodosius,  father  of  the  emperor  of  the  same  name.  Theo- 
dosius  recovered  the  district  between  the  walls  of  Hadrian  and  An- 
toninus, which  he  named  Valentia,  in  honour  of  his  master.  Under 
bis  son,  Theodosius  I.,  Maximns,  having  gained  great  reputation  in 
fighting  against  the  Picts  and  Scots,  was  saluted  emperor  by  his 
Boldirrs,  established  a  Western  Ronian  o.m\  ire  at  Treves,  and  was 
even  acknowledged  by  Theodosius.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Aquileia  and  put  to  deatli,  a.t>.  388.t 

But  this  enterprise  helped  to  weaken  Britain,  while  she  began 
to  be  more  and  more  infested  by  the  Picts,  Scots,  and  Saxons. 
Stilicho,  the  general  of  Honorins,  afiforded  tcmpor.iry  succour  in  396 ; 
but  soon  afterwards,  Gaul   being  already  overrun   by  the  Alani, 


line  of  caetles,  garrisoned  by  a  legion 
under  a  commander  called  ♦•  Count  of  the 
Saxon  Shore  "  or  "  Border,"  that  is,  the 
coast  exposed  to  the  Saxon  descents. — 
See  Notes  and  Illustrations  try. 


*  See  Notes  and  Illustrations  (D). 

t  The  legend  that  und^r  Maximus  a 
colony  of  British  warriors  established 
itself  in  Armorica  (Brittany)  is  a  men 
fable. 


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AJ>.  410.  THE  ROMANS  RETIBE.  13 

Saevi,  and  Vandals,  he  withdrew  one  legiun  from  Britain,*  and  the 
two  that  remained  appear  to  have  been  led  out  of  the  island  by 
one  of  those  rebellious  officers,  who  successively  assumed  the  title  of 
emperor.  The  year  in  which  Rome  was  sacked  by  the  Groths, 
under  Alaric,  marks  also  her  final  loss  of  Bntain  (a.d.  410). 

§  15.  The  incursions  of  the  northern  barbarians  were  now 
renewed,!  and  in  443  the  unhappy  Britons  made  a  last  appeal 
to  Rome.  AStius  the  patrician  sustained  at  that  time,  by  his 
valour  and  magnanimity,  the  tottering  ruins  of  the  empire,  and 
revived  for  a  moment  among  the  degenerate  Romans  the  spirit,  as 
well  as  the  discipline,  of  their  ancestors.  The  British  ambassadors 
carried  to  him  the  letter  of  their  countrymen,  which  was  inscribed. 
The  Groans  of  the  Bniona,  The  tenor  of  the  epistle  was  suitable 
to  its  superscription.  "The  barbarians,"  say  they,  "on  the  one 
hand  chase  us  into  the  sea;  the  sea  on  the  other  throws  us  back 
upon  the  barbarians ;  and  we  have  only  the  hard  choice  left  us  of 
perishing  by  the  sword  or  by  the  waves.*'  But  Aetius,  pressed  by 
the  arms  of  Attila,  the  most  terrible  enemy  that  ever  assailed  the 
empire,  had  no  leisure  to  attend  to  the  com>ilaints  of  allies  whom 
generosity  alone  could  induce  him  to  assist.  After  forty  years  of 
confusion,  under  the  name  of  independence,  the  despairing  Britons, 
guided,  it  is  said,  by  the  counseb  of  Vortigern,  a  poweiful  prince  in 
the  south  of  Britain,  and  by  the  exam[>le  of  the  Armoricaiis, 
resolved  on  calling  in  the  aid  of  the  piratical  Saxons,  nnd  thus 
repelling,  the  Picts  and  Scots  by  means  of  tribes  as  barbarous  as 
those  by  whom  they  were  molested  (a.d.  449  or  450). 

§  16.  Under  the  Roman  dominion  t  Bntain  had  attained  to 
great  prosperity.  Agriculture  was  carried  to  such  a  pitch,  that  the 
island  not  only  fed  itself,  but  large  quantities  of  grain  were  also 
exported  to  the  northern  provinces  of  the  empire.  Its  builders 
and  artisans  were  in  request  upon  the  continent.  The  country 
was  traversed  by  four  excellent  roads,  constructed  by  the  Komans, 
probably  on  the  lines  of  older  British  roadways.  These  were 
Watling  Street,  leading  from  the  Kentish  coasfc  at  Rutupiae  to 
London,  and  thence  into  Wales,  and,  by  another  branch,  to  the  Wall, 
and  beyond  it  into  Caledonia;  Ikenild  or  Ryknild  Street,  proceeding 


•  The  XXth  I^egion  donbtleM,  which 
doee  not  appear  in  the  NotUia. 

t  The  Btory  of  the  "  Alleluia  ylctory," 
■0  called  becanae  a  party  of  Picts,  ScoU, 
and  Saxons  fled  without  a  blow  when  St. 
Qermain,  bishop  of  Auxerre,  and  his 
priesUi  raised  the  cry  of  ••  Alleluia"  (a.d. 
429),  seems  to  be  a  legendary  addition  to 
the  simple  fust  that  St.  Germain  Tisited 


the  island  to  repress  the  Pelagian  heresy. 
He  came  again  for  the  same  purpose  in 
446,  and  he  may  on  his  return  have  been 
the  bearer  of  the  supplication  to  AStius, 
for  we  know  that  he  died  at  Ravenna 
(the  place  where  Valentinian  III.  held  his 
oonrt)  in  448. 
X  See  Notes  and  Illustrations  (E> 


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14 


THE  BRITONS  AND  ROMANS. 


Chap.  £ 


flx>m  the  Wall  at  the  month  of  the  Tyne,  throngh  York,  Derby,  and 
Birmingham,  to  St  David's ;  Irmin  or  Hermin  Street,  mnning  from 
8t  David's  to  Southampton;  and  the  Fossway,  between  Cornwall 
and  Lincoln ;  besides  a  network  of  minor  roads.  Roman  civilisation 
in  Britain  was  more  complete  than  is  commonly  supposed,  though 
its  traces  are  now  few,  in  comparison  with  those  of  other  provinces. 
Beile,  and  before  him,  Gildas,  speak  of  the  Roman  towns, 
lighthouses,  roads,  and  brtd^^es,  as  existing  in  their  times.  Many 
remains  of  Roman  buildings  were  visible  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  which  have  since  disappeared.  London,  York, 
Chichester,  Chester,  and  Lincoln  retain  portions  of  Roman  walls ; 
the  amphitheatres  of  Dorchester,  Cirencester,  and  Silchester  are 
still  visible.  The  remote  Caerleon  on  the  Usk  (Isca  Silurum\ 
as  well  as  Bath,  had  their  theatres,  temples,  and  palaces.  The 
grand  remains  of  walls  at  Burgh  Castle  (Norfolk),  Richborongh, 
Lymne  (Porttis  Lemanis),  and  Pevensey,  attest  the  strength  of  the 
Roman  castles  on  the  Saxon  coast.  Even  now,  in  London  and  oth^ 
places  once  occupied  by  the  Romans,  if  the  spade  of  the  workman 
penetrates  to  an  unusual  depth  below  the  soil,  fragments  of  pottery, 
tesselated  pavements,  and  other  objects,  are  frequently  discovered, 
which  testify  the  presence  of  its  former  owners.  So  when  the 
Angles  and  Saxons  established  themselves  in  Britain,  they  must 
have  dwelt  among  Roman  remains,  and  gazed  with  wonder  on  the 
magnificent  trophies  of  Roman  art. 

At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  Roman  occu- 
pation of  Britain  was  chiefly  military,  and  that  the  country  was 
never  completely  Romanized  like  the  provinces  of  Gaul  and  Spain. 
The  natives  living  at  a  distance  from  the  towns  continued  to  s^ieak 
their  own  language ;  the  number  of  Latin  words  which  have  found  a 
permanent  place  in  the  Welsh  language  is  comparatively  small ;  and 
almost  the  only  traces  of  the  Roman  occupation,  existing  in  modem 
English,  are  confined  to  the  word  or  termination  Chester,  caster,  &c. 
(from  castra,  "  camp  ")»  which  api^ears  in  Caistor  (near  Norwich), 
Manchester,  Lancaster,  &c.;  to  cdn  (cdonia),  which  is  found  in 
Colchester  and  Lincoln ;  to  foss  {fossa,  "  ditch  "),  in  the  Fossway 
and  Foston ;  and  to  the  two  words  street,  fix)m  stratum  or  strata, 
and  port,  from  partus,  "  harbour.**  *  The  condition  of  England 
under  the  Romans  has  been  well  compared  by  a  modern  writer  to 
that  of  Ireland  as  it  existed  under  English  rule  in  the  17th  century. 
**  The  towns  were  entirely  peopled  by  the  conquerors :  they  alone 


*  All  these  elements  mftrk  military 
oocapation.  WcM^  foand  in  the  namee  of 
places  near  Roman  fortifications,  comes 
probably  from  vaUum,  but  it  has  also  an 


English  root.  Port  appears  also  in 
names,  as  Port^keMter  \  and  port  (ibr 
porta,  gate)  is  used  in  some  cities,  as  ftir 
the  gates  of  Edinburgh. 


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A.D.  180-446.    INTEODUCnON  OP  CHRISTIANITY. 


15 


were  capable  of  holding  municipal  priyileges  or  power:  and  the 
country  was  covered  with  the  houses  of  gentry  and  landholders, 
who  were  all  descended  either  from  the  old  conquerors  or  new 
settlers.  The  peasantry  only  were  British — that  class  who  were  in 
ancient  times  equally  slaves  under  one  race  of  rulers  or  another, 
and  who  were  only  spurn d  into  insurrection  by  political  agitators 
or  by  foreign  invasions.  Still,  as  in  Ireland,  the  \  easantry,  having 
no  attachment  to  their  lords,  were  easily  excited  to  revolt ;  and  a 
successful  inroad  of  the  Caledonians  would  always  be  attended  by 
a  corresponding  agitation  among  the  Britons."  * 

§  17.  Christianity  was  introduced  into  Britain  at  an  early  period; 
in  all  probability,  however,  not  through  Rome,  but  from  the  East, 
by  means  of  tie  Mediterranean  commerce  carried  on  through  GauL 
It  is  known  that  the  latter  country  had  numerous  Christian  congre- 
gations in  the  second  century.  Tradition  ascril^es  the  adoption  of 
Christianiiy  in  Britain  to  a  prince  Lucius,  or  Lever  Maur(the  Great 
Light),  who  flourished  some  time  in  the  latter  half  of  the  second 
century.  Under  Diocletian,  Britain  reckons  the  martyrdom  of  St. 
Alban  at  Verulam,  and  of  Aaron  and  Julius,  two  citizens  of  Caerleon 
on  the  Usk.  This  " city  of  legions''  (Civitas  Legionum)  and  the 
commercial  and  military  capitals  of  London  and  York  (Eboracum) 
are  named  as  the  three  archiepiscopal  sees  of  Britain.  At  the  first 
council  of  Aries,  in  314,  three  British  bishops  appeared,  namely, 
Eborius  of  York,  Resti tutus  of  London,  and  Adelfius,  probably  of 
Caeileon.  In  the  observance  of  Easter  Day  the  British  diifered 
from  the  Romish  and  followed  the  Eastern  church.  The  monastery 
of  Bangor,  near  Chester,  was  founded  at  an  early  period :  its  name 
(ban  gar,  or  "  the  great  choir  ")  was  a  generic  one  for  a  monastery, 
and  thus  we  find  more  than  one  Bangor  in  Britain.  Some  of  the 
British  ecclesiastics  were  famous  for  their  learning  and  acuteoess. 
Pelagius,  the  opponent  of  St.  Augustine,  and  founder  of  the  sect 
whidi  bore  his  name,  is  said  to  have  been  a  Briton  whose  real  name 
was  Morgan  (ue,  "  near  the  sea  "),  whilst  his  disciple  Celestius  was 
an  Irishman.  St.  Germain,  bishop  of  Auxerre,  and  T^upns,  bishop 
of  Troyes,  were  sent  over  to  Britain  by  pope  Celestine  to  confute 
the  Pelagians  in  429 ;  and  St.  Germain  paid  a  second  visit  in  446 
with  Severus,  bishop  of  Treves. 

The  connection  of  Britain  with  the  Western  church  continued  when 
its  political  union  with  Rome  had  been  severed.   Christianity,  extir- 

B,t6d  from  England  by  the  heathen  conquerors,  survived  in  Wales, 
ean while,  at  the  very  time  when  Britain  was  lost  to  Rome,  Ireland 


*  Miiiburgh  Review^  vol.  zciv.  p.  200. 
Bat  to  thete  causes  nsut  undoabtedly  be 
added  that  of  reUglon ;  for  tboee  of  the 


Britons  who  still  adhered  to  their  ancient 
fittth  wonld  make  common  caose  with 
Pligan  invaden. 


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THE  BRITONS  AND  BOlCANa 


Ohap.  u 


appears  in  our  history  as  receiving  the  Christian  faith  through 
the  ministry  of  Palladius  and  St  Patrick,  nativt-s  of  Britain,  but 
sent  by  the  Roman  bishop  to  the  "  Scots  in  Ireland  "  (a.d.  432).* 
While  England  was  ravaged  by  the  heathen  conquerors,  Ireland  is 
depicted,  in  colours  probably  much  brighter  than  the  truth,  as 
peacefully  enjoying  the  light  and  learning  which  earned  for  her 
the  fond  name  of  the  *'  Island  of  the  Saints."  t 


*  The  story  of  the  conversion  of  the 
■onthern  or  lowland  Picts,  as  early  as  396, 
by  St.  Nreixsor  Nynia  IsdoubtfUl. 

f  The  origin  of  this  bousted  title  has 
been  traced,  with  great  probability,  to  the 
old  Greek  form  of  the  native  name  Eri^ 
namely,  h  l^pa  vlcou  "the  sacred  island," 
popular  tradition  pointing   to  the  west 


from  time  immemorial  as  the  seat  of  the 
blessed.  The  native  annals  show  no  age 
in  which  Ireland  was  not  the  scene  offends 
and  wars,  from  the  time  when  one  of  its 
chiefe  fled  to  Agricola,  to  that  when 
Dermot  Macmorrogb  invited  its  oonqiMtt 
by  Henry  U. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


A.  CESAR'S  VOYAGES  TO  BRITAIN. 

The  sufcject  of  Omar's  two  voyages  to 
Britain  ha« given  rise  to  much  controversy. 
In  relating  his  first  voyage  Osar  merely 
says  that  be  sailed  from  the  country  of  the 
Morini,  without  specifying  the  precise 
spot ;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
he  started  from  the  same  place  as  in  his 
second  expedition,  namely,  the  Portns 
Itius,  which  is  supposed  by  lyAnville, 
who  has  been  followed  by  most  modem 
writers,  to  be  Wissant,  Just  east  of  Cape 
Grisnez,  about  halfway  between  Boulogne 
and  Calais.  In  his  first  expedition  Cssar 
must  have  landed  on  the  37th  of  August, 
since  he  tells  us  that  it  was  full  moon  on 
the  fourth  day  after  his  arrival  in  Britain ; 
and  it  ban  been  calculated  by  the  astro- 
nomer I>r.  Halley  that  this  full  moon  fell 
on  the  night  of  the  30lb  of  August  (^Philo- 
$ophical  Transections,  abridged  to  the 
end  of  the  year  1700  by  John  Lowthorpe, 
Tol.  lii.  p.  412).  Dr.  Halley  maintained 
that  Cwsar  landed  at  Deal,  and  his  opinion 
has  been  adopted  by  almost  all  subse- 
quent writers;  but  Mr.  Lewin  has  urged 
strong  arguments  for  supposing  that 
Ctesar  landed  at  Lymne  (near  Hythe),  the 
Roman  Fortus  Lemanis,  afterwards  one 
of  the  castles  of  the  Saxon  coast  (7%e 
Inxsuion  of  Britain  by  Julius  Oa>sar,  2nd 
edition,  1862).  There  is  less  to  be  said  for 
the  entirely  new  hypothesis  of  Sir  George 

B.  Airy,  the  Astronomer-Royal,  who  sup- 
poMS  that  Caesar  sailed  from  the  estuary 


of  the  Somme  and  landed  at  the  beach  of 
Pevensey,  on  the  coast  of  Sussex,  near  the 
spot  where  William  the  Conqueror  disem- 
barked nearly  eleven  centuries  afterwards. 
The  reader  will  find  the  arguments  of  Sir 
George  in  the  Archctologiat  vol.  xxxiv. 
p.  231,  $eq. 

At  whichever  place  he  landed  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  British 
camp  stormed  by  Ceesar  (on  his  second 
invawion)  was  on  the  high  ground  about 
the  Stour  at  Wye  (probably  at  CkaUock 
Wood),  and  that  he  marched  along  the 
line  of  the  old  British  track  skirting  the 
south  edge  of  the  North  Downs,  which 
was  called  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  PO- 
grim's  H'ay,  and,  after  crossing  the 
Thames,  up  the  valley  of  the  Coin,  to 
Verulamium  (St.  Albans).  He  had 
Mandubratius  for  his  guide.  He  certainly 
did  not  march  by  the  line  of  the  later 
Watling  Street  (the  modem  Dover  road) ; 
and  it  is  only  by  pure  invention,  or  a  gross 
blunder  (the  source  of  which  may  be 
traced),  that  fabulous  historians  (such  as 
GeoflTirey  of  Monmouth)  bring  him  to  Ixm- 
don,  which  he  left  far  on  his  right.  Hit 
retum  to  the  coast  was  evidently  by  th» 
same  route  as  his  advance. 

B.  THE  ROMAN  WALLS. 
1.  The  Roman  fortification  which  crooees 
England  from  the  Sol  way  Firth  to  the 
River  T>'ne,  consists  of  a  stone  wall  and 
an  earthen  rampart  (or  rather  double, 
and  in  some  places  triple,  lines  of  ram- 


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17 


parts,  wHh  ditches)  nmning  generally 
psraUel  with  one  another,  at  the  distance 
of  60  or  70  yards ;  hot  the  itstance  varies 
greatly  with  the  nature  of  the  ground. 
Or.  Brace  proves,  in  his  work  on  the 
**Boman  Wall,"  that  the  stone  wall  and 
the  turf  vallom  both  belong  to  one  and 
vhe  same  fortification,  and  that  they  were 
erected  by  the  emperor  Hadrian  at  one 
and  the  same  time,  the  former  to  dieck 
the  OUedonians,  the  latter  to  repress 
any  hostile  attempts  of  the  southern 
Britons.  It  is  impossible  in  tho  limits 
of  this  note  to  cite  the  evidence  by  which 
Dr.  Bruce  sustains  this  view  against  the 
unfounded  opinion  that,  as  the  vallum 
of  Hadrian  was  not  sufficient  to  check 
the  Caledonians,  it  was  strengthened,  or 
rather  superseded,  by  the  wall  of  Severus. 
The  inscriptions  prove  that  the  whole 
works,  including  the  great  camps  along 
the  lines,  and  the  supporting  stations 
to  the  north  and  south,  were  Hadrian's, 
and  that  the  part  of  Severus  was  limited 
to  considerable  repairs.  The  wall  must 
not  be  conceived  of  as  a  mere  defence,  but 
a  military  base  for  operations  on  both 
sides  of  it.  The  castles  along  it  have  gates 
to  the  north,  and  the  many  coins  found 
there  prove  that  the  ground  north  of  the 
wall  was  maintained  down  to  the  time  of 
Carausius  (286-294).  On  the  same  evi- 
dence, and  that  of  the  important  list  of 
stations  on  the  Wall  in  the  Soiitia  Im- 
perii, we  know  that  the  Wall  itself  was 
held  tiU  the  reign  of  Honorius,  and  the 
final  withdrawal  of  the  legions. 

2.  Along  the  lino  of  the  northern  Wall 
of  Antoninus"  (jGnroi^;  or  more  pro- 
perl>  Grimes, i.e.  the  " boundiry,"  Dyke) 
many  inscriptions  have  been  found,  men- 
tioning the  work  done  by  cohorts  of  the 
three  legions  (Ilnd.  \  Ith,  and  XXth),  and 
one  which  has  the  name  of  Lollu's  Ur- 
Biccs  as  Prstorian  Prefect  of  Antoninus 
Plus. 

It  should  be  observed  that  Gildos,  Bede. 
and  Nennius  connect  the  name  of  Severus 
with  the  porthem  wall,  while  they  greatly 
confuse  the  two. 


C.  THE  00ME8  LITTOEIS  SAXONICI. 

L^penberg,  Kemble,  and  several  others 
maintain  that  this  officer  derired  his 
name,  not  ftom  defending  the  coast  which 
was  exposed  to  the  invasions  of  the 
fiazoQ  pirates,  but  from  his  command- 


ing the  Saxons  who  were  settled  along 
the  coasts  of  Britain  before  the  arrival 
of  Hengist  and  Horsa  in  450.  But  there 
seems  no  ohjection  to  the  ordinary  in- 
terpretation which  has  been  adopted  in 
the  text.  Dr.  Guest  correctly  remarks 
that,  as  the  Welsh  marches  in  Shrop- 
shire and  the  Scotch  marches  in  North- 
umberland were  so  cailed,  not  because 
they  were  inhabited  by  Welshmen  or 
Scotchmen,  but  because  they  were  open 
to  the  incursions  of  these  two  races, 
and  were  provided  with  a  regular  mili- 
tary organization  for  the  purpose  of 
repelling  their  incursions,  so,  for  pre- 
cisely similar  reasons,  the  south-eastern 
coast  of  Britain  was  called  the  Saxon 
Shore,  or  Frontier.  The  title  first  occurs 
in  the  Notitia  Utriusque  Imperii  (a  work 
compiled  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century),  where  Ihe  Saxon  Shore  is  also 
callM  the  Saxon  Frontier  (Limes  Sax- 
onicus).  The  NotUia  gives  a  lint  of  the 
forces  which  held  the  nine  great  castles 
fVom  Branodunum  {Branca»t€r\  on  the 
north  coast  of  Norfolk,  to  Portus  Adurni 
(perhaps  AldringUm,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Adur)  in  Sussex.  TTie  other  seven  were 
Garianonum  {Burgh  Castle,  on  the  Yare), 
Othona  {Ithancester,  Just  below  the 
Black  water),  Regulbium  {Reculrer),  and 
Rutupie  {RicKborougK),  which  defended 
the  two  mouths  of  the  .Stour,  then  a 
strait  cutting  off  Thanet ;  Portus  Dubris 
{Dover)',  Portus  Lemanis  {Lymne); 
Anderida  {Perensey).  They  were  garri- 
soned by  detachments  and  auxiliaries  of 
the  Second  Legion,  the  head-quarters  of 
which  had  been  moved  from  Caerleon  on 
the  Usk  to  Richborough,  to  protect  the 
communication  with  the  continent.  The 
walls  at  Burgh,  Richborough,  and 
Pevensey,  may  be  traced  by  their  f*plcn- 
did  ruins.  Some  ofHhese  castles  (as  at 
Richlmrough,  Dover,  and  Lymne)  date, 
doubtless,  from  the  earliest  time  of  the 
Roman  occupation ;  but  there  are  grounds 
for  ascribing  the  final  organization  of  the 
system  of  defence  to  Theodosius,  the 
general  of  Valentinian  I. 

D.  THE  SCOTS  AND  PICTS. 

From  the  second  to  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury the  Scots  are  mentioned  as  the 
inhabitants  of  Ireland,  and  that  island 
bore  the  name  of  Scotia.  This  is  clearly 
proved  by  the  authorities  collected   by 


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NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 


CtaAP.  I. 


ZensB.  Die  Deut9e^n  und  die  yachbar- 
ttamme^  p.  568.    Thus  Claodian  says— 

"  Bootaram  annaloi  flerh  gladallt  leme." 

Ltir.Cont.  i7<m.  SS. 
"Me  Jurit  Stflldio,  totam  cum  Scotm  lemen 
MotU."  /to  Lau4L  iMUch.  ii.  3I6L 

The  Gaelic  spoken  by  the  Scotch  High- 
iMidera  is  the  same  language  as  the  Erse 
spoken  by  the  Irish,  and  there  can  be  no 
donbl  that  it  was  brought  into  Britain 
by  the  Irish  Scots. 

E.  GOVERNMENT  AND  DIVISIONS 
OF  BRITAIN  UNDER  THE  RO- 
MANS. 

Britain,  like  the  other  distant  pro- 
vinces of  the  empire,  was  under  the 
Immediate  superintendence  of  the  em- 
peror, and  not  of  the  senate.  It  was 
formed  into  a  Roman  province  by  the 
emperor  Claudius  after  the  campaign  of 
A.o.  43,  and  was  governed  at  first  by  a 
Legatus  of  consular  rank  :  its  financial 
afTairs  were  administered  by  a  procu- 
rator. It  was  subsequently  divided  by 
Septimius  Severus  into  two  parts,  Bri- 
tannia Superior  and  Inferior,  each  go- 
verned by  a  I^neses. 

The  later  organization  of  Britain  is 
explained  in  the  Notitia  Imperii.  When 
Diocletian  divided  the  empire  into  four 
Pneflpctures,  Britain  formed  the  third 
great  diocese  in  the  prefecture  of  the 
Gauls,  of  which  the  Prsfectus  Pretorio 
resided,  first  at  Treves,  and  afterwards 
at  Aries.  Britain  was  governed  by  a 
VicaritUt  who  resided  at  Eboracum 
(York),  and  was  subdivided  into  four 
provinces,  Britannia  Prima.  Britannia 
Secunda,  Flavia  Gesariensis,  and  M^tIwia 
Cffisariensls  :  to  which  a  fiith,  Valentia, 
was  added  by  Theodosius  in  a.d.  368.  The 
exact  extent  of  these  provinces  is  very 
uncertain,  and  the  detailed  situation  of 
them  in  most  maps  rests  mainly  upon 
the  so-called  work  of  Richard  of  Ciren- 
cester, a  monk  of  tha  14th  century,  a 
shameless  forgery  by  Charles  Bertram  in 
the  18th  century. 

Roman  Miutasy  GoiocAirDEHS.  The 
military  forces  were  originaUy  under  the 
command  of  the  Legatus,  but  after  the 
separation  of  the  civil  and  militery  ad- 
ministration of  the  provinces  by  Diocle- 
tian, they  were  placed  under  three  chief 
military  officers,  who  bore  the  titles  of 
Omes    Jtritaimiarwm,    Come*  LiUoriM 


Sawoniei  per  Britanniam,  and  Dim  Br^ 
tanniarum.  The  title  of  Cknnet,  or  Omm- 
jNUiMm,  was  the  highest,  and  the  Oumn 
Britanniarum  had  the  chief  "»»»"»f»Ml 
of  the  military  forces  in  Britain.  Hie 
Oowus  LiUorie  Saxonici  has  been  already 
spoken  of.  The  Dux  Britanniarum  had 
charge  of  the  wall  of  Hadrian  and  the 
command  of  the  troops  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  province. 

At  the  Ume  of  the  IMitSa  the  Ronuui 
army  in  Britain  consisted  of  about  90,000 
men.  The  four  legions  sent  over  Ij 
daodius  were  these :— II.  Attffutta ;  DL 
Biepana  or  Victrim;  XIV.  Gemina: 
XX.  Valeria  Vktrix;  and  the  first  and 
last  remained  in  Britain  during  the  Ibur 
centuries  of  the  Roman  rule.  The  ELth 
was  twice  cut  to  pieces,  in  the  revolt  of 
Boadioea  and  under  Agrioola  in  Caledonia. 
The  XrVth  was  twice  withdrawn,  by 
Nero  and  finally  by  Vespasian.  The 
Vlth  (Victrix),  when  brought  over  firom 
Germany  (probably  with  Hadrian),  made 
up  the  permanent  force  of  three  legione, 
with  their  auxiliaries,  including  bar- 
barians firom  all  parts  of  the  empire. 
(This  last  tact  is  important  in  considering 
the  influence  of  the  Roman  occupation  on 
the  population  of  Britain.)  The  Vlth 
legion  always  had  its  head-quarters  at 
York  for  the  defence  of  the  Northern 
Frontier.  It  bore  the  chief  part  in  build- 
ing the  Wall,  aided  by  detachments  fhxn 
thellndandXXth.  The  XXth  was,  after 
several  removes,  permanently  fixed  at 
Deva  (Cftetter),  the  Givltas  Leglonnm  of 
North  Wales  (or  Oaerietm  <m  the  Dee\ 
keeping  watch  on  the  mountaineers,  and 
garrisoning  the  castles  on  the  Cumbrian 
coast  within  the  WaU.  It  had  disappeared 
atthetimeoftheAotOid.  The  Ilnd,  with 
which  Vespasian  overran  the  south  and 
west,  was  fixed  among  the  mountains  of 
South  Wales,  at  Isca  Sllnrum,  the  southern 
Ci vitas  Legionum  (Oaerieon  on  the  U$k\ 
whence  It  was  finally  transfierred  to 
Rntupis  (Riehboroughy,  to  guard  the  pae- 
sage  to  the  continent  and  the  castles  of  the 
Saxon  Shore.  There  was  a  third  avitas 
Leglonnm  in  Mid-Britain  {Leiceettr, 
fhnn  the  A.S.  Lege-ceoiter,  as  Cbeeter 
also  was  called);  but  it  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  the  permanent  head- 
quarters of  any  legion.  The  auxiliary 
troops,  as  we  learn  firom  their  inscrip- 
tions, were  a  very  oMuviei  gentium^ 
flp<f«<aTri<^  Qral8>  BafcavianSt  ivir?***"*tt 


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19 


Fiimoalaiit,  Didiiif;  beddes  AsUitfefl, 
who  brongbt  the  worship  of  the  Son-god 
faito  BrtUin;  and  there  was  even  a  body 
•f  Parthian  cavalry  on  the  Severn  at 
Urioonliun  {Winaeter).  Britons  served 
abroad,  bat  of  native  troops  serving  in 
the  island,  as  tlie  OatHveUamnt  and  Dum- 
mmii,  among  the  bidlders  of  the  Wall, 
the  noUoes  are  few. 

F.  AUTH0RITIB3. 

Some  of  the  classical  anthorittes  re- 
specting the  early  history  of  Britain 
have  been  alluded  to  in  the  preceding 
pages,  and  most  of  the  passages  bearing 
on  the  snltiect  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
writers,  as  well  as  in  the  andent  English 
aothors,  will  be  fonnd  collected  in  the 
Jbmmunta  ffiUoriea  Britannicat  vol.  i. 
1848.  The  eariiest  English  writer,  Bbdb 
(a.d.730),  in  his  BcduieuHeal  HUtory  and 
Chnmide,  chiefly  follows,  for  the  Roman 
period,  Jerome's  version  of  the  Ckronide 
of  Eosebias,  and  other  Latin  chroniclers, 
the  late  and  inaocnrate  Latin  historians, 
Entropins  and  the  Universal  HUtory 
of  OBoenrs,  which  comes  down  to  a.d. 
417.  The  AngPt-Saxcn  CSkronide  *  follows 
Bede,  and  so  do  the  later  chroniclers, 
Florence  of  Worcester,  Henry  of  Hun- 
tingdon, etc.;  bat  those  who  wrote  after 
the  Norman  Gonqoest  are  infected  by 
the  Cftbaloos  legends  derived  from 
OeoHVey  of  Monmouth.  The  Wdtk 
CknmicU$  have  fow  incidents  of  any 
value,  but  there  are  two  early  British 
writers  professedly  belonging  to  the 
age  following  the  Roman  dominion: 
(I.)  QtLDAS  THB  WUK,  of  whoss  life  we 
have  various  accounts,  appears  in  any 
case  to  have  been  a  British  ecclesiastic 
of  high  birth,  bom(as  be  himself  tells  us) 
in  the  year  of  the  great  battie  of  Mount 
Badon  (616),  and  his  death  is  placed  in 
A.D.  670.  B.\b  Liber  Queruiui  de  Sxeidio 
Britamniaet  which  has  come  down  to  us 
in  a  very  imperfect  state,  seems  to  have 
been  written  in  Armorica  (^Brittany), 
where  he  had  taken  reftige  from  the 
advancing  English  conquerors,  about  a.d. 
660.  It  i«  A  hintory  of  Britain  from  the 
«  SMMocaDaiendofelMpttriT. 


Roman  invasion  to  his  oiWB  time,  fol- 
lowed by  A  most  ottJurgatory  letter  to  the 
British  princes  of  Wales,  written  in  a 
very  inflated  style.  The  work  is  printed 
in  the  Monumenta  Hittorioa  Britannica, 
It  has  also  been  edited  by  the  Rev.  Joseph 
Stevenson,  fbr  the  English  Historical 
Society,  1838.  (2.)  The  Sistoria  Bri- 
tonum,  from  the  Creation  to  687,  ascribed 
to  Neitkids,  is  less  trustworthy.  It  is 
often  ascribed  to  Gildas,  firom  whose  work 
moch  of  it  is  taken.  It  appears  to  be 
the  production  of  an  anonymous  author, 
copied  and  interpolated  by  a  scribe,  per- 
ha^  named  Nennlus,  in  a.d.  858.  The 
author  professes  to  have  collected  his 
materials  from  the  traditiontofkis  elderi, 
the  monuments  qf  the  ancient  Britons, 
the  Latin  chroniclers  (Isldorus,  Jerome, 
Prosper,  Itc.),  and  from  the  histories  qf 
the  aoots  and  Saxons.  It  contains  inte- 
resting traditions  found  here  for  the  first 
time,  iMit  mixed  with  at  least  the  germ 
of  the  fables  collected  by  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth.  It  is  edited  in  the  ifonumento 
Historica  Britanniea,  and  by  Mr.  Steven- 
son. The  most  important  modem  works 
on  Roman  Britain  are :— Camden's  Bri- 
tannia: Horsley's  Britannia  Eomana; 
Stnkely's  Stonehenge;  Wbittaker's  HU- 
tory qf  Manchester ;  Lappenberg'siTtxtory 
(^  Bnglandj  translated  by  Thorpe ;  The 
Sariy  and  Middle  Ages  qf  England,  by 
Professor  Pearson;  Algernon  Herbert's 
Britannia  under  the  Romans  ;  Bruce's 
Boman  WaU ;  Booking's  Notes  on  the 
Notitia  Dignitatum,  vol.  ii.  p.  496;  Guest, 
On  the  Early  English  SettlanenU  in 
South  Britain,  published  In  the  Pro- 
eeedings  qf  the  ArehaologuxU  Institute, 
meeting  at  Salisbury,  1849 ;  also,  On  the 
fbur  Roman  Ways,  On  the  Landing  qf 
Julius  Qxsar,  and  On  the  Campaign  qf 
Aulus  PlcnUiia,  In  tiie  Archadogical 
Jlaumal,  vols,  xlv.,  xxl.,  xxiii. ;  besides 
many  papers  by  dlifercnt  authors  in 
various  antiquarian  publications;  Roach 
Smith's  CuUeetanea  and  Antiquities  qf 
Lywute,  Richborough,  and  Reculver ; 
Wright's  The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the 
SoUBon ;  Gibbon's  Decline  and  FtUl :  and 
Dean  Merivale's  HUtory  qf  the  RomatU 
under  U^e  Empire, 


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Map  of  tbe  Isle  of  Tbanet  at  the  time  of  the  landing  of  the  Saxons. 


CHAPTER     II. 
THE  ANGLO-SAXONS  TILL  THE  REIGN  OF  EGBERT,  AD.  4^0-827. 

S  1.  The  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes.  §  2.  Manners  and  religion  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons.  §  3.  Their  ships  and  arms.  §  4.  First  settlement  of 
the  German  invaders  —  in  Kent.  British  traditions.  §5.  Saxon 
account.  §  6.  Second  settlement  of  the  German  invaders — in  Sussex. 
§  7.  Third  settlement  of  the  German  invaders — in  Wessex.  §  8.  Fourth 
settlement  of  the  German  invaders — in  Essex  and  Middlesex.  §  9.  Fifth 
settlement  of  the  German  invaders — in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  §  10.  Sixth 
settlement  of  the  German  invaders — in  Northumbria.  §  11.  The 
kingdom  of  Mercia.  §  12.  The  Heptarchy.  British  States.  §  13.  The 
Bretwaldas,  Ella  of  Sussex,  Ceawlin  of  Wessex.  §  14.  .Ethelberht  of 
Kent,  third  Bretwalda.  Introduction  of  Christianity.  §  15.  Death 
of  iEthelberht.  RedwalJ  of  East  Anglia,  fourth  Bretwalda.  Adventures 
of  Edwin  of  Northumbria.  §  16.  Edwin,  fifth  Bretwalda.  His  con- 
version to  Christianity.  §  17.  History  of  Northumbria.  Oswald, 
sixth  Bretwalda.  §  18.  Oswy  of  Northumbria,  seventh  Bretwalda. 
Decline  of  the  kingdom  of  Northumbria.  §  19.  History  of  Wessex. 
Ina  and  Egbert.  §  20.  History  of  Mercia.  /Ethelbald  and  OSgk 
§  21.  Conquests  of  Egbert,  who  becomes  sole  king  of  England. 


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45a 


TEUTONIC  SETTLEMENTS. 


21 


§  1.  The  people  who  ultimately  succeeded  in  establishing  them- 
selves in  this  country  were  a  branch  of  the  Germanic  race,  and, 
under  the  general  name  of  Saxons,  inhabited  the  north-western 
coast  of  Germany,  from  the  Cimbric  Chersonesus,  or  present 
Denmark,  to  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine.  The  Germanic  tribes  have 
always  been  divided  into  two  great  branches,  to  which  modem 
writers  have  given  the  name  of  High  Oerman  (the  people  in  the 
interior  or  higher  parts  of  (Germany)  and  Low  Oerman  (the 
people  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  country  near  the  coast).  The 
invaders  belonged  to  the  Low  Germanic  branch,  and  their  language 
was  closely  allied  to  that  of  the  modem  Dutch.  The  Low  Germanic 
tribes  (called  by  Tacitus  by  various  names,  among  whom  the 
Chauci*  were  dominant)  were  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  general 
name  of  Saxons.  At  the  period  of  which  we  are  speaking,  we  find 
them  divided  into  three  principal  tribes,  the  Saxons  proper,  the 
Angles,  and  the  Jutes. 

I.  The  Saxons.r — ^The  Saxons  are  first  mentioned  in  the  second 
century  by  Ptolemy,  who  places  them  upon  the  narrow  neck  of  the 
Cimbric  Chersonesus,  and  in  three  islands  opposite  the  mouth  of 
the  Elbe.  Tlience  their  power  extended  westward  as  far  as  the 
mouths  of  the  Rhine.  Among  tlie  tribes  absorbed  by  il.eiii  were 
Uie  Frisians,  who  probably  formed  the  majority  of  the  Saxon 
invaders  of  England,  though  they  are  only  mentioned  under  t)ie 
general  name  of  Saxons.}  The  country  south  of  the  Thames,  with 
the  exception  of  Kent  and  the  Isle  of  Wight,  was  occupied  by  the 
Saxons  proper  or  Frisians,  who  founded  the  kingdoms  of  the  South 
Saxons  (Sui^seaxe,  whence  Sussex),  of  the  West  Saxons  (West- 
Moore,  Wes'8'^)y  and  of  the  East  Saxons  (Last-seoj  e,  Es-sex),  the 
last  including  the  Middle  Saxons  (whence  Middle-sex). 

IL  The  Angles  {Angle  or  Engle)  seem  to  have  been  a  more 
numerous  and  powerful  raa;.  as  they  peopled  a  larger  district  ot 
Britain,  and  at  ]en<;th  gave  their  name  to  the  whole  land.§  The 
language  which,  with  slight  dialectic  variations,  was  common  to  all 
the  German  invaders,  was  called  English  (Enylisc),  even  before 
the  island  was  called  England  (Engla^land).    The  Angles  settled 


*  These  CkaucU  and  the  Fruit,  who  | 
appear  u  closely  connected  with  them  in 
Tadtns,  seem  to  have  the  best  claim  to 
have  been  the  ancestors  of  the  English 
people.  Their  character  and  manners  are 
described  by  Tadtos  (Germ.  34,  35). 

t  Their  name  is  usually  derived  fhnn 
the  large  knife  or  short  sword,  uax  or  sob, 
which  they  carried. 

%  See  Notes  and  Illastrations  (A). 

j  Tbe  SidtoQ  kingdom  of  Wessex  afler- 
8* 


wards  obtained  the  political  saprcmacy, 
and  hence  the  name  of  Anglo  Saxon  was 
given  to  the  whole  nation,  >»hose  kings 
assumed  the  title  of  Ktx  Anfflo-Saxonwt^ 
i.e.  of  the  Angle*  and  Sazon*.  In  some 
old  documents  England  is  called  Saxonia, 
but  this  name  is  usually  con  fined  to  the 
Saxon  settlements.  The  original  abode  of 
the  Saxons  in  Germany  waf  called  Old 
Saxony  by  the  English. 


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22     AKGLO-SAXONS  TILL  THE  REION  OF  EGBERT.    OHiP.  a 


in  East  Anglia,  or  the  eastern  counties  north  of  Essex ;  in  North' 
umbriay  or  all  the  region  east  of  the  central  ridge,*  from  the 
Humber  to  the  Forth;  and  penetrated  into  Mercia,  that  is,  the 
border-land  of  the  purer  Anglian  and  Saxon  settlements  embracing 
the  midland  counties.  The  Angles  are  first  mentioned  by  Tacitus  t 
as  claiming  to  be  the  noblest  and  most  ancient  of  the  tribes  on  the 
Baltic.  The  origin  of  their  name  is  involyed  in  obscurity;  but 
may  probably  be  traced  in  the  much  more  powerful  tribe  of  the 
Angrivarii  (i.e.  Angre  or  Angle'Ware,  "  the  Angle  people  "),  whom 
Tacitus  places  on  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe,  in  the  rear  of  the  Frisians 
and  Saxons.  These  answer  well  to  the  AngUi,  whom  Ptolemy 
describes  as  the  greatest  tribe  of  the  interior  of  Germany.  The  early 
English  writers  supposed  the  Angles  to  have  come  from  the  Cimbric 
Ghersonesus,  where  they  inhabited  a  district  called  Angel,  between 
the  Saxons  and  the  Jutes.  There  is  still  a  district  which  bears 
this  name  between  the  river  Schley  and  the  Flensburg  Fiord  in 
Sleswig;  but  this  region  was  much  too  small  to  have  supplied 
the  migration  to  Britain,  and  its  people  are  rather  a  remnant  than 
the  source  of  the  great  Anglian  race. 

in.  The  Jutes. — These  invaders  were  not  so  numerous  even  as 
the  Saxons,  and  occupied  only  Kent,  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  part  of 
Hampshire,  lliey  came  from  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  which  is 
now  inhabited  by  the  Danes ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  possessions 
of  the  Germans,  who  at  present  people  the  southern  part  of  the 
peninsula,  extended  further  north  in  ancient  times,  and  there  are 
reasons  for  believing  that  the  Jutes  were  Goths,  who,  like  the 
Saxons  and  Angles,  were  also  a  Low  Germanic  race.  The  Jutes  seem 
to  have  been  more  closely  connected  with  the  Angles  than  with  the 
Saxons;  and  the  first  Jutish  settlers  in  Kent  are  also  called  Angles 
in  the  earliest  records.  Bede  speaks  collectively  of  the  people  to  whom 
the  Britons  sent  for  aid  as  "  the  race  of  the  Angles  or  Saxons."  J 

§  2.  The  German  races  who  invaded  Britain  were  Pagan  barba- 
rians.^ Their  religion,  which  was  common  to  them  with  the  Scan- 
dinavians, seems  to  have  been  a  compound  between  the  worship  of 
the  celestial  bodies  and  that  of  deiBed  heroes.  This  (suet  will 
appear  from  the  names  they  applied  to  the  days  of  the  week,  which 
custom  has  still  retained  among  'is.  Thus  Sunnandceg  and  Monan^ 
dctg,  Sunday  and  Monday,  were  named  after  the  two  great  Itimi* 
naries.  The  name  of  Tuesday  is  derived  from  Tiw,  probably  the 
same  as  the  Tuisco  of  Tacitus,  the  national  deity  of  the  Teutons. 


*  This  ridge,  running  north  and  soaih 
from  the  Cheviuts  to  the  Peak  Forest  in 
Derbyshire*  i»  called  the  Dortwm  Britain 
nia  or  Pennine  chain. 


f  Oermania^  c  40. 
X  Anglomm  sive  Sftxonnm  gens, 
H.  £.  L  15. 


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AJX  40a  ICANNEBS  AND  RELIGION  OF  ANGLO-SAXONS.    23 

Wodtieadmg,  or  Wednesday,  was  sacred  to  Woden  or  Odin,  the  god 
cf  war,  common  to  all  the  Teatonio  and  Scandinavian  races.  That 
he  mnst  have  been  a  deified  hero  and  king  appears  from  the 
dicamstanoe  that  those  leaders,  whose  kindred  formed  the  royal 
houses  among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  for  the  most  part  derived  their 
descent  from  Woden.  Thunresdceg  ("  thunder 's-day  '*),  or  Thurs- 
day, was  named  after  the  god  Thor,  the  thunderer,  equivalent  to  the 
Greek  and  Roman  Jove,  who  wielded  a  hammer  instead  of  a  thunder- 
bolt FreyordcBg,  or  Friday,  was  sacred  to  the  goddess  Freya,  the 
northern  Venus  and  consort  of  Woden.  Lastly,  Saturday  derived  its 
name  from  Soetere,  who,  from  the  attributes  with  which  he  is  repre- 
sented, viz.  a  fish  and  a  bucket,  appears  to  have  been  a  water-god. 

Besides  these,  the  Anglo-Saxons  had  many  other  deities.  They 
believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  the  existence  of  a  super- 
natural world ;  but  their  worship,  though  fanciful  and  superstitious, 
was  not  tainted  with  so  much  cruelty  as  disfigured  that  of  the 
Druids.  Their  sensual  notions  of  a  future  state  were  calculated,  like 
those  of  the  Mahometans,  to  inspire  them  with  a  contempt  for  death. 
They  believed  that  if  they  obtained  the  favour  of  Woden  by  their 
valour  (for  they  made  less  account  of  other  virtues)  they  should  be 
admitted  after  this  life  into  his  hall,  and,  reposing  on  couches, 
should  satiate  themselves  with  ale  or  mead  from  the  skulls  of  their 
enemies  whom  they  had  slain  in  battle.  Incited  by  this  idea  of 
paradise,  which  gratified  at  once  the  passion  of  revenge  aud  that  of 
intemperance,  the  ruling  inclinations  of  barbarians,  they  despised 
the  daggers  of  war,  and  increased  their  native  ferocity  against  the 
▼anquished  by  their  religious  prejudices. 

§  3.  The  ships,  or  "keels"  (ceolcui)^  of  the  Saxons  appear  at  an 
ancient  period  to  have  been  rudely  constructed  of  a  few  planks  sur- 
mounted with  wattled  osiers  and  covered  with  skins ;  and  in  these 
frail  vessels  they  fearlessly  trusted  themselves  without  a  compass  to 
the  winds  and  waves  of  the  stormy  ocean  which  washed  their  shores ; 
but  in  the  fifth  century  their  ships  may  have  been  enlarged  in  size 
and  improved  in  solidity  of  construction.  The  arms  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  were  targets  worn  on  the  left  arm,  spears,  bows  and  arrows, 
swords,  battle-axes,  and  heavy  clubs  furnished  with  spikes  of  iron. 
Sidonius,  the  bishop  of  Clermont,  has  described  the  terror  inspired 
by  these  barbarians.  **  We  have  not,**  he  says,  "  a  more  cruel  and 
m(»re  dangerous  enemy  than  the  Saxons.  They  overcome  all  who 
have  the  courage  to  oppose  them.  They  surprise  all  who  are  so 
imprudent  as  not  to  be  prepared  for  their  attack.  When  they 
pursue,  they  infallibly  overtake:  when  they  are  pursued,  their 
escape  is  certain.  They  despise  danger :  they  are  inured  to  ship- 
wxedk :  they  are  eager  to  purchase  booty  with  the  peril  of  their 


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24     ANQLO-SAXOKS  TILL  THE  BEIOK  OF  BQBEBT.  Ohap.  a 

lives.  Tempests,  so  dreadful  to  others,  are  to  them  subjects  of  joy. 
The  storm  is  their  protection  when  they  are  pressed  by  the  enemy, 
and  a  cover  for  their  operations  when  they  meditate  an  attack. 
Before  they  quit  their  own  shores,  they  devote  to  the  altars  of 
their  gods  the  tenth  part  of  the  principal  captives ;  and  when  they 
are  on  the  point  of  returning,  the  lots  are  cast  with  an  affectation 
of  equity,  and  the  impious  vow  is  fulfilled."*  Such  were  the 
barbarians  who  were  now  approaching  the  British  shores. 

§  4.  First  settlement  of  the  Oerman  invaders^  A.D.  450. — The 
first  arrival  of  the  Saxon  tribes  in  England  is  commonly  placed 
either  in  the  year  449  or  450.t  Of  the  manner  of  their  coming 
and  their  first  proceedings  in  the  island  we  find  two  sets  of  tradi* 
tions,  those  of  the  British  and  those  of  the  English  writenu  which 
vary  in  many  important  particulars.  According  to  the  former, 
the  two  Jutish  leaders,  Hengest  and  Horsa,  being  banished  from 
their  native  country,  and  wandering  about  with  their  followers 
in  three  vessels  in  quest  of  new  habitations,  were  invited  by  the 
British  king,  Vortigern,  t »  assist  him  against  the  Sc(»ts  and  Picta. 
For  the  services  which  he  had  rendered,  Hengest  and  his  followers 
were  rewarded  with  the  Ible  of  Thanet,  separated  at  that  time  by  a 
broad  estuary  from  the  rest  of  Kent4  Hengest  now  sent  over  to  his 
native  country  for  reinforcements,  and  also  caused  his  daughter 
Rowena,  who  was  celebrated  for  her  beauty,  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
land  of  his  adoption.  At  a  great  feast  gi  ven  by  the  Saxons,  Vortigern 
beheld  Rowena,  received  from  her  hands  iho  wassail  cup,  and, 
captivated  by  her  charms,  renounced  Christianity  for  her  sake,  and 
cedel  to  Hengest  the  remainder  of  Kent  in  return  for  her  hand. 
His  indignant  subjects  now  deposed  Vortigern,  and  placed  his  son 
Vortimer  on  the  throne,  who  defeated  Hengest  in  three  great  battles, 
and  compell'd  him  to  retire  for  some  years  from  Britain.  Rowena 
having  contrived  to  |X)ison  Vortimer.  Vortigern  agam  ascended  the 
throne,  and  recalled  his  father-in-law  Hengest ;  but  as  the  Britons 
refused  to  reinstate  him  in  his  possessions,  a  conference  of  300  of 
the  chiefs  of  each  nation  was  appointed  to  bo  held  at  Stonehenyc 
in  order  to  settle  the  jx)ints  in  dispute.  In  the  midst  of  the  dis- 
cussion Hengest  suddenly  exclaimed  to  his  followers,  "Nimath 
cowre  seaxas  **  (take  your  knives),  and  299  Britons  fell  dead  uj^on 
the  spot.  Vortigern  alone  was  spared,  for  whose  ransom  thre*^ 
provinces,  afterwards   known   as   Essex,   Sussex,  and  Middlesex, 


•  Sidon.  vili.  6,  quoted  by  Lingard,  L 
p.  73. 

t  The  invAAion  Is  placed  by  Bede  and 
the  Anglo  Saxfti  Clironiclf*  in  the  first 
year  of  the  reifqi  of  the  emperor  Harcian, 


they  wrongly  call  it  a.d.  449.  The  date 
roust  not  be  taken  as  a.  fact  in  chronology, 
but  as  a  calculation  of  the  early  writeis 
(chiefly  Bede)  from  certain  data,  not  aU 
of  which  are  consistent. 


which  corresponds  to  a.i>.  4&0.  though  !      t  See  Notes  and  lUustrattons  CB^ 

y  Google 


Digitized  by  ^ 


▲J).  460-465.  SETTLEMfiNTS  OF  GERMAN  INYADESa 


25 


were  demaoded.  Over  these  HeDgest  reigned,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Octa,  called  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  JEac 

In  this  narrative  British  and  Roman  traditions  are  confounded 
with  the  old  Saxon  Saga  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Saxons 
gained  possession  of  Thuringia.  The  principal  assertion  of  the 
nairative,  that  Hengest  reoeived  the  three  provinces  mentioned 
as  the  ransom  of  Yortigem,  is  of  all  the  least  true,  as  they  did 
not  fall  under  the  Sdxon  dominion  till  a  much  later  i^eriod. 
These  stories  seem  to  hare  been  jnyented  by  Welsh  authors  in 
order  to  palliate  the  ineffectual  resistance  made  at  first  by  their 
countrymen,  and  to  account  for  the  rapid  progress  and  licentious 
devastations  of  the  Saxons. 

S  5.  The  accounts  of  the  conquerors  themselves,  as  recorded  by 
Bede,  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronide,*  and  others,  are  more  to  be 
relied  up(>n.t  According  to  these  authorities,  which  differ  in  minor 
details,  Yortigem  invited  the  Angles  to  his  assistance  in  449. 
They  lauded  at  Hypwint  s-fleot,  **  fought  against  the  Picts,  and  had 
victory  whithersoever  they  came."  Sending  to  their  country  for 
reinforcements,  a  larger  army  landed  in  the  country,  consisting  of 
Old  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes.  After  an  easy  triumph,  the  victorious 
Jutes  invited  their  countrymen  beyond  the  sea  to  come  and  take 
po8S(  ssion  of  a  fertile  island,  which  the  sloth  and  cowardice  of  the 
inhabitants  had  rendered  them  unable  to  defend.  Several  battles 
were  fought  At  the  battle  of  ^glesford,  the  lowest  ford  on  the 
Med  way  (the  present  Aylesford),  Horsa  was  slain  (a.d.  456)4 
Two  years  after,  another  great  battle  was  fous^ht  between  the  Saxons 
aud  Britons  at  Grecganford  (Crayford)  in  Kent,  when  the  Saxons, 
led  by  Hengest  and  his  son,  sumamed  Msc  (or  the  Ash),  gained  a 
signal  victory.  The  Britons  were  completely  driven  out  of  Kent, 
and  Hengest  and  his  son  assumed  kingly  power.  In  4i  5  Hengest 
and  .^Ssc  gained  a  great  victory  over  twelve  British  chieftains  near 


*  See  Notes  and  lUusiraUoiis  to  otuip- 
tcr  iv.  (C). 

t  Lappcnberg,  Sir  Francis  Palgrave, 
and  Kemble  regard  the  whole  account  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  as  of  no  his- 
torical value,  and  maintain  that  we  have 
no  real  history  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  tiU 
their  conversion  to  Christianity,  150  years 
later.  Hentsest  and  Horsa,  it  is  said,  are 
mythical  personages,  Hengest  (^Beng$t) 
and  Horsa  being  the  Teutonic  names  for 
sUUkm  and  horse.  There  are,  however, 
good  reasons  for  believing  that  the  oom- 
DKHily  received  account  of  the  conquest 
is  hB"^  upon  historical  fiMta.  See  Or. 
ibiiheProc^edimgiqftkeArckmh 


logical  InstUuU  for  1849.  It  is  to  be 
observed  that  there  must  have  been  old 
English  records,  which  are  followed  in- 
dependently by  Bede  and  the  C%ronicU. 
Bede  expressly  says  that  he  used  such 
authorities;  and  the  Chronicle^  which 
generally  follows  Bede,  gives  events 
(eepeciaUy  details  of  the  conquest)  not 
found  in  the  earlier  writer. 

t  According  to  Bede,  the  monument  of 
Horsa  was  still  to  be  seen  in  his  time  In 
the  eastern  part  of  Kent ;  and  two  mUes 
north  of  Aylesford,  at  a  place  called  Hor- 
sted,  a  collection  of  fllnt-ttones  is  pointed 
out  as  the  t^mb  of  Uantu 


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26     ANGLO-SAXONS  TILL  THE  REION  OF  EGBERT.  Chap.  n. 

Wippedsfleot  (Ebbes-fleet?):  eight  years  later  they  ''fought  agaiuBt 
the  Welsh  (ue,  the  Britons)  and  took  spoils  innumerable,  and  the 
Welsh  fled  from  the  Angles  like  fire'*  (a.d.  473).*  According  to 
British  accounts,  the  Britons  rallied  under  Ambrosins  Aureli- 
anus  t  and  Yortimer,  the  son  of  Vortigem,  who  won  three  great 
battles,  and  drove  the  inva^^ers  back  to  Thanet  Hengest  died  in 
the  40th  year  after  his  arrival  in  Britain^  and  was  succeeded  by 
.^Ssc,  who  reigned  24  years,  and  won  more  territory  from  the 
Britons.  He  was  the  fDunder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  .^Sscings,  or 
Ashings,^  sons  of  the  Ashtree,  the  name  given  to  the  kings  of 
Kent. 

§  6.  Second  Sdtlement  of  the  German  invaden^  a.d.  477. — ^Tn 
the  year  477,  four  years  after  the  decisive  victory  of  Hengest,  Ella 
(uElla,  or  jElle),  with  his  three  sons,  Cymen,  Wlenciug,and  Cissa, 
landed  with  a  body  of  Saxons  from  three  ships  at  the  place  afterwards 
called  Cymenes-ora  (Shoreham),  upon  the  eastern  side  of  Chichester 
harbour  in  Sussex ;  but  the  Britons  were  not  expelled,  till  after 
many  battles,  by  their  warlike  invaders.  The  most  graphic  record 
in  the  whole  story  of  the  conquest  is  that  of  the  capture  of  the 
old  Roman  town  of  Anderida,  or  Andredes-ceaster  (Pevensey),  by 
Ella  and  Cissa,  "  who  slew  all  that  dwelt  therein,  nor  was  a  single 
Briton  left  there  '*  (491).  Ella  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  the 
South'Saocons  or  Sussex,  and  extended  his  dominion  over  the 
modem  county  of  Sussex  and  a  great  part  of  Surrey.  Ella  is  said 
to  have  died  between  514  and  519.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Cissa,  in  whose  line  the  kins^dom  of  Sussex  remained  for  a  long 
period,  though  we  know  not  even  the  name  of  any  of  his  successors. 
The  capital  of  this  kingdom  was  Chichester  (Cissa-Kseaster,  the 
fortress  or  city  of  Cissa),  the  British  and  Roman  Begnum,  To 
these  German  invaders  is  due  the  division  of  Sussex  into  rapeSy 
which  again  are  diviilcd  into  hundreds, 

§  7.  Third  settlement  of  the  German  invaders,  a.d.  495. — ^The 
third  body  of  German  invaders  were,  like  the  last,  also  Saxons. 
They  landed  in  495,  under  the  command  of  Cerdic  and  his  son 
Cynric,  at  a  place  called  Cerdices-ora,  which  was  probibly  at  the 
head  of  the  Hamble  creek,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Southampton 
Water.  None  of  the  invaders  met  with  such  vigorous  resistance,  or 
exerted  so  much  valour  and  perseverance  in  pushing  their  conquests. 
Cerdic  did  not  make  much  progress  till  six  years  later,  after  calling 
in  further  aid  from  the  continent.     In  514  Cerdic  was  reinforced  by 


*  Hm  Anglo-Somm  CKronicU  is  the  au- 
thority for  all  these  battles. 

f  He  is  represented  as  the  leader  of 
the  Bomanized  BritooH.  in  opposition  to 


Vortigem. 

t  The  termination  -ing  Ib  tlw  sigii  oC 
the  Aoglo.Saxon  patronymia 


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▲.  D.  47!m;s6.    settlements  of  GEBMAN  mVADEBa      27 

tiie  anival  Mb  nephews,  Stnf  and  Wihtgar,  who  are  also  represented 
as  Judsh  leaders.  Gerdic's  power  now  became  more  formidable;  many 
districts  were  conquered,  luid  among  them  the  Isle  of  Wight,  which 
Geidic  bestowed  on  his  nephews  (530).  It  was  not,  however,  till  his 
great  nctorj  over  the  Britons  at  Gerdioes-ford  (or  Charford,  in 
HampshireX  in  519,  that  Gerdic  assmned  the  royal  title  and  erected 
the  kingdom  of  the  West-Saxons  or  Wessex.  Cerdic's  further 
progress  towards  the  w^t  was  checked  by  a  great  defeat  which  he 
received  in  the  following  year  at  Mount  Badon*  from  Arthur,  prince 
of  the  Damnonii«  whose  heroic  valour  now  sustained  the  declining 
fiite  of  his  countiy.  This  is  that  Arthur  so  much  celebrated  in  the 
songs  of  British  bards,  and  whose  military  achievements  have  been 
blended  with  so  many  fables  as  even  to  have  given  occasion  for 
entertaining  a  doubt  of  his  real  existence.  But,  though  poets  dis- 
figure the  lineaments  of  history  by  their  fictions,  and  use  strange 
liberties  with  truth  where  they  are  the  sole  historians,  as  among  the 
IMtons,  they  have  commonly  some  real  foundation  for  their  wildest 
exaggerati<ms. 

Gerdic  died  in  634,  leaving  his  dominions  to  his  son  Gynric,  who 
ruled  till  his  death  in  560,  and  considerably  extended  his  kingdom, 
the  capital  of  which  was  Wintan-ceaster,  or  Winchester,  the  Roman 
Yenta  Belgarum.  Gynric  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Geawlin,  who 
toc^  from  the  Britons  the  great  Roman  cities  of  Gloucester,  Giren- 
cester,  and  Bath  (577),  and  extended  his  conquests  up  the  valley  of 
the  Severn,  as  well  as  to  the  north  of  the  Thames.t 

§  8.  Fourth  settlement  of  the  German  invaders^  a.d.  526. — ^These 
invaders  were  also  Saxons.  They  founded  the  kingdom  of  the  East- 
BaoDons  or  Essex^  to  which  the  Middle-Saxons  or  Middlesex  also 
belonged.  Escvin  was  the  first  kiog  of  Essex ;  but  his  son  Sledda, 
who  married  a  daughter  of  ^thelberht  of  Kent,  appears  as  a  subject 
of  his  fiither-in-law ;  and  Essex,  though  styled  a  kingdom,  seems 
always  to  have  been  subject  to  the  neighbouring  kings. 

$  9.  Fifth  settlement  of  the  Qerman  insiders, — The  four  pre- 
ceding invasions  had  been  made  by  the  Jutes  and  Saxons;  but  the 
next  two  settlements  consisted  of  Angles.  Towards  the  middle  or 
end  of  the  dxth  century,  for  the  exact  date  is  unknown,  some 
Angles,  apparently  divided  into  two  tribes,  the  North-Folk  and 


*  Mdimt  Badon  ts  nsoaUy  kleDttfled 
with  Bath ;  bat  Dr.  Oaest  addnces  etroDg 
reaaons  for  believing  it  to  be  Badbory, 
searBlandford,  in  Dorsetshire.  (^Utiupn^ 
p.  63.)  The  year  of  the  battle  of  Mount 
Badon  was  also  that  of  the  bArth  of  OildaSt 
who  exults  over  the  ''slaughter  of  the 
wIDabu'*  (de  furciftrit).    He  repreaents 


it  as  separating  a  time  of  oonflick  and 
disaster  fh>m  one  of  comparative  repose, 
daring  which,  however,  the  Britons  grew 
more  and  more  corrapt. 

•f>  See  Dr.  Guest's  "  English  Conquest  of 
the  Severn  Valley,"  in  the  Archaoloffical 
Journal  for  1862,  vol.  xix.  pp.  193,  folL 


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28     ANGLO-SAXONS  TILL  THE  REIGN  OF  EGBEBT.  Chap,  il 

tbe  Soutk'Folk^  founded  the  kingdom  of  East  Anglia,  compriring 
tbe  modern  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and  parts  of  Cambridge- 
shire and  Huntingdonshire.  Hardly  anything  is  known  of  the  his- 
tory of  East  Anglia.  Uffa  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  king,  and 
his  descendants  were  styled  Uffingas,  just  as  the  race  of  Kentish 
kings  were  called  .^Isciiigas. 

5  10.  Sixth  settlement  of  the  German  invaders,  about  a.d.  647. — 
The  country  to  the  north  of  the  H umber  had  been  early  separated 
into  two  British  states,  namely,  Deify r  (Deora-rice),  extending  from 
the  Humber  to  the  Tyne,  and  Bemeich  (Bcoma-rice),  lying  between 
the  Tyne  and  the  Forth.  These  names,  afterwards  Latinized  into 
Deira  and  Bemicia,  were  retained  till  a  late  period.  The  two 
countries  were  separated  by  a  vast  forest  occupying  tbe  distiict 
between  the  Tyne  and  the  Tees,  or  the  modem  county  of  Durham. 
According  to  a  tratlition  preserved  by  Nennius,  Hengest  sent  for  his 
son  Ochta,  and  for  Kbissa  the  son  of  Horsa,  who  came  over  in  forty 
ship-s  and  settled  in  the  north  of  Britain,  up  to  the  confines  of  the 
Plots.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  Angles  had  occupied  parts 
of  Northumbria  at  an  early  period ;  though  it  was  not  till  the  con- 
quests of  Ida,  who  fought  his  way  southward  from  the  Lothians,  that 
the  Angles  obtained  the  supremacy  (547).  Ida  became  king  of 
Bemicia,  and  transmitted  his  power  to  his  son ;  and  a  separate  Anglian 
kingdom  was  founded  in  Deira  by  Ella.  These  two  kingdoms  remained 
for  some  years  in  a  state  of  hostility  with  one  another ;  but  they 
were  united  in  the  person  of  iEthelfrith  or  iEdelfrid,  grandson  of  Ida, 
who  had  married  a  daughter  of  Ella,  and  who  expelled  her  infant 
brother  Edwin.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  restoration  of  Edwin, 
in  617,  that  the  united  kingdoms  seem  to  have  assumed  the  name 
of  Northumbria,  which  was  for  some  time  the  most  powerful  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  states. 

§  11.  The  country  to  the  west  of  East  Anglia  and  Deira  was 
known  by  the  name  of  the  March  or  boundary,  and  was  invaded 
by  An;;liau  chieftains,  who  were  for  some  time  subject  to  the  kiugs  of 
Northumbria.  It  was  erected  into  an  independent  state  by  Penda, 
about  626,  under  the  name  of  the  March  or  Mercia,  which  was  sub- 
sequently extended  to  the  Severn,  and  comprised  the  whole  of  the 
centre  ot  England.  It  was  divided  by  tbe  Trent  into  North  and 
South  Mercia. 

§  12.  Thus,  after  a  century  and  a  half,  was  gradually  established 
in  Britain  what  has  been  called  the  Heptarchy,  or  seven  Anglo- 
Saxon  kingdoms,  namely  Kent,  Sussex,  Wessex,  Essex,  East  Anglia, 
Mercia,  and  Northumbria.  The  term  is  not  strictly  correct,  for 
there  were  never  exactly  seven  independent  kingdoms  co-existent  • 
and,  il  the  smaller  and  dependent  ones  are  reckoned,  the  number 


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AJ).  547-696.  THE  HEPTARCHY.  29 

mast  be  considerably  increased.  The  Britons,  or  ancient  Celtic  in- 
habitants, driven  into  the  weistem  parts  of  the  island,  formed  several 
sanall  states.  In  the  extreme  south-west  lay  Damnonia,  called 
also  West   Wales,  the  kingdom  of  Arthur,  occupying  at  first  the 


Map  of  firiiain,  showing  the  Settlements  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

present  counties  of  Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  but  limited  at  a  later 
period,  after  the  peparation  of  Cernau,  or  Cornwall,  to  Dyvnaint, 
Of  Devonshire.  In  Souiersetshire,  Wiltshire,  and  Dorsetshire,  con- 
quered by  the  West  Saxons  at  au  early  period,  a  large  native 
population  still  maintained  its  ground.    This  was  likewise  the  case 


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80    ANQLO-SAXONS  TILL  THE  REIGN  OF  EGBERT.  Chap.  n. 

in  Devonshire  Icmg  after  its  oocapation  hy  the  Saxons;  whence 
the  inhahitants  of  that  district  ohtained  the  name  of  the  '^  Welsh 
kind.**  Cambria^  or  WaU$^  was  divided  into  several  small  kingdoms 
or  principalities.  The  name  of  Welsh  (  WeoUas)  was  the  German  term 
for  foreigners,  or  those  who  speak  another  language,  and  W&lsch  is  still 
applied  by  the  Germans  to  the  Italians.  The  history  of  the  Celts 
who  dwelt  in  Cumbria^  to  the  north  of  Wales,  is  involved  in  obscurity. 
Cumbria,  or  Cumberland,  properly  so  called,  included,  besides  the 
present  county,  Westmoreland  and  Lancashire,  and  extended  into 
Northumbria,  probably  as  far  as  the  modem  Leeds.  Caerleol,  or 
Carlisle,  was  its  chief  city.  North  of  Cumbria,  between  the  two 
Roman  walls,  and  to  the  west  of  the  kingdom  of  Bemicia,  were 
situated  two  other  British  kingdoms :  Beged,  in  the  southern  portion 
of  the  district,  nearly  identical  perhaps  with  Annandale,  in  Dum* 
friesshire ;  and  StrcUhdyde^  embracing  the  counties  of  Dumbarton^ 
Renfrew,  and  Dumfries,  and  probably  also  those  of  Peebles,  Sc4kirk» 
and  Lanark.  These  kingdoms  were  sometimes  united  under  one 
chief,  or  Pendragon,  called  also  Tyem,  or  fyrannus,  who,  like  other 
British  princes,  regarded  himself  as  the  successor,  aud  even  as  the 
descendant,  of  Constantino  or  Blaximus.  The  Welsh  called  all  the 
Angles  and  Saxons  by  the  name  of  Saxous,  as  they  call  the  English 
to  this  day. 

Besides  the  Britons  who  found  shelter  in  these  western  and 
mountainous  regions  from  the  fury  of  the  Saxon  and  Anglian 
invaders,  great  numbers  of  them,  under  the  conduct  of  th*'ir  priests 
and  chieftains,  abandoned  their  native  shores  altogether,  and  settled 
in  Armorica,  on  the  western  coast  of  France,  which  from  them 
derived  its  subsequent  name  of  Bretagne,  or  Biittany. 

The  completeness  of  the  conquest  made  by  the  Anglo-Saxons 
is  inferrel  from  the  fact  that  their  language  forms  to  this  dny 
the  staple  of  our  own;  but  with  regard  to  their  treatment  of 
the  conquered  land,  and  their  relations  towards  the  natives,  wo 
are  almost  entirely  in  the  dark.  It  is  usually  stated  that  the 
Saxons  either  exterminated  the  original  population^  or  drove  them 
into  the  western  parts  of  the  island ;  but  there  are  goo«l  reasons 
for  believing  that  this  was  not  uniformly  the  case ;  and  we  may 
conclude  from  the  Welsh  traditions,  and  from  the  number  of  Celtic 
words  still  existing  in  the  English  language,  that  a  considerable 
number  of  the  Celtic  inhabitants  remained  upon  the  soil  as  the  slaves 
or  subjects  of  their  conquerors.* 

§  13.  As  it  would  be  useless  to  follow  the  obscure  and  often 
doubtfnl  details  of  the  several  Anglo-Saxon  states,  we  shall  content 
ourselves  with  selecting  the  more  remnrkable  events  that  occurred 
•  Thla  BUtJect  is  more  fully  disciisswl  In  the  Notes  and  Tllustrations  (C). 


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AJX  568-692.        INTBODUCnON  OF  CHRISTUNITT. 


31 


down  to  the  time  when  all  the  kingdoms  were  united  nnder  (he 
anthority  of  Eghert  The  title  of  Bretufalda^  or  Bryienwealda^ 
that  Isy  supreme  commander  or  emperor  of  Britain,  which  was  given 
or  assumed  hy  him,  is  assigned  in  the  Chronicle  to  seven  earlier 
kings,  whose  supremacy  among  the  Anglo-Saxon  sovereigns  affordi 
some  bond  of  connection  to  their  histories.* 

The  first  who  held  this  sort  of  supremacy,  according  to  Bede,t  was 
£lla,  king  of  the  South  Saxons.  Geawlin,  king  of  the  West  Saxons, 
or  Wessex,  the  grandson  of  Cerdic,  was  the  second.  The  .^Iscing^ 
^thelberht  X  o(  Kent,  disputed  the  supremacy  with  him,  but  was 
overthrown  in  a  great  battle  at  Wibbandun  (Wimbledon),  which 
won  Surrey  for  Wessex  (568).  Ceawlin  united  many  districts  to 
his  kingdom ;  but,  from  some  unknown  cause,  the  termination 
of  his  reign  was  singularly  unprosperous.  His  own  subjects,  and 
even  his  own  relations,  with  the  Britons  and  Scots,  united  against 
him.  He  was  defeated  in  a  great  battle  at  Wodesbeorg  (probably 
Wanborongh,  near  Swindon,  in  Wilts),  in  the  year  592,  and  died 
in  exile  two  years  afterwards. 

§  14.  After  the  expulsion  of  Ceawlio,  iEthelberht  of  Kent  obtained 
the  supremacy,  to  which  he  had  for  so  many  years  aspired.  The 
roost  memorable  event  of  his  reign  was  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  for  the  reception  of  which  the 
mind  of  ^thelberht  had  been  prej^red  through  his  marriage  with 
the  Christian  princess  Bertha,  daughter  of  Cbaribert,  the  Frank  king 
of  Paris.  But  the  immediate  cause  of  its  introduction  was  an 
incident  which  occurred  at  Rome.  It  happened  that  Gregory,  who 
afterwards,  under  the  title  of  the  Great,  occupied  the  pa[)al  chair, 
had  observed  in  the  market-place  of  Rome  some  Anglian  youths  ex- 
posed for  sale,  whom  the  Roman  merchants,  in  their  trading  voyages 
to  Britain,  had  bought  of  their  mercenary  parents.  Struck  with  the 
beauty  of  their  fair  complexions  and  blooming  countenances,  Gre- 
gory asked  to  what  country  they  belonged.  Being  told  that  they 
were  Angles,  he  replied  that  they  ought  more  properly  to  be  denomi- 
nated ang^s  :  for  it  was  a  pity,  he  said,  that  the  prince  of  darkness 
should  enjoy  so  fair  a  prey,  and  that  so  beautiful  an  exterior  should 
cover  a  mind  destitute  of  internal  grace  and  righteousness.   Inquiring 


*  Tbe  existence  of  the  Bretwaldas,  at 
least  in  the  earUer  times,  is  disputed  by 
Mr.  HalUm  and  Mr.  Kemble.  The  title 
itself  occurs,  for  the  first  and  only  Ume, 
in  tbe  (^rtmicUt  in  connection  with  the 
supremacy  of  Egbert,  "  tbe  eighth  king 
that  was  Brttwalda,"  and  then  the  other 
aeren  are  named.  The  list  is  taken  ftt>m 
tho  passage  in  Bede,  where  he  names 
.Ahdberht  as  the  third  among  the  kings 


of  the  English  race  who  held  some  sort  of 
supremacy  over  aU  the  provinces  south  of 
the  Humber;  the  limitation  applying 
of  course  only  to  the  first  four,  not  to  the 
three  Northumbrians. 

t  *'  Imperlnm  hi^Jusmodi,"  Bede,  H.  E. 
li.  5. 

t  Usually  called  Ethelbert,  the  oorropl 
form  of  the  name. 


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32     ANGLO-SAXONS  TILL  THE  REIGN  OF  EGBERT.   Chap.  n. 


farther  concerning  the  name  of  their  province,  he  was  informed  that 
it  was  Deira,  a  district  of  Northumbria.  "  Deira,'*  replied  he,  "  that 
is  good!  They  are  called  to  the  mercy  of  Go«l  from  liis  anger  (d€ 
ira).  But  what  is  tbe  name  of  the  king  of  that  province  ?  "  tJe 
was  told  it  was  uElla,  or  Alia.  "  AUelujah ! "  cried  he ;  "  we  must 
endeavour  that  tlie  praises  of  God  be  sung  in  their  country.'*  Moved 
by  these  auguries,  which  appeared  to  him  so  happy,  Gregory  deter- 
mined to  undertake  himself  a  mission  into  Britain,  aud,  having 
obtained  the  Poi)e*s  approbation,  prepared  fur  the  journey ;  but  his 
popularity  at  home  was  so  great,  ihat  the  Romans,  unwilling  to 
expose  him  to  such  dangers,  opposed  his  design  ;  and  he  was  obliged 
for  the  present  to  lay  aside  ail  further  thoughts  of  executing  his 
pious  purpose.* 

After  his  accession  to  the  pontificate,  Gregory,  anxious  for  the 
conversion  of  Britain,  sent  Augustine,  a  Roman  monk,  with  forty 
associates,  to  preach  the  gospel  in  this  island.  Terrified  ^ith  the 
danger  of  propagating  the  faith  among  so  fierce  a  people,  of  whose 
language  they  were  ignorant  the  missionaries  stopped  some  time 
in  Gaul,  nnd  sent  back  Augustine  to  lay  the  hazards  and  difficulties 
of  the  undertaking  before  the  poir»e,  and  crave  his  permission  to 
return.  But  Gregory  exhorted  them  to  persevere ;  and  Augustine, 
on  his  arrival  in  Kent  in  the  year  697^  found  the  danger  much 
less  than  he  had  apprehended,  ^thelherht,  already  well  disi)osed 
towards  the  Christian  faith,  assigned  him  a  habitation  in  the  Isle 
of  Thanet,  and  soon  after  admitted  him  to  a  conference.  Encouraged 
by  his  favourable  reception,  and  seeing  now  a  prospect  of  success, 
Augustine  proceedv  I  with  redoubled  zeal  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the 
people  of  Kent.  KumbcTS  were  converted  and  baptized,  and  the 
king  himself  was  persuaded  to  submit  to  the  same  rite.  Augustine 
was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  endowed  by  Gregory 
with  authority  over  all  the  British  churches,  and  in  token  of 
his  new  dignity  received  the  pall  from  Rome  (601).  Christianity 
was  soon  afterwards  introduced  into  the  kingdom  of  Esser  whose 
sovereign,  Sa3bei h:  or  Sebert,  was  iEthelberht's  nephew;  and  through 
the  influence  of  -^thelberht,  Mellitus,  who  had  been  the  apostle  of 
Christianity  in  Es-^ex,  was  appointed  to  tbe  bishopric  of  London, 
where  a  church  dedicated  to  St.  Paul  was  erected,  as  some  say, 
on  the  site  of  a  former  temple  of  Diana.  Sebert  also  erected  on 
Thomey  Island,  which  was  formed  by  the  branches  of  a  small  rivet 
falling  into  the  Thames,  a  church  dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  where  West* 


*  This  celebrated  story  is  told  by  Bede 
(ii.  1),  and  is  copied  from  him,  with 
slight  variations,  by  other  medieval 
writere.     Tbe  names  indicate    that  the 


legend  la  nothing  more  than  a  monkisk 
and  poetical  version  of  the  introdnctioa 
of  Christianity  into  the  North  Angliac, 
settlements  of  the  island. 


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A.D.  697-626.  THE  BRETWALDAS — EDWIN.  33 

minster  Abbey  now  stands.  In  Kent  the  see  of  Rochester  was 
fonnded  by  Augustine,  and  bestowed  upon  Justus. 

§  15.  The  marriage  of  ^thelberht  with  Bertha,  and,  much  more 
his  adoption  of  Christianity, brought  his  subjects  into  connection  with 
the  Franks,  Italians,  and  other  nations  of  the  continent,  and  tended 
to  reclaim  them  from  that  gross  ignorance  and  barbarity  in  which 
all  the  Saxon  and  Anglian  tribes  had  been  hitherto  involved, 
-fithelberht  also,  with  the  advice  of  his  counsellors,  enacted  a 
boily  of  laws,  the  first  written  laws  promulgateil  by  any  of  the 
German  conquerors.  He  governed  the  kingdom  of  Kent  51  years, 
and,  dying  in  616,  left  the  sucoession  to  his  son  Eadbald,  who 
possessed  neither  the  abilities  nor  the  authority  of  his  father.  The 
supremacy  among  the  Anglo<-Saxon  kingdoms  south  of  the  Humbcr 
passed  to  the  fourth  Bmtwalday  Redwald,  king  of  the  East  Angles 
(:*)86-624).  The  jHX)tection  afforded  by  Redwald  to  young  Edwin, 
the  riglitful  heir  of  the  kingdom  of  Deira,  brought  him  into  collision 
with  ^thelfrith,  king  of  Northumbria.  It  has  been  already  men- 
tioned that  -fithflfrith  had  united  Deira  to  Bcruicia,  by  seizing 
upon  it  at  the  death  of  Ella,  whose  daii^^hter  he  had  married,  and 
expelling  her  infant  brother  Edwin.  Redwald  marched  into  North- 
umbria, and  fought  a  battle  with  ^thelfrith,  who  was  defeated 
and  killed,  on  the  banks  of  the  Idle  in  Nottinghamshire  (617). 
His  sons,  Eanfrid,  Oswald,  and  Oswy,  yet  infants,  were  carried 
into  the  land  of  the  Picts,  and  Edwin  was  restored  to  the  crown. 

S  16.  Edwin  subsequently  became  the  fifth  Bretwalda^  and  all 

the  Anglo-Saxcm  states,  with  the  exception  of  Kent,  acknowledged 

bis  supremacy.    He  distinguished  himself  by  his  influence  over  the 

other  kingdoms,  and^  by  the  strict  execution  of  justice  in  his  own. 

He  reclaimed  his  subjects  from  the  licentious  life  to  which  they 

had  been  accustcmied ;  and  it  was  a  common  saying  that  during  his 

reign  a  woman  with  her  infEuit  might  go  on  foot  from  sea  to  sea 

without  fear  of  violence  or  robbery.    A  remarkable  instance  has 

been  transmitted  to  us  of  the  affection  borne  him  by  his  servants. 

His  enemy,  Cwichelm,  king  of  Wessex,  finding  himself  unable  to 

maintain  ojien  war  against  so  powerful  a  prince,  determined  to  use 

treachery  against  him,  and  employed  one  Eomer  for  that  purpose. 

I'he  assassin,  having  obtained  admittance  on  pretence  of  delivering 

a  meB8a<re  from  Cwichelm,  drew  his  dagger  and  ruhheil  upon  the 

king.     His  thegn  Lilla,  seeing  his  master's  danger,  and  having  no 

other  means  of  defence,  interposed  his  own  person  l>etween  the  king 

and  Eomer's  da«rger,  which  was  pushed  with  such  violence,  that 

it  wounded  Edwin  through  the  body  of  his  faithful  attendant 

C626).* 

*Bede,U.9. 


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34    ANQLO-SAXOKS  TILL  TH£  EEIQK  OP  EGBERT.    Ohap.  n. 

This  event,  as  well  as  the  birth  of  a  daughter  the  same  nighty 
is  said  to  have  hastened  Edwin's  oonversioa  to  Christianity.  After 
the  death  of  his  first  consort,  a  Mercian  princess,  Edwin  had  mar- 
ried ^thelburga,  the  daughter  of  ^thelberht,  king  of  Keot  This 
lady,  emulating  the  gbry  of  her  mother  Bertha,  who  had  been 
iiistrumeDtal  in  converting  her  husband  and  his  people  to  Chris- 
tianity, carried  Paulinus,  a  learned  bishop,  along  with  her;  and, 
besides  stipulating  for  toleration  in  the  exercise  of  her  own  religion, 
which  was  readily  granted  her,  she  used  every  effort  to  persuade  Ae 
king  to  embrace  it  Her  exertions,  seconded  by  those  of  Paulinus, 
were  successful.  Edwin  was  baptized  on  Easter  Day,  a.d.  G27,  at 
York,  in  a  wooden  church  hastily  erected  for  the  occasion,  and 
dedicated  to  St.  Peter.  Subsequently  York  was  raised  into  an 
archbishopric;  Paulinus  was  appointed  the  first  northern  metro- 
politan, and  a  handsome  church  of  stone  was  built  for  his  cathedral 
From  York,  as  a  centre,  Christianity  was  propagated,  though  not 
without  some  vicissitudes^  throughout  the  neighbouring  Anglian 
countries. 

§  17.  Evil  days  for  Northumbria  were  now  approaching.  Edwin 
was  slain  in  battle  by  Penda,  the  powerful  king  of  Merda  (633). 
Northumbria  was  divided  into  two  separate  kingdoms,  and  the 
people,  with  their  monarchs,  relapsed  into  Paganism.  In  634 
Oswald,  the  son  of  ^thelirith,  again  united  the  kingdoms  of  North- 
umbria, and  restored  the  Christian  religion,  in  which  he  and  his 
brothers  had  been  broii«:ht  up  during  their  exile  among  the  Picts. 
For,  while  South  Britain  was  overrun  by  heathen  conquerors, 
Christianity  had  been  firmly  planted  among  the  Scots  and  Picts  by 
the  missionarfes  led  from  Ireland  by  St.  Columba,  who  hiid  his 
chief  seat  in  the  sacred  island  of  Hii  (lona).*  Oswald  was  also 
acknowledged  as  the  sixth  Brettvalda^  aud  reigned,  according  to 
the  expression  of  Bede,  over  the  four  nations  of  Britain — the  Angles, 
the  Britons,  the  Picts,  and  the  Scots.  His  reign,  however,  was 
short  He  became  involved  in  a  war  with  Penda,  a.d.  642,  and, 
like  Edwin,  was  defeated  and  slain.  His  corpse  was  treated  with 
great  brutality ;  but  he  was  canonize<l  by  the  church  as  a  saint  and 
martyr ;  his  scattered  limbs  were  collected  as  relics,  and  were  held 
to  be  endowed  with  miraculous  powers.  Penda  penetrated  as  fiir 
as  Bamborough,  the  residence  of  the  Northumbrian  princes  on  thQ 
coast  of  Northumberland ;  but,  after  a  fruitless  siege,  he  was  obliged 
to  retire  and  evacuate  the  kingdom. 

§  18.  On  the  death  of  Oswald  his  brother  Oswy  succeeded  to  his 
kingdom  and  to  the  dignity  of  Bretwdlda,    He  defeated  and  slew 
the  formidable  Penda  in  a  great  battle  near  Leeds,  in  655.    The 
*  St.  Oolombft  died  in  the  Mine  year  in  wbidi  Avgaftine  came  to  England  CMT> 


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AJ).  096-795.  BCGFRITH— INA.  85 

reign  of  Oswy  was  rendered  memorable  by  a  most  destmctive 
pestilence  called  the  yeliaw  plague^  which,  commencing  in  664, 
ravaged  the  whole  island  for  twenty  years,  with  the  exception  of  the 
northern  Highktnds.  Oswy  died  in  670,  and  with  him  the  dignity 
of  Bretvxdda  expired,  till  it  was  revived  by  Egbert. 

His  warlike  successor,  Ecgfrith,  maintained  and  increased  his 
power  over  Mercia ;  but  his  ambition  tu  subdue  the  land  of  the  Picts 
led  to  the  destruction  of  his  army  and  his  own  death  on  the  moor 
of  Nechtansmere  (685).  The  blow  was  fatal  to  the  supremacy  of 
Ncaihumbria;  but  her  -decline  was  gilded  by  the  dawning  glories 
of  English  literature.  The  last  half  of  the  seventh  and  the  first 
half  of  the  eighth  century  saw  the  foundation  of  the  monasteries 
of  Whitby,  Jarrow^  and  Wearmouth,  and  the  great  school  of  learn- 
ing at  York ;  and  produced  the  poems  of  Gjsdmom  and  the  history 
of  Bbde.*  But  this  very  culture  tempted  the  Northumbrian  kings 
to  lay  down  the  sword  for  the  cloister;  and  during  most  of  the 
eighth  century  the  annals  of  Northumbria  present  little  more 
than  a  series  of  seditions,  usurpations^'  and  murders.  Agriculture 
was  neglected;  the  land  was  desolated  by  famine  and  pestilence. 
To  fill  up  the  measure  of  its  calamities,  the  Northmen  landed 
in  Lindisfam  in  793  and  in  the  following  year  at  Ecgferths-Minster 
(probably  Wearmouth),  plundering  and  destroying  the  churches 
and  monasteries  in  those  places.  After  the  death  of  ^thelred 
(a.d.  795)  universal  anarchy  prevailed  in  Northumbria;  and  the 
people,  having  by  so  many  fatal  revolutions  lost  all  attachment  to 
their  government  and  princes,  were  well  prepared  for  subjection  to 
a  foreign  yoke.  This  was  finally  imposed  upon  them  by  EcgMht 
or  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex;  to  the  history  of  which  kingdom, 
as  finnlly  swallowing  up  all  ihe  rest,  we  must  now  hasten. 

§  19.  The  history  of  Uie  kings  of  Wessex  presents  nothing  remark- 
able till  we  arrive  at  the  reign  of  Ine  or  Ina,  who  ascended  the 
throne  in  688.  Ina  was  remarkable  for  his  justice,  ix)licy,  and 
prudence.  He  treated  the  Britons  of  Somersetshire  and  the  adjoining 
districts  (the  WealcLs,  or  WeLsh-kiud),  whom  he  had  subdued,  with  a 
humanity  hitherto  unknown  to  the  Saxon  conquerors.  He  allowed  the 
proprietors  to  retain  possession  of  their  lands,  encouraged  marriages 
and  alliances  between  them  and  his  ancient  subjects,  and  granted  them 
the  privilege  of  being  governed  by  the  same  laws.  These  laws  he 
augmented  and  ascertained ;  and,  though  ho  was  disturbed  by  some 
insurrections  at  home,  his  long  reign  of  37  years  may  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  most  glorious  and  most  prosperous  in  the  annals  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons.  In  the  decline  of  his  age  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Borne,  where  he  died  in  728. 

•  Sm  NotM  and  lUostraUons  to  chapter  tv. 


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36     ANOLO-SAXONS  TILL  THE  REIGN  OF  EGBERT.  Chap.  n. 

Egbert  was  the  fourth  in  descent  from  Ingild,  Ina's  brother ;  and 
being  a  young  man  of  the  most  promising  hopes,  gave  great  jealousy 
to  the  reigning  king,  Beorhtric  (or  Brihtric),  both  because  he  seemed 
by  his  birth  better  entitled  to  the  crown,  and  had  acquired  in 
an  eminent  degree  the  affections  of  the  people.  Egbert,  sensible 
of  his  danger  from  the  suspicions  of  Brihtric,  secretly  withdrew 
into  G^ul,  where  he  was  well  received  by  Charles  the  Great, 
or  CharlerrMgne,  kiog  of  the  Franks.  By  residing  in  the  court  and 
serving  in  the  armies  of  that  prince,  the  most  able  and  most 
genet ous  that  had  appeared  in  Europe  durii.g  several  ages,  Egbert 
acquired  those  accomplishments  which  afterwards  enabled  him  to 
make  such  a  shining  figure  on  the  throne. 

It  was  not  long  before  Egbert  had  an  opportunity  of  displaying 
his  natural  and  acquired  abilities.  Brihtric  was  accidentally  killed 
by  partaking  of  a  cup  of  poison  which  his  wife  Eadburga,  daughter 
of  Ofifa,  king  of  Mercia,  had  mixed  for  a  young  nobleman  who  had 
acquired  her  husband's  friendship,  and  had  on  that  account  become 
the  object  of  her  jealousy.  Egbert  was  now  recalled  from  (Jaul  by 
the  nobility  of  Wessex,  aud  ascended  the  throne  of  his  ancestors, 
A.D.  800.  His  future  career  may  have  been  shaped  by  the  example 
of  Charles  the  Great,  who,  in  the  year  of  Egbert's  recall,  was 
crowned  at  Rome  by  pope  Leo  III.,  as  Augustus  or  Emperor  of 
the  West  (Christmas  Day,  800).  Egl>ert  turned  his  arms  against 
the  Britons  in  Cornwall  and  Wales,  but  was  recalled  from  these 
conquests  by  an  invasion  of  his  dominions  by  Beomwulf,  king  of 
Mercia.  To  explain  that  circumstance,  and  close  the  history  of  the 
other  Anglo-Saxon  states,  we  must  here  take  a  retrospective  glance 
at  the  events  that  had  happened  in  Mercia. 

§  20.  After  the  death  of  Penda,  the  history  of  Mercia  presents 
little  of  importance  till  we  arrive  at  the  long  reign  of  iEthelbald 
(716-755).  This  sovereign  api'cars  to  have  possessed  as  much 
power  as  any  of  the  Bretwaldas,  though  he  is  not  called  by  that 
title.  He  distinguished  himself  by  many  successful  conflicts  with 
the  Britons,  against  whom  he  united  under  his  standard  East 
Anglia,  Kent,  Essex,  and  for  a  while  also  Wessex.  At  one  period 
he  asserted  his  supremacy  over  all  England  south  of  the  Humber, 
and  in  a  charter  of  the  ye^r  736  signs  himself  "  King  of  Britain." 
He  was  deleated  at  Burford  in  752  by  the  West  Saxons,  and  perished 
three  years  after.  iEthelbald,  after  a  short  period  of  usurpation 
by  Beornred,  was  succeeded  by  Offa,  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the 
Mercian  princes.  This  monarch,  after  he  had  gained  several 
victories  over  the  other  Angl«>-Saxon  princes,  turned  his  arms 
against  the  Britons  of  Cambria,  whom  he  repeate<lly  defeated  (776). 
He  settled  the  levd  country  to  the  east  of  the  mountains,  between 


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AJX  716-828.  OFFA — EGBERT.  37 

the  Wye  ancLthe  Severn,  with  Anglians ;  for  whose  protection  he 
constructed  the  mound  or  rampart  between  the  mouth  of  the  Dee 
and  that  of  the  Wye,  known  as  Ofia's  Dyke,  traces  of  which  may 
still  be  discerned.  The  king  of  Mercia  had  now  become  so  con- 
siderable, that  Charles  the  Grt  at  entered  into  an  alliance  and  friend- 
ship with  him.  As  Charles  was  a  great  lover  of  learning  and 
learned  men,  Ofi&i,  at  his  desire,  sent  to  him  Alcuin,  a  Northumbrian 
monk  much  celebrated  for  his  scholarship.  Alcuin  received  great 
honours  from  Charles,  and  even  became  his  preceptor  in  the 
sciences.    Charles,  in  return,  made  Offa  many  costly  presents. 

But  the  glory  and  successes  of  Offa  were  stained  by  the 
treacherous  murder  of  ^thelberht,  king  of  the  East  Angles, 
whilst  sojourning  at  his  court  as  a  suitor  for  his  daughter,  and  by 
his  violent  seizure  of  ^thelberht's  kingdom  in  792.  Overcome  by 
remorse,  Offa  endeavoured  to  atone  for  his  crime  by  liberality  to 
the  church.  He  founded  the  monastery  of  St.  Albans.  He  en- 
gaged to  pay  the  sovereign  pontiff  a  yearly  donation  for  the  sup- 
port of  an  English  college  at  Rome,  and  imposed  the  tax  of  a  penny 
on  each  house  possessed  of  thirty  pence  a  year.*  This  imposition, 
le\Jed  afterwards  on  all  England,  was  commonly  denominated 
Fett'/s-^nce:  and  though  conferred  at  first  as  a  gift  for  the  main- 
tenance of  a  college,  it  was  afterwards  claimed  as  a  tribute  by  the 
Roman  pontiff. 

Offa  died  in  796.  The  reigns  of  his  successors  deserve  little 
attention  Mercia,  instead  of  continuing  to  be  the  leading  state 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  fell  rapidly  into  decay,  through  its  internal 
dissensions,  and  was  thus  easily  reduced  by  the  arms  of  Egbert, 
to  whose  history  we  must  now  return. 

§  21.  Egbert  had  already  possessed  the  throne  of  Wessex  for 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  when  his  dominions,  as  before  noticed, 
were  invaded  by  Beornwulf,  king  of  Mercia.  Egbert  defeated  the 
invaders  at  Ellendun  (823),  and  subdued  with  facility  the  tributary 
kingdoms  of  Kent  and  Sussex ;  while  the  East  Angles,  out  of 
hatred  to  the  Mercian  government,  immediately  rose  in  arms,  and 
put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Egbert.  To  engage  the 
Mercians  more  easily  to  submission,  Egbert  allowed  Wiglaf,  their 
countryman,  to  retain  the  title  of  king,  while  he  himself  exercised 
the  real  sovereignty  (828).  'J  he  anarchy  which  prevailed  in 
Northiunbria,  as  already  related,  tempted  him  to  carry  his  vic- 
torious arms  still  further ;  and  the  inhabitants,  unable  to  resist  his 


*  he»  trnrtworthy  aathoritiee  coDsider 
Offk's  Uberaliiy  as  only  &  conflrmation 
of  that  of  Ina,  king  of  the  West-Saxons, 
who  is  alao  said  to  have  founded  a  school 

4 


at  Rome,  and  to  have  laid  for  its  support 
a  tax  of  one  penny  under  the  nnme  of 
Rom-feoh^  or  Rome-scot,  on  every  hotwe 
in  bis  Icingdom. 


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38    ANGLO-SAXONS  TILL  THE  BEIQN  OF  EQBEBT.   Chap,  sl 

power,  and  desiroiis  of  poBseasing  some  established  form  of  govem- 
ment,  were  forward,  on  his  first  i^pearaDce,  to  send  deputies^  who 
sabmitted  to  his  authority,  and  swore  allegiance  to  him  as  their 
sovereign,  at  Dore«  in  Derbyshire.  Egbert,  however,  still  conceded 
to  Northmnbria,  as  he  had  done  to  Mercia  and  East  Anglia,  the 
power  of  electing  their  own  kings,  who  paid  him  tribute  and  were 
dependent  on  hiuL  These  three  subordinate  kingdoms  remained 
under  their  own  sovereigns,  as  vassals  of  Egbert,  till  they  were 
•wallowed  op  by  the  Danish  invasion. 

Thus  all  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  were  united  under  the 
supremacy  of  one  king,  nearly  400  years  after  the  first  arrival  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  in  Britain.    This  event  took  place  in  the  year  827. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 


A.  THE  FRISIANS  TOOK  PABT  IN 
THE  SAXON  INVASION  OF  BRI- 
TAIN. 

This  appears  from  the  foUowing  UictB  : 
—1.  Prooopius  says  (Bell.  Goth.  iv.  30) 
that  Britain  was  inhabited  in  his  time  (the 
6th  oentory)  bj  three  races,  the  Angles, 
FHsians,  sod  Britons.  The  omission  of 
the  Saxoos,  and  the  substitution  of  the 
Frisians,  can  be  accounted  for  only  on  the 
supposition  that  Frisians  and  Saaeons  were 
coovertible  terms.  2.  The  traditions  of 
the  Frisians  and  Flemings  claim  Hengest 
as  their  ancestor,  and  relate  that  be  was 
banished  from  their  country.  3.  In  old 
German  poetry  it  is  expressly  stated  that 
the  Frisians  were  formerly  called  Saxons. 
4.  Many  Ekiglish  words  and  some  gram- 
matical forms  are  more  closely  allied  to 
those  of  the  old  Frieeic  than  to  those  of 
any  other  German  dialect.  For  instance, 
the  English  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood, 
to,  is  found  in  the  old  Friesic,  and  not  in 
any  other  German  dialect.  On  this  sub- 
ject see  Davies  *'  On  the  Races  of  Lanca- 
shire," in  the  Transaetums  <if  tks  PhUo- 
logical  Society  for  1865. 

R    THE  ISLE  OF  THANET. 

The  Isle  of  Thanet  was  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times,  and  long  afterwards,  separated 
from  the  rest  of  Kent  by  a  broad  strait, 


called  by  Bede  the  Wanttumu,  Hn 
Stour,  instead  of  being  a  narrow  stream, 
as  at  present,  was  then  a  broad  rirer, 
opening  into  a  wide  estuary  between 
Sandwich  and  Ramsgate,  in  the  directi(Hk 
of  Pegwell  Bay.  Ships  coming  from 
France  and  Germany  sailed  up  this 
estuary,  and  through  the  river,  out  at  the 
other  side  by  Reculver.  Ebbes  Fleet  is 
the  name  given  to  a  farmhouse  on  a  strip 
of  high  ground  rising  out  of  Minster 
Marsh  (Stanley,  Memorials  qf  CanUrburf^ 
p.  13).  Thanet  is  the  German  name  of 
the  island.  The  Welsh  name  was  Ruitn, 
which  probably  signified  a  foreland,  and 
is  still  preserved  in  the  compound  Amu- 
gat*.  In  East  Kent  the  gaps  in  the  line 
of  cliff*  which  lead  down  to  the  shore  are 
called  gates ;  hence  Ramsgate  is  the  gate 
or  pass  leading  into  Ruim  (Guest,  in  Pro- 
ceedings qf  the  Archaologioal  institute 
for  1849,  p.  32). 


C  CELTIC  WORDS  IN  THE  ENG- 
LISH LANGUAGE. 

Mr.  Davies,  in  the  valuable  paper  al- 
ready referred  to,  remarlcs :  •*  The  stoutest 
assertor  of  a  pure  Anglo-Saxon  or  Nor- 
man descent  is  convicted  by  the  language 
of  his  daily  life  of  belonging  to  a  race  that 
partakes  largely  of  Celtic  blood.  If  he 
calls  for  his  coat  (W.  coto.  Germ,  rockl 


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Chap.  n. 


NOTES  AKD  ILLtTSTRATIONa 


39 


or  tells  of  tfaSs  tetM  of  flah  be  has  can^t 
(W.  boMgawd,  Genn.  Xaorfr),  or  the  eart  he 
employs  on  Ids  land  (W.  eart,  tnm  ear, 
a  (bag  or  sledge,  Germ,  woffen),  or  of  the 
prank$  of  his  youth  or  the  praneinff  of 
his  horM  (W.  prank,  a  triok ;  prando,  to 
fkolic),  or  declares  that  he  was  happy  when 
a  gownsman  at  Oxford  (W.  kap,  fortune, 
chance ;  Germ.  glQck;  W.  gwn),  or  that 
his  servant  is  pert  (W.  pert,  spmoe, 
dapper,  insolent);  or,  descending  to  the 
langnage  of  the  volgar,  he  affirms  that 
such  assertions  are  balderdatk,  and  the 
claim  a  ikam  (W.  baldordduM,  idle, 
prating;  siom,  from  ikom,  a  deceit,  a 
sham),  he  is  unoonsdonsly  maintaining 
the  truth  be  wonld  deny. 

A  long  list  of  Celtic  words  in  the  Eng- 
lish language  will  be  found  in  Mr.  Davies's 
essay,  and  also  in  another  raluable  paper 
by  the  late  Mr.  Gamett,  likewise  pub- 
lished in  the  TrantaeUcnt  qf  the  PhOo- 
loffical  Society  (toI.  i.  p.  171).  It  ap- 
pears that  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
English  words  relating  to  the  ordinary 
arts  of  life,  such  as  agriculture,  carpentry, 
and  in  general  indoor  and  outdoor  service. 
Dm  the  Oeltle.     The  following; 


which  might  be  multiplied 
nitely,  may  serve  as  «*mpi«« 


WtUk. 


>(ail 
>(apot). 
ittmUrov). 

gwlBiicn  (from  gvhB.  wooQ. 
gwn(arolw). 
hem  (a  bovdwl, 
Ikthiarad). 


patt 
peek 


ptaerCaJog). 

rblcrhic 

mwdurlaw  (to  jola.  eoMBt). 

tad  (I 


Mr.  Davles  also  calls  attention  to  the 
foct  that  in  the  Lancashire  dialect  (and 
the  same  holds  good  of  other  dialects) 
many  low,  burlesque,  or  obscene  words  can 
be  traced  to  a  Celtic  source,  and  this  cir- 
cumstance, together  with  the  fM:t  that  no 
words  connected  with  law,  or  government, 
or  the  luxuries  of  life,  belong  to  this  class, 
is  distinct  evidence  that  the  Celtic  race 
was  held  in  a  state  of  dependence  or 
inferiority. 


aOTer  Penny  of  iEthelberht,  king  of  Kent. 

.  . ;  bust  right.     Reverse :   rkx  ;  wolf  and   twins.     (This 
•Qiii.  if  genuine,  is  an  evident  imitation  of  those  of  Rome.) 


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Golden  Ring  of  ^tbelwnlf  in  the  British  Miweum.    It  is  decorated  with  a  blaeish- 
bUclc  enamel,  firmly  incorporated  into  the  motal  by  fbdon. 

CHAPTER    111. 

THE  ANGLO-SAXONS  FROM   THE   UNION  OF   ENGLAND  UNDER  EGBERT 
TILL   THE   REIGN   OF  CANUTE  THE  DANE,    A.D.   827-1016. 

§1.  State  of  the  kingdom.  §2.  Invasion  of  the  Danes.  Death  of  Egbert. 
§  3.  Reign  of  ^Ethelwulf.  His  journey  to  Rome.  §  4.  Revolt  of  /Ethel- 
bald.  §  5.  Reigns  of  iF.thelbald,  i^thelberht,  J^thelred.  Continued  inva- 
sions of  the  Danes.  §  6.  Accession  of  Alfred.  Successes  of  the  Danes. 
Flight  of  Alfred.  §  7  Alfred  defeats  the  Danes.  Their  settlement  in 
East  Anglia.  The  Danelagh.  §  8.  Wise  regulations  of  Alfred.  New 
Danish  war.  Death  of  Alfred.  §  9.  His  character.  His  love  of  learn- 
ing. §  10.  His  policv  and  legislation.  §  11.  Reign  of  Edward  the 
Elder.  §  12.  Rcign  of  ^thelstan.  His  conquests,  power,  and  foreign 
connections.  §  13.  Reign  of  Edmund  I.  His  assassination.  §  14. 
Reign  of  Edred.  St.  Dun.stan ;  his  character  and  power.  §  15.  Reign 
ofEiiwy.  His  quarrel  with  St.  Dunstan.  §  H>.  Reign  of  Edgar.  His 
good  fortune.  §  17.  Reign  of  Edward.  His  assassination.  §  18.  Reign 
of  .Ktholred  II.  Invasion  of  the  Danes.  Danegeld.  §  19.  Ma.SBacre  of 
the  Danes.  §20.  Conquest  of  England  by  Sweyn.  Flight  of  .Ethelred. 
§  21.  Death  of  Sweyn  and  return  of  ^Ethelred.  Invasion  of  Canute. 
Death  of  -fithelred.'  §  22.  Division  of  England  between  Canute  and 
Edmund  Iron.side.     Murder  of  the  latter. 

§  1.  EonERT,  A.D.  827-836. — Although  England  was  not  firmly 
cemented  into  one  state  nnder  Egbert,  as  is  usually  represented,  yet 
the  power  of  this  monarch  and  the  union  of  so  maoy  provinces 
opened  the  prospect  of  future  tranquillity.  It  now  appeared  more 
than  probable  that  the  Anglo-Saxons  would  henceforth  become 
formidable  to  their  neighbours,  and  not  be  exposed  to  their  inroad.s 
and  devastations.  Indeed,  in  the  year  830,  Egbert  led  his  victori- 
ous army  into  North  Wales,  penetrated  into  Denbighshire,  laid  waste 
the  country  as  far  as  Snowdon,  and  reduced  the  Isle  of  Anglesey  to 
subjection.  Of  all  the  territory  that  had  been  comprised  in  Roman 
Britain,  Strathclyde  and  Cumbria  alone  were  free  from  vassalage  to 
the  crown  of  Egbert.    But  these  expectations  were  soon  overcast 


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A.D.  827-886.  EGBERT.  41 

by  the  appearance  of  the  Northmen  (832),  who  daring  the  next  two 
centuries  kept  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  perpetual  disquietude,  committed 
the  most  harbarous  ravages,  permanently  established  themselves 
in  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  founded  a  new  race  of  kings. 

§  2.  These  pirates  and  freebooters  inhabited  the  Scandinavian 
kingdoms  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden ;  and  the  hordes  which 
plundered  England  were  drawn  from  all  parts  of  both  the  Scandi- 
navian peninsulas.  It  was.  however,  chiefly  the  Danes  who 
directed  their  attacks  against  the  coasts  of  England ;  the  Nor- 
wegians made  their  descents  for  the  most  part  upon  Scotland,  the 
Hebrides,  and  Ireland ;  while  the  Swedes  turned  their  arms  against 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Baltic.  These  Scandinavians  were  in  race 
and  language  closely  connected  with  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The 
language  of  all  the  Scandinavian  nations  differs  only  slightly  from 
the  dialects  of  the  Germanic  tribes.  Both  races  originally  wor- 
shipped the  same  gods,  and  were  distinguished  by  the  same  love 
of  enterprise  and  freedom.  But  while  the  Anglo-Saxons  had  long 
since  abjured  their  ancient  faith,  and  had  acquired  the  virtues  and 
vices  of  civilization,  their  Scandinavian  kinsmen  still  remained  in 
their  savage  independence,  still  worshipped  Odin  as  their  national 
god,  and  still  regarded  the  plunder  of  foreign  lands  as  their  chief 
occupation  and  delight.  In  the  ninth  century  they  inspired  the 
same  terror  as  the  Anglo-Saxons  had  done  in  the  fifth.  Led  by 
the  younger  sons  of  royal  houses,  the  Vikings  *  swarmed  in  all  the 
harbours  and  rivers  of  the  surrounding  countries.  Their  course  was 
marked  by  fire  and  bloodshed.  Buildings  sacred  and  profane  were 
burnt  to  the  ground ;  multitudes  of  people  were  murdered  or  dragged 
away  into  slavery.  The  terrified  inhabitants  fled  at  the  approach 
of  the  enemy,  and  beheld  in  them  the  judgment  of  God  foreioKl  by 
the  prophets.  Tbeir  national  flag  was  the  figure  of  a  black  raven, 
woven  on  a  blood-red  ground,  from  whose  movements  the  Northmen 
augured  victory  or  defeat.  When  it  fluttered  its  wings,  they  believed 
that  Odin  gave  them  a  sign  of  victory;  but  if  the  wings  hung 
down,  they  imagined  that  the  god  would  not  prosper  their  arms. 
Tbeir  swords  were  longer  and  heavier  than  those  of  the  An^lo- 
Saxona,  and  their  battle-axes  are  described  as  formidable  weapons. 

These  terrible  Northmen  appeared  nearly  simultaneously  on  the 
coasts  of  England,  France,  and  Russia.  They  wrested  from  the 
French  monarch  one  of  his  fairest  provinces,  which  was  called  Nor- 
mandy after  them ;  and  they  founded  in  Bussia  a  dynasty  which 
reigned  ov*  r  that  country  above  700  years-f    Their  first  appearance 

*  voting  is  in  Danish  a  naval  warrior,  |  see  chapter  r.  The  Norse  dynasty  in 
ft  pinto.  Bussia  was  Cranded  at  Novgorod  by  RnrlQ 

f  For  their  settlement  in  Normandy  I  in863. 

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42 


ANGLO-SAXONS  AND  DANEa 


Chap,  hl 


in  England  is  i^aced  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  CJironide  under 
the  year  787 ;  but  it  was  not  till  the  latter  part  of  Egbert's  reign 
that  they  commenced  their  regular  and  systematic  ravages  of  the 
country.  At  first  they  made  merely  brief  and  rapid  descents  upon 
the  coasts,  returning  to  their  northern  homes  with  the  plunder  they 
had  gained;  but  they  soon  began  to  take  up  their  abode  in  England 
for  the  winter,  and  renewed  their  devastations  in  the  Sfiring.  While 
England  was  trembling  at  this  new  evil,  Egbert,  who  alone  was  able 
to  provide  effectually  against  it,  unfortunately  died  (aj).  836),  and 
left  the  government  to  his  son  ^thelwulf. 

§  3.  iGTHELwuLF,  836-868. — ^This  prince  had  neither  the  abilitiea 
nor  the  vigour  of  his  father,  and  was  better  qualified  for  governing 
a  convent  than  a  kingdom.  He  began  his  reign  with  a  partition 
of  his  dominions,  and  delivered  to  his  eldest  son,  ^thelstan,  the 
newly  conquered  provinces  of  Essex,  Kent,  and  Sussex.  No  inconve- 
nience seems  to  have  arisen  from  this  partition,  as  the  continual 
terror  of  the  Danish  invasions  prevented  all  domestic  dissension. 
These  incursions  now  became  almost  annual,  and,  from  their  sudden 
and  unexpected  natiu*e,  kept  the  English  in  continual  alarm.  The 
unsettled  state  of  his  kingdom  did  not  hinder  iEthelwulf  from 
making  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  and  taking  with  him  his  fourth  and 
favourite  son,  Alfred,  tlien  only  six  years  of  age  (853).  He  passed 
a  twelvemonth  there  in  exercises  of  devotion,  and  in  acts  of  liberality 
to  the  church.  Besides  giving  presents  to  the  more  distinguished 
ecclesiastics,  he  made  a  perpetual  grant  of  300  mancuses  *  a  year  to 
that  see ;  ono-tbird  to  support  the  lamps  of  St.  Peter's,  another  for 
those  of  St.  Paul's,  a  third  to  the  pope  himself.  It  has  been  main- 
tained by  some  writers  that  ^thelwulf  first  established  tithes  in 
England,!  but  this  is  founded  on  a  misinterpretation  of  the  ancient 
charters.  Tithes  were  of  earlier  origin ;  but  ^thelwulf  apppears 
to  have  established  the  first  poor-law,  by  imposing  on  every  ten  hides 
of  land  the  obligation  of  maintaining  one  indigent  person. 

§  4.  On  liis  return  from  Home  (856)  ^thelwulf  married  Judith, 
daughter  of  the  French t  king  Charles  the  Bald,  though  she  was 
then  only  twelve  years  of  age ;  but  on  his  landing  in  England  he 
met  with  an  opposition  he  little  expected.  His  eldest  son,  ^thel- 
Btan,  being  dead,  iEthelbald,  his  second  son,  who  had  assumed  the 
government,  formed,  in  concert  with  many  of  the  nobles,  a  project 

•  The  mancut  was  a  sflver  coin  of 
aboQt  the  weight  of  a  half-crown. 

t  What  i£thelwalf  appears  to  have 
done  was  to  8ut()ect  the  royal  demesnes 
to  payment  of  tithes,  fh>m  which  they 
were  exempt  before. 

t  The  name  of  Prance  may  now  flist  be 


property  nsed.  The  kingdom  of  France 
may  be  dated  fh>m  the  establishment  of 
Cbaries  the  Bald  as  king  of  the  West 
Franks,  in  the  partition  between  htm  and 
his  brothers,  Lothalr  and  Lewis,  of  the 
dominions  of  their  grandCUber,  Ghailet 
the  Great  C643). 


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AJ).  88e-871.  -fiTHELWULF— -fiTHELBALD — ^ALFRED.  4» 

for  exclnding  his  father  from  the  throne.  The  people  were  divided 
between  the  two  princes,  and  a  bloody  civil  war,  joined  to  all 
the  other  calamities  under  which  the  English  laboured,  appeared 
inevitable,  when  iEthelwulf  consented  to  a  compromise.  Retaining 
the  eastern  portion  of  Wessez  and  Kent,  the  least  considerable,  as  well 
as  the  most  exposed  to  invasion,  he  conceded  the  rest  to  iEtbelbald. 

§  5.  iETHBLBALD,.^h*HBLBEBHT,and  iETHBLRED,  A.D.  858-871. — 

^thelwulf  died  in  858,  and  was  buried  at  Winchester ;  dividing 
his  kin<{dom  by  wiU  between  his  two  sons,  JEthelbald  and  ^thelberht* 
iBthelbald,  to  the  scandal  of  the  age,  married  his  stepmother 
Judith ;  but  dying  soon  after,  his  brother  JEthelberht  united  Kent^ 
Surrey,  and  Sussex  to  the  kingdom  of  Wessex  (860).  At  his  death, 
^thelred,  fourth  son  of  JEthelwulf,  ascended  the  throne  (866). 
Under  these  monarchs  the  Danes  continued  their  ravages  witJi 
renewed  vigr>ur,  and  penetrated  into  the  very  heart  of  the  country. 
Not  contenting  themselves  with  mere  incursions,  they  conquered  a 
Hirge  part  of  Kngland.  In  867  they  took  York ;  the  next  year 
they  assaulted  Nottingham ;  in  870  they  defeated  and  took  prisoner 
Edmund,  the  king  of  East  Anglia,  to  whom  they  proposed  that 
he  should  renounce  the  Christian  faith  and  rule  under  their  supre- 
macy. As  this  proposal  was  rejected  with  scorn  and  horror,  the 
Danes  bound  the  king  naked  to  a  tree,  scourged  and  wounded  him 
with  arrows,  and  finally  beheaded  him.  The  constancy  with  which 
Edmund  met  his  death  caused  him  to  be  canonized  as  a  saint  and 
a  martyr ;  and  the  place  where  his  body  was  buried  took  the  name  of 
St  Edmundsbury,  t.c.  "St.  Edmund's  town" (Bury  St  Edmund's), 
where  a  splendid  monastery  was  erected  in  his  honour.  Thus  ended 
the  old  line  of  the  Uflingas,  and  East  Anglia  became  a  Danish 
possessioa  Led  by  Hdlfddn  and  another  king  into  Wessex,  the 
Danes  fought  no  less  than  nine  battles  in  one  year.  iEthelred 
died  at  Easter,  871,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Alfred. 

§  6.  AjiFRED,  A.D.  871-901.  This  monarch,  who  was  bom  at 
Wantage  in  Berkshire,  in  849,  had  already  given  proofs  of  those 
great  virtues  and  shining  talents,  by  which  he  saved  his  country 
from  utter  subversion  and  ruin.  His  genius  was  first  fired  by 
the  recital  of  Saxon  poems,  which  he  soon  learned  to  read,  and 
lie  then  proceeded  to  acquire  the  knowledge  of  the  Latin  tongue- 
In  his  twentieth  year  he  took  the  field  along  with  his  brother 
against  the  pagan  invaders,  and  it  was  owing  to  his  intrepidity  and 
courage  that  his  countrymen  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  l^anes 
at  Ashdown  in  Berkshire  (871).  On  the  death  of  JEthelred  soon 
afterwards,  he  was  calle<l  to  the  throne  in  preference  to  his  brother'a 
children,  as  well  by  the  will  of  his  father  as  by  the  wishes  of  th« 
whole  nation  and  tho  urgency  of  public  afiairs. 


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44 


ANQLO-SAXONS  AND  DANES. 


OhAP.  tit- 


After  an  indecisive  battle  at  Wilton,  the  Danes  withdrew  from 
Weesez  for  a  time.  But  m  874  they  gained  full  possession  of  Mercia, 
on  the  flight  of  Burhred,  Alfred's  brother-in-law.  Thus  ended  the 
independent  kingdom  of  Mercia ;  and  the  Danes  were  now  masters 
of  the  three  great  Anglian  Icingdoms,  leaving  to  Alfred  only  Wessez, 
Kent,  and  Essex.  The  year  875  is,  distinguished  as  the  date  of 
the  first  naval  victory  known  to  have  been  won  by  an  English 
king,  when  "  Alfred  went  out  to  sea  with  a  fleet,  and  fought 
against  the  crews  of  seven  ships  (in  Swanage  bay),  and  one  of  them 
he  took  and  put  the  lest  to  flight."  But  fresh  swarms  of  Northmen 
continually  poured  into  the  kingdom,  and  in  876  Wessex  was 
again  invaded  by  a  great  fleet  and  army  under  Guthorm,  or 
Guthrum  (in  Danish  Qormhinrige^  **  the  mighty  serpent ").  Over- 
powered by  superior  numbers,  Alfred  was  at  length  obliged  to 
relinqui^h  the  ensigns  of  dignity,  dismiss  his  servants,  and  seek 
shelter  in  the  meanest  disguises  from  the  pursuit  and  fury  of  his 
enemies  (878).  "  On  a  time,**  if  we  may  trust  the  story,  "  being 
forced  to  hide  himself  with  a  cow-herd  in  Somersetshire,  as  he 
sat  by  the  (ire  preparing  his  bow  and  shafts,  the  cow-herd's  wife 
baking  bread  on  the  coals,  threw  the  king's  bow  and  shafts  aside 
and  said  :  *  ITiou  fellow,  why  dost  thou  not  turn  the  bread  which 
thou  seest  bum  ;  thou  art  glad  to  eat  it  ere  it  be  half  baked.'  This 
woman  thought  not  it  had  been  king  Alfred,  who  had  made  so 
many  battles  against  the  Danes." 

§  7.  At  length,  collecting  a  few  followers,  Alfred  retired  into  the 
centre  of  a  boj;  formed  by  the  stagnating  waters  of  the  Tone  and  the 
Parrett,  in  Somersetshire.  Here,  flnding  two  acres  of  firm  ground, 
he  secured  himself  by  a  fortification,  and  still  mure  by  unknown  and 
inaccessible  roads  which  led  to  it,  and  by  the  forests  and  morasses 
with  which  it  was  environed.  He  called  this  place  .^htlingor 
^99 »  <^r  the  Isle  of  Princes;  and  it  now  bears  the  name  of 
Athelncy.*  From  this  retreat  he  made  frequent  and  unexpeoted 
sallies  upon  the  Danes,  who  often  felt  the  vigour  of  his  arm,  but 
knew  not  from  what  quarter  the  blow  came.  Thus  encouraged,  his 
followers  were  prepared  for  m«»re  important  victories.  Seven  weeks 
after  Easter,  Alfred  sallied  from  Athelney,  and  was  joined  by  the 
men  of  Somersetshire,  Wiltshire,  and  Hampshire  at  *'  Egbert's  stone  ** 
(now  Brixton),  on  the  borders  of  Selwood  Forest.  The  English,  who 
had  hoped  to  put  an  end  to  their  calamities  by  servile  submission, 
had  found  the  insolence  and  rapacity  of  the  conqueror  more  in- 


•  A  beaatifnl  goId-en&meUed  jewel, 
found  at  this  spot,  and  now  in  the  Ash- 
molean  Museum  at  Oxford,  bos  the  in- 
scription "JEUfed  mec  behi  gewnrcan" 


{Alfrtd  had  mt  wnmgM).  Acoonling 
to  the  testimony  of  his  Uogr4)lMrr 
Awer,  Alfred  encouraged  goldsmith!. 


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▲J>.  874-67a  ALFRED. 


46 


tolerable  than  all  past  fatigues  and  dangers.  Alfred  led  them  to 
Ethandt^Q  (Edington,  near  Westbury),  where  the  Danes  were 
encamped ;  and  taking  advantage  of  his  previous  knowledge  of  the 
place,  he  directed  his  attack  against  the  most  unguarded  quarter  of 
the  enemy.  The  Danes,  surprised  to  see  an  army  of  English,  whom 
they  considered  as  totally  subdued,  and  still  more  astonished  to  hear 
that  Alfred  was  at  their  head,  made  but  a  faint  resistance,  notwith- 
standing the  superiority  of  their  number,  and  were  soon  put  to 
flight  with  great  slaughter.  The  remainder  of  the  routed  army,  with 
their  prince,  was  besieged  by  Alfred  in  a  fortified  camp  to  which 
they  fled ;  but,  being  reduced  to  extremity  by  want  and  hunger, 
they  had  recourse  to  the  clemency  of  the  victor,  and  offered  to 
submit.  Alfred  spared  their  lives,  and  even  formed  a  scheme  for 
converting  them  from  mortal  enemies  into  faithful  subjects  and 
confederates.  As  the  kingdom  of  East  Anglia  was  desolated  by 
the  frequent  inroads  of  the  Danes,  he  now  proposed  to  rcpcople  it 
by  settling  in  it  Guthrum  and  his  followers,  who  might  serve  him 
88  a  defence  against  any  future  incursions  of  their  countrymen. 
But  before  he  ratified  these  mild  conditions  with  the  Danes,  he  re- 
quired, as  a  pledge  of  their  submission,  that  they  should  embrace 
Christianity.  Guthrum,  with  thirty  of  his  officers,  had  no  aversion 
to  the  proposal,  and  were  admitted  to  baptism.  The  king  answered 
for  Guthrum  at  the  font,  and  gave  him  the  name  of  Athelstan. 
This  treaty  was  made  at  Wedmore,  near  Athelney  (a.d.  878).  The 
greater  part  of  the  Danes  settled  peaceably  in  their  new  quar- 
ters. They  had  for  some  years  occupied  the  towns  of  Derby, 
Leicester,  Stamford,  Lincoln,  and  Nottingham,  thence  called  the 
Five  Boroughs,  Alfred  ceded  to  the  new  converts  a  considerable 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Mercia,  retaining  however  the  western  portion, 
or  country  of  the  flwiccas,  in  Gloucestershire.  It  would,  however, 
be  an  error  to  suppose  that  the  Danes  ever  really  became  his  subjects* 
Jn  the  contrary,  they  formed  an  independent  state,  retaining  their 
own  laws  and  institutions,  down  to  the  latest  times  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  monarchy.  The  general  boundary  between  the  Danes  aiid 
Anglo-Saxons  was  the  old  Roman  road  called  Watling  Street,  which 
ran  from  London  across  England  to  Chester  and  the  Irish  Channel. 
The  province  o(  the  Danes  lying  to  the  north  and  east  of  that 
road  was  called  Dandagh,  the  Dane^  Law  or  community.  Receiving 
fresh  accessions  of  numbers  from  their  own  country,  the  Danes  were 
long  able  to  bid  defiance  to  all  the  efiurts  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
monarchs  to  reduce  them  to  complete  obedience. 

§  8.  After  the  treaty  with  Guthrum,  Alfred  enjoyed  tranquillity 
for  some  years.      He  employed  the  interval  in   restorin^r  order 
to  his  dominions,  shaken  by  so  many  violent  convulsions;    in 
4» 


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46  ANGLO-SAXONS  AND  DANES.  Chap.  m. 

establishing  civil  and  military  institutions;  in  habituating  the 
minds  of  men  to  industry  and  justice;  and  in  providing  against 
the  return  of  like  calamities.  After  rebuilding  the  ruined  cities, 
particularly  London,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Danes 
in  the  reign  of  -^fithelwulf,  he  established  a  regular  militia  for  the 
defence  of  the  kingdom.  He  increased  his  fleet  both  in  number 
and  strength,  and  trained  his  subjects  to  the  practice  as  well  of 
sailing  as  of  naval  action.  He  improved  the  construction  of  his 
vessels,  which  were  higher,  swifter,  and  steadier  than  those  of  the 
Danes,  and  nearly  double  the  length,  some  of  them  having  more 
than  60  rowers.  A  fleet  of  120  ships  of  war  was  stationed  upon 
the  coast ;  and  being  provided  with  warlike  engines,  as  well  as  with 
expert  seamen,  both  Frisians  and  English — for  Alfred  supplied  the 
defects  of  his  own  subjects  by  engaging  able  foreigners  in  his  service 
— he  maintained  a  superiority  over  those  smaller  bands  with  which 
Englmd  had  so  often  been  infested.  Notwithstanding  these  pre- 
cautions, as  the  northern  provinces  of  France,  into  which  Hasting,  the 
famous  Danish  chief,  had  i)enetrated,  were  afllicted  with  a  grievous 
famine,  the  Danes  set  sail  from  Boulogne  with  a  powerful  fleet 
under  his  command,  landed  upon  the  coast  of  Kent,  and  committed 
most  destructive  ravages  (893).  It  would  be  tedious  to  narrate  the 
events  of  this  new  war,  which  occupied  the  attention  of  Alfred  for 
the  next  few  years.  It  is  suflicient  to  relate  that,  after  repeated 
defeats  in  different  parts  of  the  island,  the  small  remains  of  the 
Danes  either  dispersed  themselves  among  their  countrymen  in 
Northumbria  and  East  Anglia,  or  had  recourse  again  to  the  sea, 
where  they  exercised  piracy  under  the  command  of  Siegfrid,  a 
Northumbrian.  After  Alfred  had  succeeded  in  restoring  full  tran- 
quillity to  England,  he  died  (October  26th,  901),  in  the  vigour  of 
his  age  and  the  full  strength  of  his  faculties,  and  was  buried  at 
Winchester,  after  a  glorious  reijjn  of  30  years  and  a  half,  in  which 
he  deservedly  attained  the  appellation  of  Alfbed  the  Great,  and 
the  title  of  Founder  of  the  English  Monarchy. 

§  9.  The  merits  of  this  prince,  both  in  private  and  public  life, 
may  with  advantage  be  contrasted  with  those  of  any  monarch 
which  the  annals  of  any  age  or  nation  can  present  us.  His 
civil  and  his  military  virtues  are  almost  equally  the  objects  of 
our  admiration.  Nature,  as  if  desirous  that  so  bright  a  pro- 
duction of  her  skill  should  be  set  in  the  fairest  light,  had  bestowed 
on  him  every  bodily  accomplishment,  vigour  of  limbs,  dignity  of 
shape  and  air,  with  a  pleasinjr,  engaging,  and  o])en  countenance. 
When  Alfred  came  to  the  throne  he  found  the  nation  sunk  into 
the  grossest  ignorance  and  barbarism,  occasioned  by  the  continued 
disorders    in    the   government^  and   the   ravages  of   the  Danes. 


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AJX  89d-9QL  ALFRED.  47 

MoDasteries  were  destroyed,  the  monks  butchered  or  dispersed,  and 
their  libraries  burnt;  and  thus  the  only  seats  of  learning  in  those 
ages  were  totally  subverted.  Alfred  himself  complains  that  on 
his  acoessioQ  he  knew  few  even  of  the  clergy  south  of  the  Thames, 
and  not  many  in  the  northern  parts,  who  could  interpret  the  Latin 
service.  He  invited  the  most  celebrated  scholars  from  all  parts  of 
Europe;  he  established  schools  for  the  instruction  of  his  people; 
and  be  enjoined  by  law  all  freeholders  possessing  twu  hides  of  land, 
or  more,  to  send  their  children  to  school  for  instruction.*  But  the 
most  effectual  expedient  employed  by  Alfred  for  the  encouragement 
of  learning  was  his  own  example,  and  the  assiduity  with  which,  not- 
withstanding the  multiplicity  and  urgency  of  his  affairs,  he  em- 
ployed himself  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge.  He  usually  divided 
his  time  into  three  equal  portions :  one  was  devoted  to  sleep,  food, 
and  exercise;  another  to  study  and  devotion;  a  third  to  the 
despatch  of  business.  To  measure  the  hours  more  exactly,  he 
made  use  of  homing  tapers  of  equal  length,  which  be  fixed  in 
lanterns,  an  expedient  suited  to  that  rude  age,  when  dialling  and 
the  mechanism  of  clocks  and  watches  were  totally  unknown.  By 
0uch  regular  distribution  of  his  time,  though  he  often  laboured  under 
great  bodily  infirmities,  and  had  fought  in  person  56  battles  by 
8ea  and  land,  he  was  able,  during  a  life  of  no  extraordinary  length, 
to  acquire  more  knowledge,  and  even  to  compose  more  books, 
than  M\s  to  the  lot  of  the  most  studious  men,  though  blessed  with 
the  greatest  leisure  and  application,  and  bom  in  more  fortunate 
ages.  He  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  the  histories  of  Orosius  and 
of  Bede;  to  the  former  he  prefixed  a  description  of  Germany  and 
the  north  of  Europe,  from  the  narratives  of  the  travellers  Wulfstan 
and  Ohthere.  To  these  must  be  added  a  version  of  i3oethius*s 
CofiBokUian  of  Philosophy^  besides  several  other  translalions  which 
he  either  made  or  caused  to  be  made  from  the  Confessions  of  St. 
Augustine,  St.  Gregory*s  Pastoral  Instructions,  Dialogues,  &o.  Nor 
was  he  negligent  in  encouraging  the  mechanical  arts.  He  invited 
from  all. quarters  industrious  foreigners  to  repeople  the  country, 
which  had  been  desolated  by  the  ravages  of  the  Danes.  He  in- 
troduced and  encouraged  manufactures,  and  suffered  no  inventor  or 
improver  of  any  ingenious  art  to  go  unrewarded.  He  \  rompted  men 
of  activity  to  betake  themselves  to  navigation,  to  push  commerce 
into  the  most  remote  countries,  and  to  acquire  riches  by  promoting 
tndnstry  among  their  fellow-citizens.  He  set  apart  a  seventh  portion 
of  his  own  revenue  for  maintaininoj  a  number  of  workmen,  whom 
be  constantly  employed  in  rebuilding  the  mined  cities  and  raon- 

*  The  firandAtion  of  the  University  of  Oxford  h«8  loiDeUmes  been  erroneooBly 
Mrflmted  to  Alfred. 


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48  ANGLO-SAXONS  AND  DANES.  Ghap.  m. 

asteries.  Such  was  the  popular  estimate  of  his  character;  aiMi 
thus,  living  and  dead,  next  to  Gliarlemagne,  Alfred  was  long 
regarded  as  the  greatest  prince  that  had  appeared  in  Europe  for 
several  ages,  and  as  one  of  the  wisest  and  best  that  ever  adorned  the 
annals  of  any  nation. 

§  10.  Alfred's  great  reputation  has  caused  many  of  the  institutions 
prevalent  among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the  origin  of  which  is  lost  in 
remote  antiquity,  to  be  ascribed  to  his  wisdom :  such  as  the  division 
of  England  into  shires,  hundreds,  and  tithings,  the  law  of  frank- 
pledge, trial  by  jury,  etc. ;  some  of  which  were  certainly  anterior, 
and  others  subsequent,  to  his  time.  Even  the  code  of  laws  which 
he  undoubtedly  promulgated  was  little  more  than  a  new  oollection 
of  the  laws  of  ^thelberht,  Offa,  and  Ina ;  into  which,  with  the 
assistance  of  his  witan,  or  wise  men,  he  inserted  a  few  enactments 
only  of  his  own. 

§  11.  By  his  wife,  Ealhswith,  daughter  of  a  Mercian  ealdorman, 
Alfred  left  two  sons  and  three  daughters.  The  younger,  ^thel- 
ward,  inherited  his  father's  passion  for  letters,  and  lived  a  private 
life.  The  elder,  Edward,  succeeded  to  his  father's  power,  being  the 
first  of  that  name  who  sat  on  the  English  throne. 

Ed  WARD  I.,  901-925. — Immediately  on  his  accession,  Edward, 
usually  called  Edward  the  Kldeb,  had  to  contend  with  ^thel- 
wald,  son  of  king  ^thelred,  the  elder  brother  of  Alfred,  who, 
insisting  on  his  preferable  title  to  the  throne,  armed  his  partisans 
and  took  possession  of  Wimborne.  Qn  the  approach  of  Edward, 
however,  uEthelwald  fled  into  Northumberland,  where  the  people 
declared  in  his  favour.  Having  thus  connected  his  interests  with 
the  Danish  tribes,  he  went  beyond  sea,  and,  collecting  a  body  of 
these  freebooters,  excited  the  hopes  of  all  those  who  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  subsist  by  rapine  and  violence.  He  was  also  joined  by  the 
East  Anglian  Danes  and  the  men  of  the  Five  Boroughs;  but 
Edward  overthrew  them  in  several  actions,  recovered  the  booty 
they  had  taken,  and  compelled  them  to  retire  into  their  own 
country.    ^Ethelwald  was  killed  in  battle  (905). 

The  rest  of  Edward's  reign  was  a  scene  of  continued  and  successful 
action  against  the  Danes,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  the  activity 
and  prudence  of  his  sister  ^thelfled,  widow  of  iEthelred,  ealdorman 
of  Mercia.  The  submission  of  the  Danes  in  that  province,  as  well 
as  of  East  An^lia,  and  the  acknowledgment  of  Edward's  supre- 
macy by  the  Welsh,  effected  the  first  union  of  Southern  Britain 
under  an  English  king  (922).  In  Edward's  last  year,  the  Chronicle 
adds,  that  not  only  all  the  Northumbrians — English,  Danes,  and 
Northmen — but  the  Strathclyde  Welsh  and  the  Scots,  with  their 
kings,  "  chose  him  for  father  and  for  lord."     From  this  time  his 


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A.D.  901-946.    EDWARD  L — iETHELSTAN — EDMUND  L        49 

snccessors  generally  style  themselves  *' King  of  the  Angles,"  or 
King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  that  is,  of  all  the  Anglian  and  Saxon 
states,  and  not  merely  King  of  the  West  Saxons,*  Edward  died  in 
the  year  925,  and  was  succeeded  hy  iEthelstan,  his  natural  sou,  who 
was  thirty  years  old — his  legitimate  children  being  of  too  tender 
years  to  rule  a  nation  so  much  exposed  to  foreign  invasion  and 
domestic  convulsions.     He  was  crowned  at  Kingston. 

§  12.  iExHEi^TAN,  925-940. — This  monarch  likewise  gained 
numerous  victories  over  the  Danes,  and  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of 
the  ablest  and  most  active  of  the  early  English  kings.  He  com- 
pleted his  father's  work  by  annexing  Northumbria,  on  the  death  of 
its  Danish  ruler,  whose  son  fled  to  Constantino  II.,  king  of  the 
Scots  (927).  His  signal  victory  over  the  united  host  of  the  Scots, 
Danes,  and  Strathclyde  Welsh,  at  the  battle  of  Brunanburh,  is 
celebrated  in  an  Anglo-Saxon  war-song  (937).t  iEihelstan  made 
many  good  laws,  which  were  really  for  the  most  part  new  enact- 
ments, and  not  mere  repetitions  of  older  customs  or  codes.  Among 
them  was  the  remarkable  one,  that  a  merchant  who  had  made  three 
long  voyages  on  his  own  account  should  be  admitted  to  the  rank 
of  a  thane  or  gentleman.  This  shows  that  commerce  was  now 
more  honoured  and  encouraged  than  it  had  formerly  been,  and 
implies  at  the  same  time  that  some  of  the  English  cities  had  risen 
to  a  considerable  pitch  of  prosperity  and  importance.  At  this 
time  a  more  extensive  intercourse  sprang  up  with  the  continent,  as 
is  shown  by  the  numifold  relations  of  ^thelstan  with  foreijm  courts. 
Several  foreign  princes  were  intrusted  to  his  guardianship  and 
educated  at  his  court,  among  whom  was  his  own  nephew  Louis,  son 
of  his  sist*  r  Ed^iva  and  Charles  the  Simple,  king  of  France. 

§  13.  Edmund  I.,  called  the  Eldeb,  940-940.— i^ilihelstan  died 
at  Gloucester  in  the  year  940,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  half- 
brother,  Edmund,  who  was  only  18  years  old  at  his  accession,  and 
24  at  his  death  ;  yet  he  lived  and  reigned  long  enough  to  win  the 
title  of  Edmund  the  Magnificent.  A  second  song  of  triumph 
in  the  Chronicle  celebrates  the  conquest  over  the  revolted  Danes  of 
Northumbria  and  Mercia,  and  the  recovery  of  the  Five  lV»roughs, 
by  "  King  Edmund,  ruler  of  the  Anglep,  protector  of  kinsmen, 
the  refuge  of  warriors "  (941).  He  also  conquered  Cumberland 
from  the  Britons  (945),  and  conferred  that  territory  on  Malcolm, 

*  There  is,  howerer,  no  strict  unlformitj 
in  their  designation,  ifithelstan  styles  him- 
self "  King  of  aU  Britain ;  "sometimes  of  all 
Albion.  Edmnnd,  Edred.  and  Edwy  pre- 
fer the  titles.  King  qf  the  Angles  and  othr 
circuw^jaeeni  peopU.  The  last  uses  the 
title  of  King  qf  th4  Angul'SoNcne,  .Vortk- 


umbriant,  etc.     Edgar  is  King  qf  aU 
Britain^  or  all  Atbion. 

t  The  song  is  preserved  in  the  Chron- 
icle, The  site  of  the  battle  is  unknown ; 
bat  it  must  have  been  in  Northnmbria, 
and  near  thee 


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50 


ANGLO-SAXONS  AND  DANES. 


Chap,  m 


king  of  Scotland,  on  condition  that  he  should  do  homage,  and 
protect  the  north  from  all  future  incursions  of  the  Danes. 
Edmund  was  assassinated  at  Pucklechurch,  in  the  year  946,  by 
Liofa,  a  notorious  outlaw,  whom  be  had  sentenced  to  banishment, 
but  who  had  the  boldness  to  enter  the  ball  where  the  king  himself 
was  dining,  and  seat  himself  at  the  table  among  his  attendants. 
On  his  refusing  to  leave  the  room,  the  king  seized  him  by  the 
hair ;  but  tbs  ruffian,  pushed  to  extremity,  drew  his  daggei,  and 
gave  Edmund  a  wound  of  which  he  expired  immediately.  He  was 
buried  at  Glastonbury,  by  St.  Dunstan,  the  abbot. 

§  14.  Edred,  946-955. — As  Edmund's  issue  was  young  and 
incapable  of  governing  the  kingdom,  his  brother  Edred  was  raised 
to  the  throne.  He  completed  the  conquest  of  the  Northumbrian 
Danes,  who  had  revolted,  and  invited  Eric,  the  son  of  Harold 
Blaatand  of  Denmark,  to  be  their  king.  The  reign  of  this  prince, 
like  those  of  his  predecessors,  was  disturbed  by  the  rebellions 
and  incursions  of  the  Danes.  After  subduing  them,  Edred,  in- 
structed by  experience,  took  greater  precautions  against  their  future 
revolt.  He  fixed  English  garrisons  in  their  most  considerable  towns* 
and  placed  over  them  an  English  governor,*  who  might  watch  all 
their  motions,  and  suppress  any  insurrection  on  its  first  appearanca 

Edred,  who  must  have  been  very  young,  was  guided,  as  his 
brother  had  been,  by  the  great  minister  Dunstan,  whom  Edmund 
had  made  abbot  of  Glastonbury  (943).  The  best  evidence  of 
Dunstan's  ability  is  furnished  by  the  brilliant  success  of  Edred  and 
Edgar,  who  followed  his  counsels,  and  the  disasters  of  Bdwy,  who 
quarrelled  with  him.  He  was  bom  of  noble  parents,  near  Glaston- 
bury, and  in  the  school  of  that  monastery  he  studied  with  an  ardom 
which  for  a  time  apparently  unsettled  his  brain.  Treated  with 
scorn  by  the  courtiers  of  iEthelred,  he  was  persuaded  by  his  kinsman 
Alphege,  bishop  of  Winchester,  to  become  a  monk,  llie  stories 
told  of  his  asceticism  seem  to  be  exaggerated  and  opposed  to  his 
genial  nature,  his  love  of  music  and  society,  and  his  activity  in 
work,  both  with  head  and  hands,  in  which  he  was  followed  by  a 
train  of  pupils.  He  returned  to  court  on  the  accession  of  Edmund ; 
was  falsely  accused;  and,  finding  his  fortune  blasted  by  such 
scandals,  he  was  on  the  eve  of  returning  to  the  cloister,  when  a 
narrow  escape  which  befel  the  king  in  hunting  stnick  him  with 


•  This  governor  was  not  called  EcUdor- 
man,  but  by  the  Danish  title  of  Earl 
(Jarl).  Under  Edgar  the  earldom  was 
divided  into  three  parts;  the  southern, 
between  the  Humber  and  Tees,  the  old 
kingdom  of  I)eira,  becoming  the  earldom  of 
York.  The  northern,  or  Lothian,  flrom  the 


Tweed  to  the  Forth,  was  probably  granted 
to  the  Scotch  king  Kenneth ;  the  middle 
part,  between  Tees  and  Tweed,  formed  the 
new  earldom  of  Northumberland,  ftom 
which  the  part  between  Tees  and  Tyne 
was  afterwards  taken  as  the  patrioMmy  ol 
St.  Cuthbert  and  bishopric  of  Durfaam. 


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A.D.  946-95^. 


EDRED — EDWY. 


51 


remorse  for  his  suspicions,  and  on  the  same  day  Edmund  made 
Dunstan  abbot  of  Glastonbury.  The  new  abbot  turned  his  attention 
to  the  reform  of  the  monasteries,  and  the  revival  of  learning,  which 
had  again  fallen  since  the  time  of  Alfred.  He  adopted  the  more 
rigid  rules  maintained  by  the  Benedictines  of  Gaul,  and  introduced 
ihem  into  the  convents  of  Glastonbury,  Abingdon,  and  elsewhere. 
These  religious  houses  had  fallen  into  ruins  during  the  incursions 
of  the  Danes,  and  their  congregations  had  been  dispersed.  It  was 
Dunstan's  object  to  restore  them,  and  to  replace  the  secular  clergy, 
who  had  taken  possession  of  the  revenues,  by  the  monastic.  His 
progress  was  somewhat  retarded  by  the  death  of  Edred,  who  ex- 
pired at  Frome,  in  955,  after  a  reign  of  nine  years.  His  children 
being  infants,  his  nephew  Edwy,  son  of  Edmund,  was  raised  to  the 
throne. 

§  16.  Edwy,  955-968. — ^Edwy,  at  the  time  of  his  accession,  was 
not  above  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  of  age.*  According  to  the 
story,  told  some  forty  years  afterwards,  he  had  become  entangled  in 
an  intrigue  with  a  lady,  who  desired  to  secure  his  hand  for  her 
daughter,  called  Elgiva.  On  the  day  of  his  coronation,  when  his 
nobility  wore  banqueting  in  a  great  hall,  Edwy,  forgetful  of  the 
dignity  due  to  the  occasion,  had  retired  to  this  lady's  aj  artmeni 
This  slight  to  the  ealdormen,  bishops,  and  great  men  was  regarded 
as  a  gross  insult,  and  two  of  their  number  were  deputed  to  remon- 
strate with  the  king,  and  persuade  him  to  reassume  his  seat  at  the 
banquet.  Dunstan,  with  the  bishop  of  Lichfield,  proceeded  to 
the  apartment,  upbraided  Edwy  for  his  absence,  and,  with  bitter 
reproaches  to  the  lady,  brought  back  the  king  into  the  presence 
of  the  nobhs  with  no  little  roughness.  Edwy,  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  lady,  found  an  opportunity  of  revenge ;  and,  either  on  the 
complaint  of  discontented  monks  of  Glastonbury,  or  some  charge 
affecting  the  administration  of  the  late  king's  treasure,  which  had 
been  placed  in  that  abbey,  Dunstan  was  driven  out  of  England, 
and  fled  to  Ghent  (956).t 

Heade<l  by  Odo  the  archbishop,  a  Dane,  the  Northumbrians  and 
the  Mercians  rose  in  rebellion,  and  proclaimed  Edgar,  the  brother  of 
Edwy,  as  their  king  (958).  They  were  joined  by  the  East  Anglians, 
and  in  short  by  all  England  north  of  the  Thames.  Edgar  recalled 
Dunstan,  and,  in  a  council  assembled  at  Bradford,  gave  him  the  sees 
of  London  and  Worcester.  Dunstan  would  have  excused  himself  in 
this  vidatinn  of  the  canons,  but  his  objections  were  overruled  by 
others,  who  referred  to  the  examples  of  St.  John  and  St.  Paul.  Even  in 


*  Both  .£thelweard  (the  onlj  contem- 
porsry  historian  who  was  not  a  priest  or 
iiK«k)  aod  Henry  of  Huntingdon  speak 


well  of  Edwy,  and  lament  his  early  death, 
t  The  whole  story  is  traditional,  and  is 
told  in  different  ways. 


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ANGLO-SAXONS  AND  DANEa 


Chap.  la. 


ihe  Bonthem  provinces  the  monastic  party  now  gained  the  ascendancy. 
Edwy,  finding  it  vain  to  resist,  was  obliged  to  consent  to  a  divorce 
from  Elgiva,  which  was  pronounced  by  Odo,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (958).  The  fate  of  the  unhappy  Elgiva  is  un- 
known; for  the  tales  of  inhuman  cruelties  inflicted  on  her  by 
the  primate's  order,  as  well  as  of  the  murder  of  Edwy,  are  found 
only  in  late  and  doubtful  authorities.  It  is  only  known  for  certain, 
that  Edwy's  divorce  was  followed  by  the  death  both  of  the  arch- 
bishop and  the  king  in  958  or  959.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Edgar. 

§  16.  Edgar,  959-975. — Edgar,  sumamed  the  PeaceabUy  already 
king  of  the  Mercians  and  Northumbrians  (957),  now  succeeded 
to  Wessex,  with  the  consent  of  the  whole  kingdom.*  One  of 
his  first  acts  was  to  promote  Dunstan  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Canterbury.  Of  the  first  five  years  of  his  reign  we  have  no 
memorials,  except  of  his  co-operation  in  the  ecclesiastical  reforms 
then  in  progress.  To  restore  the  monks,  he  displaced  and  d^raded 
the  secular  clergy;  he  favoured  the  scheme  for  dispossessing  the 
secular  canons  of  all  the  great  churches;  and  he  bestowed  pre- 
ferment on  none  but  their  partisans.  Above  forty  Benedictine 
convents  are  said  to  have  been  founded  or  repaired  by  Edgar. 
These  merits  have  procured  for  him  the  highest  panegyrics  from 
the  monkish  historians.  Freed  from  all  disturbance  on  the  side  of 
the  Danes,  Edgar  was  enabled  to  employ  his  vast  armaments  against 
the  neighbouring  sovereijjns ;  and  the  king  of  Scotland,  the  princes 
of  Wales,  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  of  the  Orkneys,  were  reduced  to 
submission.!  After  his  coronation  at  Bath  (972),  he  led  his  forces 
to  Chester,  where  he  was  attended  by  six  or  eight  vassal  kings, 
who  rowed  his  barge  up  the  Dee  to  the  abbey  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  Edgar  holding  the  helm. 

The  virtues  of  Edgar  have  bten  exaggerated  by  the  monastic 
annalists.  Even  the  Anglo-Sax*^  Chronicle^  which  again  breaks 
forth  into  song  in  his  praise,  confesses  that  he  loved  foreign  vices, 
and  brought  lieathen  manners  and  j)erniciou8  people  into  the  land. 
Of  the  severity  with  which  he  enforced  order  we  have  an  example 
in  the  devastation  of  Thanet  (969)4  But  the  general  excellence  of 
his  rule  is  attested  by  his  extant  laws,  and  by  the  consolidation  of 
the  various  people  under  his  authority.  "  One  thing  I  would  have 
common,"  he  declared  in  the  assembled  Witan,  "  to  all  my  subjects, 


•  Florence  of  Worcester. 

t  In  his  charters,  Edgar  assumes  the 
titles  of  "  King  of  the  Angles  and  all  the 
nations  round  about,  "  Ruler  and  Lord 
of  the  whole  Isle  of  Albion,"  "  Basileu* 
and  Imperator  of  aU  Britain."  The  Greek 


haffiXeOt  (Idng)  was  the  title  of  the 
Emi)eror  of  the  East,  as  Imperator  WM 
of  tlie  Western  Emperor. 

X  The  people  had  plundered  some 
Norse  traders,  who  were  under  the  king^ 
protection. 


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AJ).  959-979.   EDGAR — EDWARD  H. — ^^THELRED  H. 


53 


to  English,  Danes,  and  Britons  in  every  part  of  my  domiDions ;  that 
both  rich  and  poor  poGsess  without  molestation  what  they  have 
rightly  acquired,  and  that  no  thief  find  refuge  for  securing  his 
stolen  property."  His  reign  forms  an  epoch  in  English  history, 
and  in  the  growth  of  monastic  influence. 

It  is  popularly  stated  that  the  extirpation  of  wolves  in  England 
was  effected  in  this  reign  by  converting  the  money  payment  imposed 
upon  the  Welsh  princes  into  an  annual  tribute  of  300  wolves' 
heads ;  but  these  animals  were  found  in  the  island  at  a  much  later 
period. 

§  17.  Edgar  died  in  the  year  975,  in  the  thirty-third  year  of  his 
age,  leaving  two  sons :  Edward,  aged  thirteen,  whom  he  had  had 
by  his  first  wife,  ^thelfleda;  and  ^thelred,  then  only  five,  by 
Elfnda.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  former  had  the  best  claim 
to  the  succession ;  and  though  Elfrida  attempted  to  raise  her  son  to 
the  throne,  Edward  was  cruwned  at  Kingston  by  the  vigorous 
determination  of  Dunstan. 

Edwakd  II.,  called  the  Martyr,  975-979. — The  kingdom  was 
now  again  divided  into  two  parties,  and  the  short  reign  of  Edward 
presents  nothing  memorable  except  the  struggles  between  Dunstan 
and  the  Benedictines  on  the  one  band,  and  the  secular  clergy  on  the 
other,  who  in  some  parts  of  Mercia  had  succeeded  in  expelling  the 
monks.  To  settle  this  controversy  several  synods  were  held,  and 
Dunstan  is  said  to  have  wrought  miracles. 

The  death  of  young  Edward  was  memorable  and  tragical.*  He 
was  hunting  one  day  in  Dorsetshire,  and  being  led  by  the  chase 
near  Corfe  Castle,  where  his  stepmother  Elfrida  resided,  he  took 
the  opportunity  of  paying  her  a  visit,  unattended  by  any  of  his 
retinue,  and  thus  presented  her  with  the  opportunity  she  had 
long  desired.  Mounting  his  horse  to  depart,  he  called  for  a  cup 
of  wine,  and  while  he  was  holding  it  to  his  lips,  a  servant  of 
Elfrida  approached  and  stabbed  him  behind.  The  prince,  finding 
himself  wounded,  put  spurs  to  his  horse,  but  growing  faint  from 
loss  of  blood,  he  fell  from  the  saddle,  his  foot  stuck  in  the  stirrup, 
and  he  was  dragged  along  until  he  expired.  Tracked  by  the 
blood,  his  body  was  found  and  privately  interred  at  Wareham. 
The  youth  and  innocence  of  this  prince,  with  his  tragical  death, 
obtained  for  him  the  appellation  of  *'  Martyr.** 

§  18.  iExHELRED  II.,  979-1016.— ^thelred  II.,  the  son  of  Elfrida, 
called  by  historians  "the  Unready,** t  now  ascended  the  throne, 


•  This  to  the  story  of  William  of 
Malmetbory.  The  early  Authorities  agree 
as  to  the  jim  e,  bat  not  as  to  the  persons 
wha  instigated  tke  murder. 


t  Thto  epithet  means  "counselless" 
or  "bad  counsellor,"  a  play  upon  the 
name  of  iEthelred  "  noble  in  coansel,"  who 
ruined  his  country  through  unrad,  **  want 


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ANGLO-SAXONS  AND  DANEa 


Chap.  m. 


at  the  early  age  of  ten.  Dimstan,  who  placed  the  crown  on  his  head 
at  Kingston,  lived  nine  years  longer,  and  died  May  19,  988.  A 
period,  however,  was  approaching,  when  the  heat  of  ecclesiastical 
disputes  had  to  give  place  to  the  more  important  question  respecting 
the  very  existence  of  the  nation.  Shortly  after  iSthelred's  accession, 
the  Danes  and  Northmen  renewed  their  incursions,  and  iSthelred's 
long  reign  presents  little  else  than  a  series  of  struggles  with  those 
piratical  and  pagan  invaders.  He  adopted  the  fatal  expedient  of 
buying  off  their  attacks,  thus  foolishly  inviting  their  renewaL* 
In  the  year  993,  having  by  their  previous  incursions  become  well 
acquainted  with  the  defenceless  condition  of  England,  the  Danes 
made  a  powerful  descent  under  the  command  of  Sweyn,  king  of 
Denmark,  and  of  Anlaf  or  Olaf,  afterwards  king  of  Norway;  and, 
sailing  up  the  Humber,  they  spread  devastation  on  every  side.  The 
following  year  they  ventured  to  attack  the  centre  of  the  kingdom ; 
entered  the  Thames  with  94  vessels,  laid  siege  to  London,  and 
threatened  it  with  total  destruction.  But  the  citizens,  firmly  united 
among  themselves,  made  a  bolder  defence  than  the  nobility  and 
gentry ;  and  the  besiegers,  after  suffering  the  greatest  hardshipsy 
were  disappointed  in  their  attempt.  The  Danes  proceeded  to 
plunder  other  quarters,  until  they  were  bought  off  with  16,000 
pounds  of  silver.  But  in  a  few  years  they  returned  again,  and  in 
997,  and  the  five  following  years,  committed  dreadful  devastations 
in  various  parts,  till  bought  off  again  by  another  payment  of  24,000 
pounds.  This  tribute  gave  rise  to  an  odious  and  oppressive  impost^ 
which,  under  the  name  of  Danegddy  or  Dane-money,  continued 
to  be  levied  on  the  laity  long  after  the  occasion  for  its  imposition 
had  ceased.  Observing  the  close  connection  maintained  among 
all  the  Danes,  however  divided  in  government  or  situation,  ^thelred, 
being  now  a  widower,  made  his  addresses  to  Emma,  sister  to 
Richard  IL,  duke  of  Normandy,  in  the  hope  that  such  an  alliance 
mi^ht  serve  to  check  the  incursions  of  the  Northmen.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  his  suit :  the  princess  came  over  to  England  and  was 
married  to  iEtbelred  in  1002.  She  received  the  English  name  of 
JElfgifu  or  El^iva.  From  this  marriage  may  be  dated  the  Norman 
influence  in  England.  The  French  language  began  to  be  spoken 
at  the  court,  and  the  French  followers  of  Emma  were  placed  in 
high  offices,  both  in  church  and  state. 
§  19.  Shortly  after  this  marriage,  iEthelred  formed  a  design  of 


of  ooonael"  or  "evil  counBel,"  a  term  which 
the  Afiglo-Saxon  C%ronicU  expressly 
applies  to  his  foolish  policy  towards  the 
Danes  («.  a.  1011 :  "All  these  calamities 
befell  us  through  unrede")  There  can 
be  little  doubt  of  the  origin  of  this  epithet  • 


but  it  is  never  applied  to  this  Ung-bythe 
earliest  and  best  authorities. 

*  He  was  not  the  first  of  the  Ao^o- 
Saxon  kings  who  had  reooone  to  this  ex- 
pedient. 


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4J>.  979-1016.  iETHELRED  U.  56 

mardering  the  Danes  throoghont  his  dominions.  But  though 
ancient  historians  speak  of  this  massacre  as  universal,  such  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  matter  is  absolutely  impossible,  as  the  Danes 
formed  a  large  part  of  the  population  of  Northumbria  and  East 
Anglia,  and  were  very  numerous  in  Mercia.  The  animosity  between 
the  inhabitants  of  English  and  Danish  race  had,  from  repeated 
injuries,  risen  to  a  great  height;  especially  through  the  conduct 
of  those  Danish  troops  which  the  English  monarchs  had  long  been 
accustomed  to  keep  in  pay  for  their  excellence  as  soldiers.  These 
mercenaries,  who  were  quartered  about  the  country,  committed 
many  acts  of  violence.  They  had  attained  to  such  a  height  of 
luxury,  according  to  later  English  writers,  that  they  combed  their 
hair  once  a  day,  bathed  themselves  once  a  week,  and  frequently 
changed  their  clothes  I  Secret  orders  were  given  to  commence  the 
massacre  on  the  festival  of  St  firice  (November  13th,  1002).  The 
rage  of  the  populace,  excited  by  so  many  injuries,  sanctioned  by 
authority,  and  stimulated  by  example,  spared  neither  sex  nor  age, 
and  was  not  satiated  without  the  tortures  as  well  as  death  of  the 
unhappy  victims.  Even  Gunhilda,  sister  to  the  kinj;  of  Denmark, 
who  had  married  earl  Paling,  and  had  embraced  Christianity,  waa 
seized  and  condemned  to  death,  after  she  had  seen  her  husband  and 
her  children  butchered  before  her  face.  In  the  agonies  of  despair, 
this  unhappy  princess  foretold  that  her  murder  would  soon  be 
avenged  by  the  total  ruin  of  the  English  nation. 

I  20.  Never  was  prophecy  more  strictly  fulfilled,  and  never  did 
barbarous  policy  prove  more  fatal  to  its  authors.  Sweyn  and  his 
Danes  appeared  the  next  year  ofif  the  western  coast,  and  took  full 
revenge  for  the  slaughter  of  their  countrymen.  Twice  was  ^thelred 
reduced  to  the  infamy  of  purchasing  a  precarious  peace.  At  length, 
towards  the  close  of  1013,  Sweyn  being  virtually  sovereign  of  Eng- 
land, and,  the  Enojlish  nobility  everywhere  swearing  allegiance  to 
him,  iEthelred,  equally  afraid  of  the  violence  of  the  enemy  and  of 
the  treachery  of  his  own  subjects,  fled  into  Normandy,  whither  he 
had  already  sent  queen  Emma  and  her  two  sons  Alfred  and 
Edward. 

§  21.  The  king  had  not  been  above  six  weeks  in  Normandy  when 
he  heard  of  the  death  of  Sweyn,  who  expired  at  Gainsborough 
before  he  had  been  crowned,  or  had  found  time  to  establish  himself 
in  his  newly  acquired  dominions.  He  is  not  reckoned  among  the 
kings  of  England,  but  is  called  by  the  chroniclers  "  Sweyn  the 
Tyrant "  (i,e  Usurper).  The  English  jirelates  and  nobility,  or  the 
Wit«n,  as  they  were  called,  tikiog  advantage  of  this  event,  sent 
over  a  deputation  to  Normandy  inviting  ^thelred  to  return.  Ho 
ccuiplied,  and  was  joyfully  received  by  the  jieople,  in  the  spring  of 


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66  ANQLO-SAXONS  AND  DANES.  Chap.  m. 

1014,  with  a  promise  of  greater  fidelity  on  their  part  and  of  juster 
government  on  his.  On  his  death-bed  at  Gainsborough,  Sweyn, 
with  the  approbation  of  the  assembled  Danes,  named  his  son 
Caniite,*  who  had  accompanied  him  in  the  expedition,  as  his 
successor.  But  on  the  approach  of  iErhelred,  who  displayed  on 
this  occasion  unwonted  celerity,  Canute  embarked  wiih  his  forces 
for  Denmark.  A  ray  of  hope  seemed  now  to  dawn  on  England, 
but  it  was  only  transient.  iBthelred  soon  relapsed  into  bis  usual 
incapacity  and  indolence;  and  the  kingdom  became  a  scene  of 
internal  feud,  treachery,  and  assassination.  In  1015  Canute  re- 
turned with  a  large  fleet  and  overran  Wessex.  Edmund,  the  king's 
eldest  son,  made  fruitless  attempts  to  oppose  his  progress;  but, 
unsupported  by  his  father  and  the  nation,  he  was  obliged  to  disband 
the  greater  part  of  his  army  and  retire  with  the  remainder  to 
London,  where  iGthelred  had  shut  himself  up.  Hither  also  Canute 
directed  his  course,  in  the  hof)e  of  seizing  iEthelred's  person ;  but 
the  king  expired  before  his  arrival,  after  an  unhappy  and  inglorious 
reign  of  37  years. 

§  22.  Edmund  Ironside,  April  23rd  to  Nov.  30th,  1016.— By  ihe 
small  party  who  had  remained  faithful  to  the  royal  cause,  Edmund, 
whose  hardy  valour  procured  him  the  name  of  Ironside,  was  now 
elected  king.  Meanwhile  Canute  had  arrived  at  London,  where,  as 
the  bridge  impeded  his  operations,  he  caused  a  canal  to  be  dug  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  river,  through  which  he  conveyed  liis  ships. 
He  also  surrounded  the  city  on  the  land  side  with  a  deep  trench, 
hoping  by  these  means  to  cut  off  the  supplies.  But  these  measures 
failing,  as  well  as  a  general  assault,  Canute  proceeded  to  the 
western  districts,  where  Edmund  was  engaginj;  the  Danes  with 
considerable  success.  But,  after  the  total  defeat  of  his  army  at 
Assington  in  Suffolk,  the  Danish  and  English  nobility  obliged  the 
two  kings  to  come  to  a  compromise,  and  divide  the  kingdom 
between  them.  Canute  obtained  Mercia,  East  Anglia,  and  North- 
umbria,  which  he  had  entirely  subdued ;  the  southern  parts  were 
assigned  to  Edmund.  This  prince  died  about  a  month  afterwards,  on 
the  30th  of  November,  murdered,  as  was  said,  by  the  machinations 
of  Edric,  the  ealdorman  of  Mercia,  who  thus  made  way  for  the 
succession  of  Canute  the  Dane  to  the  crown  of  all  England. 

*  Knut  is  the  proper  orthography  of  I  should  be  pronounced  with  the  aooeat  on 
the  name.     Can6t«    f  a  corruption,  and  I  the  Lui  syllahle. 


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Seal  of  Edwaid  the  Confeesor.    (British  Mnsenm.; 
MQJLt,rM  KAPWABDi  ANOLORTM  BA8ILKI :   King  Seated  vith  sceptre  and  sword. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PANES  AND  ANGLO-SAXONS  FROM  THE  REIGN  OF  CANUTE  TO  THE 
NORMAN  CONQUEST,   A.D.   1016-1066. 

J  1.  Accession  of  Canute.  First  acts  of  his  reign.  Marries  Emma  of  Nor- 
mandy. §  2.  Rise  of  earl  Godwin.  §  3.  Canute's  devotion.  His  re- 
proof of  his  courtiers.  §  4.  He  reduces  the  king  of  Scotland.  His 
death.  §  5.  Division  of  the  kingdom.  Reign  of  Harold  Harefoot. 
§  6.  Reign  of  Hardicanute.  §  7.  Accession  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 
§  8.  Intiuence  of  the  Normans.  Revolt  and  banishment  of  earl  God- 
win. §  9.  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  visits  England.  Return  of 
earl  Godwin :  his  death.  Rise  of  Harold.  §  10.  Si  ward  restores 
Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland.  §  11.  Edward  invites  his  nephew  from 
Hungary.  §  12.  Harold's  visit  to  Normandy.  §  13.  Harold  reduces 
Wales ;  condemns  his  brother  Tosti.  Aspires  to  the  succession.  Death 
of  Edward.  §  14.  His  character.  §15.  Accession  of  Harold.  William 
assembles  a  fleet  and  army.  Invasion  of  Tosti  and  of  Harold  Hardrada. 
Battle  of  Stamford  Bridge.  §  16.  Norman  invasion.  Battle  of 
Hastings.     Death  of  Harold. 

I.  The  Danish  Kings,  a.d.  1016-1042. 
1 1.  Canute,  1016-1035. — Edmund  Ironside  left  a  brother,  Edwy, 
and  two  half-brothers,  Alfred  and  Edward,  the  sons  of  .^thelred  by 
his  second  wife,  Emma  of  Normandy ;  as  well  as  two  infent  sons  of 
his  own,  Edmund  and  Edward.    But  immediately  after  his  death. 


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58 


THE  DANISH  DTNASTY. 


Oha] 


Canute  assembled  the  nobles  and  clergy  at  Lond<n),  and,  partlj  by 
promises  and  partly  by  intimidation,  was  elected  king,  thus  adding 
ihe  dominions  of  Edmund  to  bis  own.  This  was  the  first  time 
that  a  king  of  Wessex  had  been  elected  outside  the  line  of  Gerdia 
To  add  a  colour  of  legitimate  right,  the  assembly  is  said  to  have 
declared  falsely  that  Edmund  had  never  designed  his  kingdom  to 
pass  to  his  brothers,  and  had  appointed  Canute  to  be  guardian  to 
his  children.  Edwy,  the  brother  of  Edmund,  was  outlawed  and  soon 
afterwards  murdered  (1017).  Canute  sent  Edmund's  children  to 
his  half-brother  Olaf,  king  of  Sweden,  with  a  secret  request  to 
put  them  to  death ;  but  Olaf,  too  generous  to  comply,  had  them 
conveyed  to  Stephen,  king  of  Hungary,  to  be  educated  at  his 
court. 

As  Alfred  and  Edward  were  protected  by  their  uncle  Richard, 
duke  of  Normandy,  Canute,  to  acquire  the  friendship  of  the  duke, 
paid  his  addresses  to  queen  Emma,  i>romising  to  leave  the  children 
whom  he  should  have  hy  that  marringe  in  possession  of  the  crown 
of  England.  Canute  was  now  about  22,  and  Emma  several  years 
older.*  Richard  complie«l  with  his  demand,  and  sent  over  his  sister 
Emma  to  England,  where  she  was  soon  after  married  to  Canute, 
notwithstanding  that  he  had  been  the  mortal  enemy  of  her  former 
husband  (1017). 

To  reward  his  Danish  followers,  Canute  found  himself  compelled 
to  load  the  |  people  with  heavy  exactions.  At  one  time  he  demanded 
the  sum  of  72,000  pounds,  besides  10,500  more  which  he  levied  on 
London  alone.  But  resolving,  like  a  wise  prince,  that  the  English 
should  be  reconciled  to  the  Danish  yoke  by  the  justice  and  impar- 
tiality of  liis  administration,  he  sent  back  to  Denmark  as  many  of  his 
followers  as  could  safely  be  spared.  He  made  no  distinction  between 
Danes  and  English  in  the  execution  of  justice :  and  he  took  care, 
by  strict  enforcement  of  the  laws,  to  protect  the  lives  and  properties 
of  all.  In  his  reign  England  was  divided  into  four  great  earl- 
doms— Northumberland,  East  Anglia  (including  Essex),  Mercia, 
and  Wessex  (including  all  England  south  of  the  Thames), 
1017.  Over  the  first  two  Canute  set  Danes,  Eric  (his  sister's  hus- 
band) and  Thurkill.  In  the  same  year  the  English  earl  of  Mercia, 
Edric,  suffered  the  death  he  had  long  deserved  for  his  repeated 
treasons  to  ^thelred  and  Edmund,  and  his  earldom  was  given  to 
Leofwine.  The  earhiom  of  Wessex,  which  Canute  had  at  first  kept 
in  his  owu  hands,  was  best(iwed  in  1020  on  Gk)DWiN,  the  son  of 


*  Gannte  had  two  sods,  Harold  and 
Sweyn,  by  another  wife  or  concubine, 
Elgiva  of  Northampton,  who  was  still 
alive.  The  time  of  these  sons'  birth  is  not 
known  with  tertalnty;  but  that  one  at 


least  was  already  born  is  probable  ttom 
Emma's  stipulation  for  the  sucoesslon  of 
her  own  offspring.  It  was  doubted  by 
many  whether  they  were  really  the  80DS 
of  Caniite, 


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A.©.  1016-1086. 


CANUTE. 


59 


Wulfnoth,  an  Englishman,*  who  had  already  won  the  king's  favour 
and  been  made  an  earl,  as  some  say,  of  Kent,  early  in  Canute's 
reigD. 

§  2.  When  Canute  had  settled  his  power  in  England  beyond  all 
danger  of  a  revolution,  he  appears  in  1019  to  have  made  a  voyage  to 
Denmark  ;  and  the  necessity  of  his  affairs  caused  him  frequently  to 
repeat  the  visit,  in  order  to  make  head  against  the  Wends,t  as  well 
as  against  the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Norway.  On  one  of  these  occa- 
sions, earl  Grodwin,  observing  a  favourable  opportunity,  attacked  the 
enemy  in  the  uigbt^  drove  them  from  their  trenches,  and  obtained 
a  decisive  victory.  Next  morning,  Canute,  seeing  the  English 
camp  entirely  abandoned,  imagined  that  his  disaffected  troops  had 
deserteil,  and  was  agreeably  surprised  to  find  that  they  were 
engaged  in  pursuit  of  the  discomfited  enemy.  Gratified  with  this 
success,  and  the  manner  of  obtaining  it,  he  bestowed  Gytha,  the 
sister  of  earl  Ulf  (who  was  the  king's  brother- in-law),  in  marriage 
upon  Godwin,  and  treated  him  ever  after  with  entire  confidence 
and  regard. 

§  3.  This  semi-barbarous  monarch,  who  had  committed  number* 
less  murders  and  waded  through  slaughter  to  a  throne,  had  never- 
theless many  of  the  qualities  of  a  great  sovereign.  He  had  become 
a  Christian  either  before  or  at  the  time  of  his  first  election  as 
^thelred's  successor.  He  built  churches,  endowed  monasteries, 
and  even  undertook  one,  if  not  two,  pilgrimages  to  Rome.  It 
appears,  from  a  letter  which  he  addressed  to  the  English  clergy, 
that  he  must  .have  been  in  that  city  in  the  year  1027,  when  the 
emperor  Conrad  II.  was  also  there  for  the  purpose  of  his  coronation. 
From  the  same  letter  we  learn  that  he  had  obtained  certain 
privileges  for  English  pilgrims  going  to  Rome,  and  an  abatement 
of  the  large  sums  exacted  from  the  archbishops  for  their  palls.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  enforced  the  payment  of  Peter's  pence  and  other 
ecclesiastical  dues. 

As  an  evidence  of  his  magnanimity,  tra<1iti(>n  refers  to  Canute 
the  following  story : — When  some  of  his  courtiers  had  launched  out 
one  day  in  admiration  of  his  grandeur,  he  commanded  his  chair  to 
be  set  on  the  sea-shore.  As  the  tide  rose  and  the  waters  approached, 
he  bade  them  recede  and  obey  the  voice  of  their  lord,  feigning 


•  The  origin  of  Earl  Godwin  ctlU  re- 
nuinii  a  problem.  His  laiheT,  WuUboth, 
is  made  by  some  of  the  early  chroniclers 
ft  churl  (or  peasant)  near  Sherborne ;  by 
others,  a  nephew  of  Edric,  the  traitor 
eari  of  Mercia ;  by  others,  a  man  of  rank 
or  a  child— (**  A  title  pearly  synonymous 
with    atheling.    but    not    oonflned    to 


royalty."— Thorpr).  "  Child  (ciW)Wulf- 
noth,  the  South  Saxon."  Mr.  Freeman 
inclines  to  accept  the  last  statement 
{Xorman  Conquest,  vol.  1.  Appendix  F). 
t  The  name  of  Tf'efuU  was  given  by  the 
Germans  and  Scandinavians  to  their  SUt- 
vonic  neighbours. 


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80  THE  DANISH  DYNASTY.  Ohap.  Tt 

to  sit  some  time  in  expectation  of  their  gubmission.  Bnt  as  the  89ft 
still  advanoed  and  began  to  wet  his  feet,  he  turned  to  his  courtiers^ 
and  said,  "  The  power  of  kings  is  but  vanity.  He  only  is  king  who 
can  say  to  the  ocean,  Thus  far  thait  thou  go  and  tio  farther/^ 
And  from  that  time  he  never  bore  his  crown. 

§  4.  The  only  memorable  action  which  Canute  performed,  after 
his  return  from  Rome,  was  an  expedition  against  Malcolm  II.,  king 
of  Scotland,  whom  he  reduced  to  subjection,  with  two  under  kings, 
one  of  whom  was  Macbeth  ( 1031).  Canute  died  at  Shaftesbury 
in  1035,  leaving  by  his  first  marriage  two  sons,  Sweyn  and  Harold, 
and  by  Emma  another  son,  named,  from  his  bodily  strength, 
Harthacnut  or  Haniicanute.  To  the  last  he  had  given  Denmark; 
on  Sweyn  he  had  bestowed  Norway ;  and  Harold  was  in  England 
at  the  time  of  his  father^s  death. 

§  6.  Harold  I.  Harefoot,  1035-1040. — ^According  to  Canute's 
marriage  contract  with  Emma,  Haniicanute  should  have  succeeded 
him  on  the  English  throne :  but  the  absence  of  that  prince  in  Den- 
mark, as  well  as  his  unpopularity  among  the  Danish  part  of  tlio 
population,  caused  him  to  lose  one-half  of  the  kingdom.  I^eofriq 
now  carl  of  Mercia,  8upf»orted  the  pretensions  of  Harold,  whose 
presence  in  England  was  of  great  service  to  his  cause,  whilst  the 
powerful  earl  Godwin  embraced  the  cause  of  Hardicanute.  A  civil 
war  was,  however,  averted  by  a  compromise.  It  was  agreed  that 
Harold  should  retain  London,  with  all  the  provinces  north  of  the 
Thames,  while  the  possession  of  the  south  should  remain  to  Hanii- 
canute. Till  that  prince  should  appear  and  take  possession  of  his 
dominions,  Emma  fixed  her  residence  at  Winchester,  and  established 
her  authority  over  her  son's  share  of  the  partition,  aided  by  Godwin, 
who  governed  it  already  as  earl. 

Edward  and  Alfred,  Emma's  sons  by  ^Ethelred,  still  cherished 
ho|>es  of  ascending  the  throne.  Their  mother  had  sacrificed  their 
claims  on  her  marriage  with  Canute.  Their  uncle,  duke  Robert  of 
Normandy,  had  threatened,  or  even  attempted,  an  invasion  on  their 
behalf  (1029  or  1030).*  The  details  of  the  story  are  differently 
told,  but  the  English  account  is  as  follows :  "This  year  the  innocent 
aetheling  Alfred,  son  of  king  JEthelred,  came  hither  (1036),  and 
would  go  to  his  mother  (Emma),  who  resided  at  Winchester  ;  but 
this  earl  Godwin  would  not  permit,  nor  other  men  also,  who  could 
exercise  much  power ;  because  the  public  voice  was  then  really  in 
favour  of  Harold,  though  it  was  unjust.  Godwin  hindered  him,  set 
him  in  durance,  and  dispersed  his  companions.  Some  were  slain, 
Bome  sold  for  money,  some  burned,  blinded,  mutilated,  and  scalped. 

*  The  otecQTlty  of  this  period  is  due  |  English,  Normsn,  German,  and  Scandlna* 
to  the  great  conflict  of  the  authuriUes  |  vian.    (See  Note  A.) 


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AJK  1086-1042.  HAROLD  I.,  BAREFOOT — HARDICANUTK  61 

No  bloodier  deed  was  done  in  this  country  since  tho  Danes  came 
Tbe  SBtheling  wa^t  carried  to  Ely.  As  soon  as  the  ship  neared  the 
land,  they  blinded  him  and  committed  him  to  the  monks.  After  he 
died  he  was  buried  at  the  west  end  nigh  to  tbe  steeple  in  the  south 
porch."  ♦  The  death  of  Alf rtd  resulted  in  the  election  of  Harold,  who 
was  " chosen  over  all  for  king; "  the  people  forsaking  Hardicanute 
*'  because  he  stayed  too  long  in  Denmark  •*  (1037).  Fearful  lest 
a  similar  fete  should  befel  Edward,  his  mother  sent  him  over  to 
the  continent.  She  herself  shortly  after  was  driven  out,  "  with- 
out auy  mercy,  against  the  stormy  weather,"  and  took  refuge  with 
count  Baldwin  at  Bruges.  These  were  the  only  memorable  actions 
performed  in  the  reign  of  Harold,  who,  from  his  agility  in  hunting, 
apparently  his  only  accomplishment,  obtained  the  name  of  Hare/ooL 
He  died  on  the  17th  March,  1040. 

§  6.  Hardigakuts,  1040-1042. — On  the  intelligence  of  his 
brother's  death,  Hardicanute  immediately  proceeded  to  London, 
where  he  was  acknowledged  king  of  all  England  without  opposition. 
His  first  act  was  to  disinter  the  body  of  his  brother  Harold.  The 
corpse  was  decapitated  and  thrown  into  the  Thames ;  but  being 
found  by  a  fisherman,  was  buried  by  the  Danes  of  London  in  their 
cemetery  at  St.  Clement's.  Little  memorable  occurred  in  this  reign. 
Hardicanute  renewed  the  imposition  of  DanegeJd^  and  obliged  the 
nation  to  pay  a  great  sum  of  money  to  the  fleet  which  brought  him 
from  Denmark.  The  discontent  in  consequence  ran  high  in  many 
places,  and  especially  at  Worcester,  which  was  set  on  fire  and  plun- 
dered by  the  soldiers.  Hardicanute  died  suddenly  about  two  years 
after  his  accession,  whilst  in  the  act  of  raising  the  cup  to  his  lipt  at 
a  marriage  festival  at  Lambeth  (a.d.  1042). 

n.    The  Eikgdom  is  bestored  to  the  line  of  Cebdio, 
AJ).  1042-1066. 

§  7.  Edward  the  Confessor,  1042-1066.— The  death  of  Hardi- 
canute seemed  to  present  to  the  English  a  favourable  opportunity 
for  recovering  their  liberty  and  shaking  off  the  Danish  yoke. 
Edward  the  setheling  was  in  England  on  his  half-brother's  demise ; 
and  though  the  son  of  Edmund  Ironside  was  the  more  direct  heir  of 
the  West  Saxon  family,  his  absence  in  so  remote  a  country  as  Hun- 
gary appeared  a  sufiBcient  reason  for  his  exclusion.  The  claims  of 
Edward  were  supported  by  Godwin,  who  only  stipulated  that  he 
should  marry  the  earVs  daughter  Editha,  as  he  did  two  years  later. 
Edward  was  crowned  king  with  every  demonstration  of  duty  and 

•  Tbii   aooonnt  of    the   Anglo-Saxon  I  discussion  see  Freeman's  Gorman  Con- 
CkronieU  agrees  with  Florence  of  Worces-     g}Mt,  voL  I.  pp.  642-660. 
ter  and  Simeon  of  Durham.    For  fuller  J 
5 


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62 


SAXON  LINE  RESTORE1X 


Obap.  it 


affection ;  and,  by  the  mildness  of  his  character,  he  Roon  reconciled 
the  Danes  to  his  administration. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  Edward  was  to  strip  his  mother  Emma  of 
the  immense  treasures  which  she  had  amassed,  "  because  she  had 
done  for  him  less  than  he  would,  before  he  was  king,  and  also  since." 
8he  was  immurtd  for  the  remamd»  r  of  her  life  at  Winchester,  but 
he  oarrie<1  his  rigour  against  her  no  further.  As  she  was  unpopular 
in  England,  the  king's  severity,  though  exposed  to  bome  censure, 
met  with  no  general  disapprobation. 

§  8.  But,  though  freed  from  the  incursions  of  the  Danes,  the 
nation  was  not  yet  delivered  from  the  dominion  of  foreigners. 
Edward,  having  been  educated  in  Normandy,  had  contracted  an 
affection  for  the  manners  of  that  country.  The  court  was  filled 
with  Normans,  who  by  their  superior  culture  and  the  partiality 
of  Edward  soon  rendered  their  language,  customs,  and  Umts 
&shionable  in  England.  The  church,  above  all,  felt  the  infiuenoe 
of  these  strangers,  some  of  whom  were  appointed  to  ecclesiastical 
dignities,  and  Robert,  a  Norman,  was  even  promoted  to  the  see  of 
Canterbury  (1051).  These  proceedings  paved  the  way  to  the  Nor- 
man Conquest,  and  excited  the  jealousy  of  earl  Godwin  and  the 
English.  Besides  the  southern  parts  of  Wessex,  Godwin  had  the 
counties  of  Kent  and  Sussex  under  his  government.  His  eldest 
son,  Sweyn,  possessed  the  same  authority  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Wessex  and  in  the  south  of  Mercia,  that  is,  in  the  counties 
of  Oxford,  Berks,  Gloucester,  Somerset,  and  Hereford;  whilst 
Harold,  his  second  son,  was  earl  of  East  Anglia,  including  E^ssex. 
The  enormous  infiuencc  of  this  family  was  supported  'by  immense 
possessions  and  powerful  alliances;  and  the  abilities,  as  well  as 
ambition,  of  Godwin  contributed  to  rend  r  him  still  more  dan- 
gerous. He  was  opposed  by  Leofric  and  Siward,  the  earls  of 
Mercia  and  Northumbria;  and  another  earldom  (including  the 
shires  of  Warwick  and  Worcester)  was  carved  out  of  Mercia  for 
Ralph,  the  king's  nephew,  a  Frenchman.* 

It  wns  not  long  before  the  animosity  against  the  Norman  favourites 
broke  out  into  action.  Eustace,  count  of  Boulogne,  the  stepfather 
of  rtalph  the  earl,  having  paid  a  visit  to  the  king,  |iassed  by  Dover  on 
his  return  (1051).  One  of  his  train,  being  refused  admittance  into  a 
lodging  which  had  been  assigned  to  him,  attempted  to  make  his  way 
by  force,  and  in  the  contest  wounded  the  owner  of  the  house.  The 
inhabitants  fie  w  to  his  assistance;  a  tumult  ensued,  in  which  nearly 


*  He  wan  the  son  of  Qoda,  the  king's 
■later,  by  her  tir!«t  husband,  Drogo  of 
IfADtes,  and  commanded  the  Norman 
meroenaries.  As  leaders  in  war,  the  earU 


were  also  called  dukes  (from  the  L«Mn 
dux).  Just  as  the  eoldonnen  had  been 

called  heretoga*. 


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AJ).  1042-1051.        EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR.  68 

20  persons  were  killed  on  each  side;  and  Eustace,  overpowered 
by  numbers,  was  obliged  to  save  his  life  by  flight  from  the  fury  of 
the  populace.  On  the  complaint  of  Eustace,  the  king  gave  orders 
to  GJodwin,  in  whose  government  Dover  lay,  to  punish  the  inhabi- 
tants ;  but  '*  the  earl  would  not  agree,  because  he  was  loath  to 
injure  his  own  followers."  Touched  in  so  sensible  a  point,  Edward 
threatened  Gk)dwin  with  the  utmost  effects  of  his  resentment  if  he 
persisted  in  his  disobedience. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  &ults  of  Gkniwin,  he  had  the  good 
fortune,  the  policy,  or  the  skill,  to  appear  in  the  present  conjuncture 
as  the  patriotic  defender  of  the  English  cause  against  the  foreign 
predilections  of  his  sovereign.  He  had  now  gone  too  far  to  retreat, 
and  therefore  he  and  his  sons,  Sweyn  and  Harold,  assembled  their 
forces  on  the  Cotswold  Hills,  for  the  purpose  of  overawing  the  king 
and  compelling  him  to  redress  the  grievances  of  the  nation.  But 
the  two  earls,  Leofric  of  Mcrcia,  and  Siward  of  Northumberland, 
with  the  French  earl  Ralph,  embraced  the  king's  cause,  and  assem- 
bled a  numerous  army.  To  avoid  bloodshed  it  was  agreed,  on  the 
proposal  of  Leofric,  to  refer  the  quarrel  U)  the  Witau ;  but  when 
(jodwin  approached  London  for  that  purpose,  his  followers  dropped 
away,  and  he  found  himself  outnumbered.  Sweyn  was  declnred  an 
outlaw;  (iodwin  and  Harold  were  summoned  to  take  their  trial, but, 
refusing  to  appear,  unless  hostages  were  given  for  their  safety,  they 
were  ordered  to  leave  the  country  within  five  days.  Baldwin,  earl 
of  Flanders,  gave  protection  to  Ghxiwin  and  his  three  sons,  Sweyn, 
Gurth,  and  Tosiig,  the  last  of  whom  had  married  the  daughter  of 
that  prince;  Harold  and  Leofwine,  his  two  other  sons,  took  shelter 
in  Ireland  with  Dermot,  king  of  Leinster.  The  estates  of  the  father 
and  sons  were  confiscated,  their  governments  given  to  others ;  queen 
Editha  was  shut  up  in  a  monastery  at  Wherwell,  near  Andover, 
where  the  king's  sister  was  abbess.  The  greatness  of  this  family, 
once  so  formidable,  seemed  now  to  be  totally  supplanted  and 
overthrown  (1051). 

§  9.  The  Norman  influence  was  now  again  in  the  ascendant ;  and 
before  the  end  of  t»  e  year,  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  the  king's 
near  kinsman,  paid  a  visit  to  Edward.*  But  Godwin  had  fixed  his 
authority  on  too  firm  a  basis,  and  was  too  strongly  supix)rted  by 
alliances  both  foreign  and  domestic,  not  to  occasion  further  disturb- 
ances, ani  make  new  efforts  for  his  re-establishment.  He  fitted  out 
a  fleet  in  the  Flemish  harbours,  and  being  joined  at  the  Isle  of 
Wight  by  his  son  Harold,  with  a  squadron  collected  in  Ireland,  ho 
entered  the  Thames,  and,  appearing   before   London,   where   the 

*  WlUUm  bad  become  dake  of  Nonnuidy  bj  his  Ikther  Robert'i  de«tb  In  Ui« 
fMT  of  CMOte'i  deatb  (1036). 


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64  8AX0N  LIKE  RESTORED.  Chap.  it. 

people  were  favourably  disposed  to  him,  threw  everything  into 
confusion  (1002).  The  king  alone  seemed  resolved  to  defend  him- 
self to  the  last  extremity ;  but  the  interposition  of  the  English 
nobility,  many  of  whom  favoured  Godwin's  pretensions,  made 
Edward  hearken  to  terms  of  accommodation,  and  it  was  agreed 
that  hostages  should  be  given  on  both  sides.  At  a  witena^gemot 
held  outside  the  walls  of  London,  Godwin  and  his  sons  were  de- 
clared innocent  of  the  charijes  laid  against  them,  and  were  restored 
to  their  honours  and  possessions ;  the  French  were  outlawed ;  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  bishops  of  London  and  Dor- 
chester escaped  into  ^^'ormandy.  Godwin's  death,  which  happened 
soon  after,  while  he  was  sitting  at  table  with  the  king,  prevented 
him  from  further  establishing  the  authority  he  had  acquired 
(1053).  As  his  son  Sweyn  had  died  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem, 
Godwin  was  succeeded  in  his  governments  and  offices  by  his  son 
Harold,  now  earl  of  Wessex,  who  was  actuated  by  an  ambition  equal 
to  that  of  his  father,  and  was  superior  to  him  in  address,  in  insinu- 
ation, and  in  virtue.  By  a  modest  and  gentle  demeanour  he  acquired 
the  goodwill  of  Edward,  and,  gaining  every  day  new  partisans  by 
his  bounty  and  affability,  he  proceeded  in  a  more  silent  and 
therefore  a  more  dangerous  manner  to  augment  his  authority. 

§  10.  The  death  of  Si  ward  of  Northumbria,  in  1055,  removed 
the  last  obstacle  to  Harold's  ambition.  Besides  his  other  merits, 
Siward  had  acquired  honour  by  his  successful  conduct  in  the 
only  foreign  enterprise  undertaken  during  the  reign  of  Edward. 
Duncan  1.,  king  of  Scotland,  the  successor  of  Malcolm  11.,  was  a 
young  prince  of  a  gentle  disix)sition,  but  possessed  not  the  genius 
or  firmness  required  for  governing  so  turbulent  a  country.  Macbeda 
(Macbeth),  the  powerful  chief  of  Moray,  was  married  to  Gruach 
(the  Lady  Macbeth  of  Shakspere),  whose  descent  from  Kenneth  III. 
constituted  a  claim  to  the  crown  for  Lulach,  her  son  by  a  formw 
marriage.  In  one  of  the  frequent  petty  wars  of  that  turbulent 
realm,  Duncan  was  defeated  and  murdered  on  his  retreat  into 
Moray;  Malcolm  Canmore  (i.e.  Greathead),  his  son  and  heir,  was 
chased  into  England,  and  Macbeth  seized  the  kingdom,  which  he 
ruled  ably  and  well  (1040).  Some  years  later,  Siward,  whose  kins- 
woman was  married  to  Duncan,  avenged,  by  Edward's  orders,  the 
royal  cause.  He  marched  an  army  into  Scotland,  defeated  Macbeth 
at  Dunsinane  (1054),  and  set  Malcolm  on  the  throne.  Macbeth 
and  Lulach  prolonged  the  contest  till  Macbeth  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Lumphanan,  in  Aberdeenshire  (1056  or  1058).  Siward 
died  the  year  after  the  battle  of  Dunsinane ;  and  as  his  son,  Wal- 
theof,  appeared  too  young  to  be  intrusted  with  the  government 
of  Northumberland,  it  was  obtained  by  Harold's  influence  for  hia 
own  brother  Tostig. 


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AJ>.  1062-1060.  SDWABD  THE  CONFESSOR.  65 

§  IL  Meanwhile  Edward,  feeling  himself  far  advanced  in  life, 
began  to  think  of  appointing  a  successor,  and  sent  a  deputation  to 
Hungary  to  invite  over  his  nephew  Edward,  called  the  "  Stranger," 
or  the  **  OuilaWy**  son  of  his  elder  brother,  Edmund  Ironside,  and 
the  only  remaining  heir  of  the  West-Saxon  line.  That  prince, 
whose  succession  to  the  crown  would  have  been  easy  and  undis- 
puted, came  to  England  with  his  young  children,  Edgar  the 
tetheling,  Margaret,  and  Christina;  but  his  death,  which  happened 
a  few  days  after  his  arrival  (1057),  threw  the  king  into  fre^sh  diflB- 
culties.  He  saw  that  Harold  was  tempted  by  his  great  power  and 
ambition  to  aspire  to  the  throne,  and  that  Edgar,  a  mere  child, 
was  very  unfit  to  oppose  the  pretensions  of  so  popular  and  enter- 
prising a  rival.  In  this  uncertainty  he  is  said  to  have  cast  his 
eye  towards  his  kinsman,  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  as  the  only 
person  whose  power,  reputation,  and  capacity  could  support  any 
arrangement  which  might  be  made  in  his  favour,  to  the  exclusion  of 
Harold  and  his  family. 

§  12.  In  communicating  his  design  to  William,  Edward,  accord- 
ing to  some  accounts,  chose  Harold  himself  as  his  ambassador, 
commanding  him  to  deliver  to  the  duke  a  sword  and  a  ring  as  pledges 
of  his  intention.  But  though  Harold  may  have  paid  a  visit  to 
the  court  of  the  duke  of  Normandy,  the  circumstances  attending 
it,  and  even  the  date,  are  involved  in  obscurity.  The  more  probable 
account  is  that  Harold  was  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Ponthieu, 
and  thrown  into  prison  by  count  Guy,  until  his  ransom  was  paid. 
William  claimed  the  prisoner  from  his  vassal,  and  received  Harold 
with  honour  and  kindness;  but  he  employed  this  opportunity  to 
extort  from  Harold  a  promise  that  he  would  support  his  pretensions 
to  the  English  throne,  and  made  him  swear  that  he  would  deliver 
up  the  castle  of  Dover.  To  render  the  oath  more  obligatory,  he 
employed  an  artifice  well  suited  to  the  superstition  of  the  age. 
Unknown  to  Harold,  he  conveyed  under  the  altar,  on  which  Harold 
agreed  to  swear,  the  reliques  of  certain  martyrs ;  and  when  Harold  had 
taken  the  oath,  William  showed  him  the  reiques,  and  admonished 
him  to  observe  religiously  an  engagement  which  had  been  ratified  by 
so  tremendous  a  sanction.  Harold,  dissembling  his  concern,  renewed 
his  professions,  and  was  dismissed  with  all  the  marks  of  confidence 
by  the  duke,  who  promised  to  maintain  him  in  all  his  possessions, 
and  give  him  his  daughter  Adeliza  in  marriage.* 

§  13.  In  what  manner  Harold  observed  the  oath  thus  extorted 
from  him  by  fear,  we  shall  presently  see.  Meanwhile,  he  cotitinued 
to  practise  every  art  of  popularity  ;  and  fortune  threw  two  incidents 

*  A«  no  aUar  in  tbote  days  wm  wiibont  its  relics,  this  could  be  no  cause  for 
Barold's  sMonishment 


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66  8AX0N  LIKE  RESTORED.  Csap.  it. 

in  hifl  way  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  acquire  fresh  favour.  The 
first  of  these  was  the  reduction  of  Wales ;  the  second  related  to  his 
brother  Tostig,  who,  as  earl  of  Northumberland,  had  actod  with  so 
much  cruelty  and  injustice,  that  the  inhabitants,  taking  advantage 
of  his  absence  in  the  south,  deposed  him,  and  offered  the  earldom 
to  Morcar,  grandson  of  Leofric  (1065).  As  Morcar  led  an  army  of 
his  new  subjects  southwards,  he  was  joined  by  his  brother  Edwin, 
the  earl  of  Mercia.  When  met  at  Northampton  by  Harold,  who 
had  been  commissioned  by  the  king  to  reduce  and  chastise  the 
Northumbrians,  Morcar  made  so  vigorous  a  remonstrance  against 
Tostig's  tyranny,  that  Harold  found  it  prudent  to  abandon  his 
brother's  cause;  and,  returning  to  Edward,  he  persuaded  him  to 
pardon  the  Northumbrians  and  confirm  Morcar  in  his  new  govern- 
ment. Tostig,  in  rage,  took  shelter  in  Flanders  with  earl  Baldwin, 
his  brother-in-law.  Emboldened  by  these  successes,  as  well  as  by  the 
friendship  of  Morcar  and  Edwin,  nnd  his  marriage  with  the  widow 
of  king  Griflith,  Edwin's  sister,  Harold  now  openly  aspired  to  the 
crown.  Broken  with  age  and  infirmities,  Edward  died  on  the  5th  of 
January,  1066,  in  the  65th  year  of  his  age  and  25th  of  his  reign. 
By  some  authorities  he  is  said,  on  his  deathbed,  to  have  recom- 
mended Harold  for  his  successor. 

§  14.  This  i)rince,  who  about  a  century  after  his  death  was 
canonized  with  the  surname  of  "  the  Confessor,'*  by  a  bull  of  pope 
Alexander  III.,  was  tlie  last  of  the  direct  Saxon  line  that  ruled  in 
England.  Though  his  reign  was  peaceable  and  fortunate,  he  owed 
his  prosperity  less  to  his  own  abilities  than  to  the  conjuncture  of 
the  times.  The  Danes,  employed  in  other  enterprises,  no  longer 
attempted  those  incursions  which  had  been  so  troublesome  to  all 
his  predecessors,  and  so  fatal  to  some  of  them.  The  facility  of 
his  disposition  made  him  acquiesce  in  the  designs  of  Godwin  and 
his  son  Harold ;  and  their  abilities,  as  well  as  their  power,  enabled 
them  to  preserve  peace  and  tranquillity  at  home.  The  most  com- 
mendable circumstance  of  Edward's  government  was  his  attention 
to  the  administration  of  justice,  and  his  compilation,  for  that  pur- 
pose, of  a  body  of  laws,  collected  from  the  laws  of  ^thelbert,  Ina, 
and  Alfred.  Though  now  lost — ^for  the  code  that  passes  under 
Edward's  name  was  composed  at  a  later  jwriod— it  was  long  the 
object  of  affection  to  the  English  nation.*  Edward  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  which  was  consecrated  only  a  few  days  before 
his  death.     This  church  was  erected  by  Edward  and  dedicated  to 


*  It  was  not  the  laws  in  this  restricted 
senee  that  the  people  demanded— if  ever 
they  did  demand  them— but  the  milder 
rule  and  administration  prevailing  before 


the  Conquest,  as  compared  with  the  harsher 
rule  after  the  Conquest.  But  as  socb  com- 
plaints under  such  circumstanoMare  uni- 
versal, they  prove  nothing. 


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A.D.  106^  HAROLD  U.  67 

St  Peter,  in  pursuance  ef  the  directions  of  pope  Leo  IX.,  as  the 
condition  of  the  king's  release  from  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  Its  site 
was  previously  occupied  by  a  church  erected  by  Sebert,  king  of 
Essex,  which  bad  long  gone  to  ruin.  Only  a  few  insignificant 
fragments  of  this  first  Norman  church  in  England  had  survived 
its  demolition  in  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the  new  minsttr  was 
commenced  by  Henry  III.  in  honour  of  the  Confessor.  Edward 
was  the  first  sovert-ign  who  touched  for  the  king's  evil 

§  16.  Harold  II.,  1066. — Harold's  accession  to  the  throne  was 
attended  with  as  little  opposition  and  disturbance  as  if  he  had 
succeeded  by  the  most  undoubtiKi  hereditary  title.  On  the  day 
after  Edward  s  death  he  was  crowned  and  anointed  king  by  Aldred, 
archbishop  of  York;  and  the  whole  nation  seemed  to  acquiesce 
joyfully  in  his  elevation.  But  in  Normandy  the  intelligence  of 
Harold's  accession  moved  William  to  the  highest  pitch  of  indigtia- 
tion.  He  sent  an  embassy  to  England,  upbraiding  him  with  breach 
of  faith,  and  summoning  him  to  resign  immediately  possession  of 
the  kingdom,  or  at  least  to  keep  his  promise  of  marrying  William's 
daughter  and  holding  England  as  his  vassal.  Harold  refrsed  to 
comply.  The  answer  was  no  other  than  William  expected.  He 
assembled  a  fleet  oi  nearly  1000  vessels,  great  and  small,  and  an 
army,  variously  estimated,  from  14,000  to  60,C00  men.  Several 
European  rulers  declared  in  &vour  of  his  claim :  but  his  most 
important  ally  was  pope  Alexander  II.,  who  proclaimed  Harold  a 
perjured  usurper,  denounced  excommunication  aga-nst  him  and  his 
adherents,  and,  the  more  to  encourage  the  duke  of  Normandy  in 
his  enterprise,  sent  him  a  consecrated  banner,  and  a  ring  with  one 
of  St.  Peter's  hairs  in  it. 

The  first  blow,  however,  was  struck  by  Harold's  brother  Tostig, 
who  sailed  in  the  spring  of  the  year  with  a  considerable  fleet  from 
the  Flemish  ports,  and  ravaged  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts  of 
England.  Repulsed  by  earls  Morcar  and  Edwin,  he  took  refuge 
with  the  Scottish  king,  Malcolm  Canmore.  On  the  appearance  of 
a  large  fleet  in  the  Tyne  under  Harold  Hardrada,  king  of  Norway, 
Tostig  hastencil  to  join  his  force  with  the  invader,  promising  him 
half  of  England  as  the  price  of  his  assistance.  Scarborough  was 
taken  and  burned,  and  the  earls  Edwin  and  Morcar  were  defeated  in 
a  bloody  battle  at  Fulford  on  the  Ouse,  near  Bi.shopthorfw.  Harold 
now  hastened  with  a  large  army  into  the  north ;  and  he  reached 
the  enemy  at  Stamford  Bridge,  near  York,  called  afterwards  Battle 
Bridge.  A  bloody  but  decisive  action  was  fought  on  Monday,  the 
26th  of  September,  which  ended  in  the  total  rout  of  the  Norwegians, 
with  the  death  of  Tostig  and  of  Harold  Hardrada.  Harold  had 
scarcely  time  to  rejoice  in  his  victory,  when  he  received  intelligence 


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68  SAXON  LINE  RESTORED.  Ohap.  it. 

that  the  duke  of  Normandy  had  landed  with  a  great  army  in  the 
south  of  England. 

§  16.  The  Norman  fleet  sailed  from  St.  Valery-sur-Somme  on 
the  27th  of  September,  nnd  arrived  safely  at  Pevensey,  in  Sussex, 
on  the  eve  of  the  feast  of  St.  Michael.  The  army  quietly  disem- 
barked. The  duke  himself,  as  he  leaped  on  shore,  happened  to 
stumble  and  fall ;  but  had  the  presence  of  mind,  it  is  said,  to  turn 
the  omen  to  his  advantage,  by  calling  aloud  that  he  had  taken 
possession  of  the  country.* 

Harold  hastened  by  quick  marches  to  oppose  the  invader ;  but, 
though  he  was  reinforced  at  London  and  other  places  with  fresh 
troops,  he  found  himself  weakened  by  the  desertion  of  Edwin  and 
Morcar,  who  kept  back  the  great  forces  of  their  earldoms.  His 
brother  Gurth,  a  man  of  bravery  and  conduct,  entertaining  appre- 
hensions of  the  result,  remonstrated  with  the  king,  urging  him  to 
defer  an  engagement.  The  enemy,  he  said,  harassed  with  small 
skirmishes,  straitened  in  provisions,  fatigued  with  bad  weather  and 
deep  roads  during  the  winter  season,  which  was  approaching,  would 
fall  an  easy  and  a  bloodless  prey.  But  Harold  was  deaf  to  all  these 
remonstrances.  He  resolved  to  give  battle  in  person,  and  for  that 
purpose  drew  near  to  the  Normans,  who  had  removed  their  camp 
and  fleet  to  Hastings,  where  they  fixed  their  quarters  (Oct.  13). 

After  fruitless  negotiations  on  both  sides,  the  English  and 
Normans  prepared  for  the  combat.  The  two  camps  presented  a 
very  diflferent  aspect:  the  English  spent  the  time  in  revelry  and 
feasting ;  the  Normans  in  silence  and  prayer.  On  Saturday  mora* 
ing,  the  14th  of  Oct«>ber,  the  duke  called  together  the  most  con- 
siderable of  his  commanders,  and  made  them  a  speech  suitable  to 
the  occasion.  He  then  ordered  the  signal  oi  battle  to  be  giveiL 
The  whole  army,  led  on  hy  the  minstrel  Tai liefer,  advanced  in 
order  and  with  alacrity  towards  the  enemy,  singing  the  hymn 
or  song  of  Roland,  the  peer  of  Charlemagne. 

Barring  the  road  to  Loudon,  Harold  had  seized  the  advantage 
of  a  rising  ground  at  Senlac,  eight  miles  from  Hastings,  and  re- 
solved to  stand  on  the  defensive.  He  surrounded  his  camp  with  a 
stockade,  crowned  with  a  fence  of  wattled  branches  against  the 
Norman  arrows.  The  English,  as  was  their  invariable  custom, 
fought  on  foot.  The  Kentishmen  were  placed  in  the  van,  a  poet 
which  they  had  always  claimed  as  their  due ;  the  militia,  who 
were  poorly  armed,  were  posted  on  the  wings ;  in  the  centre,  the 
king,  accompanied  by  his  two  valiant  brothers,  Gurth  and  Leof- 

*  The  incident  might  seem  to  have  been  I  the  fact  that  one  nictliod  of  uking  poeaes 
borrowed  fmm  anrient  tinon ;  but  lt«  per-  sion.nccordjnp  t»»  f  ii<)  .1  uHcige^  consisted  in 
tmency  uu  this  uccusiou  is  stxcDgtbeoed  by  j  laying  the  hand  ou  «  waU  or  piece  oi  Und. 


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A.D  1066.  HAROLD  IL  69 

wine,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  mail-clad  bodyjj^rd  (or 
house  carls),  close  to  the  royal  standard.  The  spot  where  the 
standard  was  pitched  was  long  marked  hy  the  site  of  the  high 
altar  of  '*  Battle  Abhey,'*  which  William  had  vowed  to  build 
on  that  very  spot  in  honour  of  St.  Martin.  For  some  hours  the 
battle  raged  with  doubtful  success,  till  William  commanded  his 
troops  to  make  a  hasty  retreat,  and  allure  the  enemy  from  their 
ground  by  the  appearance  of  flight.  Heated  by  action,  and  san- 
guine of  victory,  the  Knglish  precipitately  followed  the  Normans 
into  the  plain,  when  William  ordered  the  infantry  lo  fete  their 
pursuers.  Assaultt^d  upon  their  wings  at  the  same  moment  by  the 
Norman  cavalry,  the  English  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter; 
but,  being  rallied  by  the  bravery  of  Harold,  they  were  still  able  to 
maintain  their  post.  The  duke  tried  the  same  stratagem  a  second  time 
with  the  same  success;  but  even  after  this  second  advantage  he 
still  found  a  great  body  of  the  English  who  seemed  determined  to 
dispute  the  ground  to  the  last  extremity.  Ordering  his  heavy- 
armed  infantry  to  advance,  he  posted  his  archers  behind  them  to 
gall  the  enemy,  who,  exposed  by  the  situation  of  the  ground,  were 
intent  on  defending  themselves  against  the  swords  and  spears  of 
their  assailant!}.  I'he  stratagem  prevailed.  Harold  fell,  pierced  in 
the  right  eye  by  an  arrow,  while  he  was  fighting  with  great  bravery 
at  the  head  of  his  men.  His  body  was  mangled  by  a  band  of  Nor- 
man knights,  who  had  vowed  to  take  the  standard,  and  cut  their 
way  through  his  valiant  body-guards.  His  two  brothers  had  already 
fallen.  Thus  the  great  and  decisive  victory  of  Hastings  was 
gained,  after  a  battle  fought  from  morning  till  sunset,  with  an 
heroic  valour  on  both  sides,  to  decide  the  fate  of  a  mighty  kingdom.* 
The  body  of  Harold,  mutilated  and  defaced  beyond  reco;;nition,  was 
found  on  the  field.  William  ordered  it  to  be  biu*ied  on  the  sea- 
shore under  a  cairn  of  stones,  the  well-known  siun  of  execration, 
but  afterwards  allowed  it  to  be  remox  ed  to  the  abbey  of  Waltham, 
founded  by  Harold.  It  was  <  ntombed  beside  the  hi^h  altar  of  the 
grand  Norman  church,  but  a.ain  removed  to  another  8i)ot  in  the 
choir,  which  was  pulled  down  at  the  dissolution  of  the  monastery 
(1540).  Till  then  a  tomb  used  to  be  shown  bearing  the  inscription: 
**HlC  JACET  Haroldus  infelix." 

•  The  botUe  of  Hastings  is  depicted  on     more  probably  worked  for  the  Conqueror's 


the  Bayeox  tapestry.  This  curious  piece 
of  needlework,  214  feet  long  and  19  inches 
broad,  which  is  still  preserved  at  Bayeux, 
represents  the  whole  history  of  the  expe 
dftion.  as  well  as  the  battle.  According  tc 
tradition,  it  was  worked  by  Matilda,  the 
wife  of  William  the  Conqueror;  but  it  was 

6* 


brother,  bishop  Odo,  as  an  ornament  of 
his  newly  built  cathedral  at  Bayeux.  It 
may  be  regarded  not  only  as  a  faithful 
representation  of  the  costume  of  the 
period,  but  as  a  contemporary  authority 
for  the  hiftory  of  the  invasion,  though 
of  course  from  a  Norman  point  of  view. 


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w 


NOTES  AND   LLLUSTRAnONa 


C^AP.  IT. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


A.  THE  GOVERNMENT.  LAWS. 
AND  INSTITUTIONS  OF  THE 
ANGLO-SAXONS. 

1.  Introduction. — ^The  completenets  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  has  been  in- 
ferred from  the  establishment  of  their 
language  in  England.  Even  the  British 
names  of  places  yielded  to  Anglo-Saxon 
ones,  with  some  few  exceptions,  and 
those  chiefly  in  the  border  counties 
and  in  Cornwall.  "No  one  travelling 
through  Euglund,"  says  Mr.  Hal  lam 
(ifidcUe  Ages,  ch.  vlii.  note  4),  "would 
discover  that  any  people  had  ever  in- 
habited it  before  the  Saxons,  save  so  fiir 
as  the  mighty  liome  has  left  traces  of  her 
empire  in  some  enduring  walls,  and  a 
tew  names  that  betray  the  colonial  city, 
the  Londinium,  the  Camalodunum,  the 
Lindum."  It  follows  that  the  laws  and 
customs  of  England  were  mainly  of 
German  origin.  See  Stubbs's  Constitu- 
tional History  qf  England,  vol.  i., 
chapters  i.iv. 

a.  The  King  and  Royal  family.— 
The  Teutonic  tribes  that  invaded  Britain, 
like  their  ancestors  in  the  wilds  and 
woods  of  Germany,  had  no  regular  or 
permanent  king,  but  elected  a  supreme 
head  as  occasion  required,  who,  as  his 
office  chiefly  consisted  in  directing  their 
wu-like  expeditions,  obtained  tha  name 
of  Heretoga,  or  army-leader  (in  modem 
German  hersog,  "duke").  Among  the 
Saxons  and  Frisians  of  the  continent 
this  state  of  things  continued  much  longer 
than  in  England,  where  the  acquisition  of 
a  territory  by  conquest  raised  the  vic- 
torious chief  to  the  position  of  king. 
Thus,  in  the  Anglo-Sax-'n  Chronicle,  Hcn- 
gest  and  Horsa  are  heretogas  when  they 
come  to  Britain  (448) ;  but  after  the  battle 
of  Aylosford  (455)  Heiigest  and  his  eon 
JFjsc  took  the  kingdom  (feng  to  rice) ;  and 
in  488  JEjsc  succeeds  his  father  as  king 
(cyning),*  that  title  being  now  first  given 
to  one  of  the  conquerors.  So  CvrJic  and 
Cynric  come  as  ealdormen  (^^5),  and  in 
519  they  take  the  kingdom  (rice)  of  the 
West-Saxons.  The  fact  that,  in  each  of 
these  coses,  the  son  is  named  as  becoming 

•  TliU  word  is  supposed  to  »)c  of  SaiiMrrIt  urititi. 
iDMning  "Father  of  th«  faniilr."  (See  Stubbt' 
Oonst  Hilt  vol.  L  p.  140.) 


Ung  with  his  fSitber,  stamps  ths  office  tt 
once  with  a  certain  hereditary  character, 
which  was  wanting  in  the  old  German 
elective  chieftainship.  In  the  early 
period  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  occupation  the 
kingly  dignity  remained  really  or  nomi- 
nally elective;  but  the  crown  was  re- 
tained in  the  royal  family,  except  in 
great  emergencies,  where  (as  with  Canute 
and  William)  the  hard  fact  of  conquest 
was  veiled  under  the  form  of  election. 
There  was,  however,  no  fixed  rule  ol 
succession.  If  the  eldest  son  of  the 
deceased  monarch  was  qualified,  bo  bad 
the  preference,  but  not  withont  the 
consent  of  the  great  council,  \>bich  teas 
often  merely  formal;  their  authority  in 
this  or  other  matters  varying  according 
to  the  power  and  character  of  the  moiuirch. 
But  if  he  was  a  minor,  or  otherwise  dis- 
qualified, he  was  sometimes  set  aside, 
and  another  appointed  from  the  reign- 
ing family.  The  right  of  election  appears 
to  have  belonged  to  the  whole  nation, 
but  it  was  really  exercised  by  the  Witan^ 
consisting  of  the  prelates  and  the  nobler, 
the  share  of  the  people  in  the  act  being 
confined  to  the  accUmations  of  such  as 
might  happen  to  be  present  at  the  "hal- 
lowing" of  the  king.  This  ceremony, 
which  included  both  coronation  and  unc- 
tion, performed  by  the  bisfaop<),  signified  a 
religious  sanction  of  the  king's  authority. 
In  the  same  spirit,  tho  king  took  an 
oath  that  he  would  govern  rightly,  and, 
under  the  successors  of  AlAred,  when  the 
idea  of  kingly  sanctity  had  grown 
stronger,  the  people  took  an  oath  of 
allegiance.  By  degrees  the  kingly  power 
grew  stronger  in  England,  especially  after 
the  separate  kingdoms  became  merged 
iuto  one.  The  kings  then  began  to  as- 
sume more  high-flown  titles ;  as  that  of 
Basileus— borrowed  fipom  the  Bysontine 
court— Imperotor,  Primloerius.  Flavins, 
Augustus,  etc. ;  some  of  which  are  not 
I  very  intelligible.  Egbert,  however,  and 
his  five  immediate  successors,  contented 
themselves  with  the  title  of  kings  of 
Wessex.  Edward  the  elder  assumed  the 
style  of  "king  of  the  Angles"  (rex 
Anglorum),  whilst  Athelstan  called  him- 
self "  king  of  all  Britain  "  (totius  Britan- 
nia monarchus,  rex,  or  rector),  and  was 


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71 


the  flnt  to  intiodooe  the  Greek  name  of 
htt$iieu$.  Kdwy  and  Edgar  are  remark- 
•Me  for  their  pompoiu  titles. 

The  king,  like  the  rest  of  hit  aabjects, 
bad  a  werffild^  or  fixed  price  for  his.  life, 
the  amount  of  which  varied  in  different 
kingdoms^  but  was  of  course  considerably 
higher  than  that  of  his  most  distinguished 
sul\)ect8.  This  was  increased  by  Alfred, 
who  DUMle  the  compassing  of  the  king's 
death  a  capital  offence,  attended  with 
confiscation.  The  king's  sons,  or,  in 
their  default,  those  who  had  the  next 
pretension  to  the  sucoesalon,  were  called 
{Bthdingg,  or  nobles.*  The  consort  of 
an  Anglo-Saxon  king  was  styled  em- 
phatically "  the  wife  "  (ci«n), »'  the  lady  " 
CUafdiffe).  She  was  crowned  and  con- 
secrated like  him,  had  a  separate  court, 
and  a  separate  property,  besides  her 
dowry,  or  ** morning  gifts"  (morgen-pifu). 

3.  Divition  qf  rank$.— The  whole  free 
population  of  England  under  the  rank  of 
n^alty  may  be  divided  into  two  main 
classes  of  eorli  (earls)  and  eeorls  (churls) ; 
that  is,  gentle  and  simple,  or  nobles  and 
yeomen. 

Ealdormen.  —  In  ancient  tiroes  the 
affairs  of  each  tribe  were  directed  by 
the  eiden  (ealdormant  alderman),  which 
name  thus  became  synonymous  with 
chi^.  Hence  etUdorwum  was  the  chief 
title  of  nobility  among  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
It  was  the  next  rank  after  the  king,  and 
was  applied  to  any  man  in  authority,  but 
more  especially  to  the  governor  of  a  shire, 
or  a  large  district  including  several 
■hires.  The  title  of  eaUiorvian  corre- 
sponds to  the  princqn  of  Tacitus,  the 
mUrapa  or  iubregultis  of  Bede,  the  dux 
of  the  Latin  chroniclers,  and  the  comet 
of  the  Normans.  The  office  was  properly 
•lectire,  but  in  the  larger  districts  or 
'sub-kingdoms  it  was  to  a  considerable 
extant  hereditary.  In  this  case,  the  elec- 
tion apparently  roquiml  the  consent  of  the 
king  and  the  Witan.  In  the  1 1th  century, 
wider  the  Danish  monarchs,  an  important 
change  was  introduced  in  the  appellation 
of  ranks.  The  word  eorl  lost  Its  general 
tense  of  good  birth,  and  became  an 
crfBdal  title,  equivalent  to  alderman, 
and  was  applied  to  the  governor  of  a 
•hire  or  province.  In  this  sense,  both 
the  word  eorl  and  the  Danish  jarl  came 
to  be  merged  in  the  title  earl.    The  term 

*  jttM^Uno  b  a  patronymic  fhnn  JUM, 
"noble."  whlph  forms  tM  prefix  o(  m>  many  of  tbe 


earl  as  a  general  deaignatton  of  ndbUi^ 
was  now  supplanted  by  thane ;  and  benoa 
in  the  later  period  of  Anglo-Saxon  mmil- 
ments  we  find  thane  opposed  to  ceorl,  tm 
eorl  is  in  the  earUer  (Hallam's  MidOk 
Jffe*f  vol.  11.  pp.  360,  361).  The  ealdor- 
man,  or  earl,  and  bishop  were  of  equal 
rank,  whilst  the  archbishop  was  equal  to 
the  athelingt  or  member  of  the  royal 
house.  After  the  Norman  Conquest  tbe 
title  of  alderman  seems  to  have  been 
restricted  to  the  magistrates  of  cities  and 
boroughs. 

Aanst.— Next  in  degree  to  the  alder- 
man was  the  thane  (A.S.  thegen  or 
th^n)*  There  were  different  degrees  ot 
thanes,  the  highest  being  those  called 
king's  thanes,  the  warrior  eomite$  of  the 
king.  It  was  necessary  that  the  lesser 
thane  should  have  five  hides  of  land  (about 
500  acres);  whilst  the  qualification  of 
the  alderman  was  forty,  or  eight  times 
as  much.  This  class  formed  a  nobility  f 
arising  from  oflBce  or  service ;  but  subse- 
quently the  hereditary  possession  of  land 
produced  an  hereditary  nobility ;  and  at 
length  it  became  so  much  dependent  upon 
property,  that  the  mere  possession  of  five 
hides  of  land,  together  with  a  chapel, 
a  kitchen,  a  hall,  and  a  bell,  o>nverted  a 
churl  into  a  thane.  In  like  manner,  as 
we  have  seen,  by  a  law  of  Athelstan 
(which,  however,  was  perhaps  only  a 
confirmation  of  an  ancient  charter), 
a  merchant  who  had  made  three  voyages 
on  his  own  account  became  a  thane. 
The  thane  was  liable  to  military  service, 
and  was  therefore  on  a  par  with  the  equee^ 
or  knight.  Probably  he  had  a  vote  in 
the  national  council. 

Oeorlt  or  cAurls.— Between  the  thane 
and  the  serf,  or  slave,  was  the  churl  or 
freeman  (sometimes  also  called /r^jfrnan ; 
in  Lat.  villonus;  Norm,  villain).  But 
every  man  was  obliged  by  law  to  place 
himself  under  the  protection  of  some 
lord,  fftiling  which  he  might  be  seized 
OS  a  robber.  The  eeorls  were  for  the 
most  part  not  independent  freeholders, 
and  cultivated  the  lands  of  their  lords, 
on  which  they  were  bound  to  reside,  and 

*  Commonly  dcrired  from  thefnii«n,  "  to  Mrr*," 
•H  If  the  king!  MrrMit.  But  the  proper  meaning 
of  tbe  word  M«mi  to  bea  wtrrtor;  and  tbe  Moond 
sense  of  lerrke  come  flrom  the  mOitaiy  Mrrks 
rendered  bjr  the  thanei. 

f  It  haa  often  been  iteted  that  there  WM  no 
nobility  of  blood,  except  in  the  royal  family.  Mr. 
Stubbt  thlnki  that  a  class  of  noblee,  dewsended 
from  the  ancient  tettlen  {eorle$  and  athtt),  wera 
gradually  merged  In  the  cIom  of  nobles  by  ofllor 
and  avriM  iStubbs'  Coast.  UkL  toL  L  |>.  m). 


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Chap.  iv. 


conld  not  qnit,  thooi^  in  other  respects 
tbej  were  freemen.  Bnt  there  were 
several  oonditions  of  oeorU,  who  in  the 
Domesday  Book  form  two-flfths  of  the 
registered  inhabitants.  We  have  already 
seen  tliat  the  ceorl  might  acquire  land,  and 
that,  if  he  obtained  as  much  as  five  hides, 
he  became  forthwith  a  thane.  Hence 
there  must  have  been  many  oeorls  in 
England  who  were  independent  free- 
holders possessing  less  than  this  quan- 
tity of  land,  (probably  the  Socmanni  or 
Socmen  of  Domesday  Book),  whom  Mr. 
Hallam  describes  as  **the  root  of  a 
noble  plant,  the  free  socage  tenants,  of 
English  yeomanry,  whose  independence 
has  stamped  with  pecnllar  features  both 
our  constitution  and  our  national  charac- 
ter "  (^Middle  Ages,  vol.  li.  p.  274). 

Serfs.— The  lowest  class  were  the  serfe, 
or  servile  population  (theowat,  esncu), 
of  whom  25,000  are  registered  in  Domes- 
day Book,  or  nearly  one-eleventh  of  the 
registered  population.  Slaves  were  of 
two  kinds — hereditary  or  penal.  A  free 
Anglo-Saxon  could  become  a  slave  only 
through  crime,  or  default  of  himself  or 
forefathers  in  not  paying  a  wergild; 
or  by  voluntary  sale— the  father  having 
power  to  sell  a  child  of  seven,  and  a 
child  of  thirteen  having  power  to  sell 
Itself.  The  great  majority  of  slaves 
probably  consisted  of  captured  Celts  or 
their  descendants:  a  conclusion  which 
seems  to  be  corroborated  by  the  fact  that 
this  class  was  by  far  the  most  numerous 
towards  the  Welsh  borders,  and  that 
several  Celtic  words  preserved  in  our 
language  relate  to  menial  employment. 

CUrgif.— The  clergy  occupied  an  in- 
fluential station  in  society.  They  took 
a  great  share  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
national  council;  and  in  the  court  of 
the  shire  the  bishop  presided  along 
with  the  alderman.  This  influence  was 
a  natural  result  of  their  superior  learn- 
ing in  those  ignorant  ages,  as  well  as 
of  the  veneration  paid  to  their  sacerdotal 
character. 

4.  Tlv.  Witena-g^mot.—The  great  na- 
tional council  (corresponding  at  first  with 
the  concilium  prin  ipum  of  Tacitus), 
whether  of  each  state,  like  Kent  or  Wessex, 
or  of  the  whole  united  kingdom  of  the 
Angles  and  Saxons,  must  not  be  conceived 
of  as  a  popular  assembly,  like  the  folk-moot 
of  each  shire.  It  was  called  Witena-gemot, 
assembly  of  the  Witan  (sapienUs),  wise, 
skle,  or  noble  men.     Its  constitution,  I 


numbers,  and  privileges  are  quite  uncer- 
tain. Jt  was  generally  composed,  accord, 
ing  to  the  expression,  of  bishops,  abbots, 
and  ealdormen,  and  of  the  noble  and 
wise  of  the  kingdom ;  but  who  these  Ust 
were  is  uncertain.  Probably  they  com- 
prised the  royal,  if  not  the  lower,  thanes. 
But  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the 
ceorls  had  not  the  smallest  share  in  the 
deliberation  of  the  national  assembly; 
that  no  traces  exist  of  elective  deputies, 
either  of  shires  or  cities;  and  that  the 
Saxon  Witena-gemdt  cannot  therefore  be 
considered  as  the  prototype  of  the  modem 
Parliament.  The  Anglo-Saxon  laws  are 
declared  to  have  been  made  (in  varied 
phraseology)  by  the  king,  «ith  the  counsel 
or  consent  of  the  Witan,  or  the  wise.  They 
are  found  associated  with  the  king  in 
making  grants  of  land  and  in  taxation ; 
and  they  exercised  both  civil  and  criminal 
Judicature.  Sometimes  they  elected  the 
kings,  and,  when  they  could,  deposed 
them.  From  the  names  subscribed  to 
extant  acta,  the  Witena-gem6t  must  hare 
been  a  small  assembly,  their  number, 
time,  and  place  of  meeting  dependingr 
apparently  on  the  pleasure  of  the  king. 

6.  Division  qf  the  soU,  Foic-Umd 
and  Boc-land.^  The  soil  of  England 
was  distributed  in  the  manner  usual 
among  the  Germans  upon  the  conti- 
nent. Part  of  the  land  remained  tiie 
property  of  the  state,  and  part  was 
granted  to  individuals  in  perpetuity  as 
freeholds.  The  former  was  called  /Wo- 
landt  the  land  of  the  folk,  or  the  people, 
and  might  either  be  occupied  in  com- 
mon, or  parcelled  out  to  individuals  for 
a  term,  on  the  expiration  of  which  it 
reverted  to  the  state.  The  land  de- 
tached from  the  fblc-land,  and  granted 
to  individuals  in  perpetuity  as  freehold, 
was  called  Hoc-land,  trom  boc,  a  book 
or  writing,  because  the  possession  of  such 
estates  was  secured  by  a  deed  or  charter. 
Originally  they  were  conveyed  by  some 
token,  such  as  a  piece  of  turf,  the  branch 
of  a  tree,  a  spear,  a  drinking-horn,  &c. ; 
and  in  the  case  of  lands  granted  to  the 
church,  these  tokens  were  solemnly  de- 
posited upon  the  altar.  There  ar« 
instances  of  such  conveyances  as  late 
as  the  Conquest.  The  title  to  land  thus 
conveyed  seems  to  have  been  equally 
valid  with  that  of  boc-land ;  but  the  latter 
name  can  be  applied  with  propriety  only 
to  such  land  as  was  conveyed  by  writing. 
Boc-land  was  exempt  from  all   pubUs 


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buTtiiens,  except  thobc  called  the  trinada 
necessitatt  or  liability  to  military  service, 
and  of  ccmtributing  to  the  repair  of  fort- 
resses and  bridges  (/yrd,  burk-bdi,  and 
5ry^e-{k>t).  BoC'land  was  granted  by 
the  king  with  the  consent  of  the  Witan: 
k  could  be  held  by  freemen  of  all  ranks, 
and  even  bequeathed  to  females;  but  in 
the  latter  case  only  in  usufruct,  reverting 
after  the  deatli  of  a  female  holder  to  the 
male  line.  After  the  Norman  conquest 
we  hear  no  more  of  foU-land:  what  re- 
mained of  it  at  that  period  became  terra 
rtffiSj  or  crown-land:  except  a  remnant, 
of  which  there  are  traces  in  the  common 
lands  of  the  present  day.  This  was  a 
consequence  of  the  feudalism  introduced 
by  the  Normans,  by  which  all  England 
was  regarded  as  the  demesne  of  the  king, 
held  under  him  by  feudal  tenure. 

6.  5*ire«.— The  territorial  division  of 
ditres  or  counties,  though  ancient,  was 
not  common  in  England.  They  are  first 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Weasex 
and  the  laws  of  king  Ina.  The  smaller 
kingdoms  and  their  subdivisions  fell 
naturally  into  shires,  as  Kent,  Sussex, 
Surrey,  Essex,  and  Norfolk  and  Suffolk 
in  East  Anglia.  At  what  time  the 
complete  distribution  of  counties  was 
effected  is  unknown;  but  they  existed 
undoubtedly  in  their  present  state  at  the 
tintt  of  the  Conquest.  The  counties  of 
York  and  Lincoln,  apparently  from  their 
great  size,  were  divided,  probably  by  the 
Danes,  into  thirds  called  tredingtt  which, 
onder  the  corrupt  name  of  ridingt^  still 
exist  in  the  former.  In  the  later  Anglo- 
Axxm  times  a  Kxr-gemot  (shire-mote,  or 
coonty  court)  was  held  twice  a  year — in 
the  beginning  of  May  and  October — 
in  which  all  the  thanes  were  entitled 
to  a  seat  and  a  vote.  Its  functions  were 
Judicial,  and  it  was  presided  over  by  the 
ealdorman,  or  earl— the  executive  governor 
of  the  county— and  by  the  bishop;  for 
the  ecclesiastical  dioceses  were  originally 
identical  with  the  counties.  Uume  Justly 
remarks  that,  among  a  people  who  lived 
in  so  simple  a  manner  as  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  the  Judicial  power  is  always  of 
more  importance  than  the  legislative; 
and  the  thanes  were  mainly  indebted  .  r 
the  preservation  of  their  liberties  to  their 
possessing  the  Judicial  power  in  their  own 
county  courts.  Tho  tdr-gtr^a  (shire- 
leeve,  sheriff)  was  the  executive  officer 
appointed  by  the  king  to  carry  out  the 
decrees  «f  the  court,  to  levy  distresses. 


take  charge  of  prisonen,  ftc  Th«  sherilf 
was  at  first  only  an  assessor,  but  in  pro- 
cess of  time  he  became  a  Joint  president, 
and  ultimately  sole  president.  This  court 
survived  the  Ck>uquest;  and  it  is  the 
opinion  of  Mr.  Hallam  that  it  contri- 
buted  in  no  small  degree  to  fix  the 
liberties  of  England  by  curUng  the  feudal 
aristocracy  (.WicWl«  Ages,  vol.  ii.  p.  277). 

7.  iTundredi.— Division  into  hundreds 
was  ancient  among  the  Teutonic  races, 
and  is  mentioned  by  Tacitus  (Germ.  6 
and  12).  It  had  a  perumal  basis.  Each 
fHi^uSt  or  district,  composed  of  several  vici 
(villages  or  townships),  sent  its  100 
warriors  to  the  host,  and  its  court  had 
100  assessors  with  the  pr incept  (or  ealdor- 
man), and  both  these  may  possibly  re- 
present 100  free  families  to  which  the 

I  land  of  the  district  was  originally  allotted 
'  (Stubbs,  Const.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  31).  This, 
I  however,  is  only  an  hypothesis.  In  Eng- 
land the  constitution  of  the  hundreUs  is 
I  so  anomalous,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
ascertain  the  principle  on  which  it  was 
formed.  Some  of  the  smaller  shires  pre- 
I  sent  the  greatest  number  of  hundreds; 
I  but  this  may  have  arisen  from  their  being 
more  densely  populated.  In  the  time  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  the  hundreds  of 
Northamptonshire  seem  to  have  consisted 
of  100  hides  of  land.  In  the  north  of 
England  the  wapentake  corresponded  to 
the  hundred  of  the  southern  districts. 
The  name,  which  literally  tcigniflcs  "  the 
touching  of  ami8,"  was  derived  from  tho 
ceremony  which  took  place  on  the  in- 
auguration of  the  chief  magistrate,  when, 
having  dismounted  fh>ra  his  horse,  he 
fixed  his  spear  in  the  ground,  which  was 
then  touched  with  the  spears  of  those 
present.  The  hundred-mote,  or  court  of 
the  hundred,  was  held  by  its  own  hundred- 
man  under  tho  sheriff's  writ,  and  was  ft 
court  of  justice  for  suftom  wHMn  tho 
hundred.  But  all  important  cases  were 
decided  by  the  county  court;  and  in 
court<e  of  time  the  Jurisdiction  of  tho  court 
of  the  hundred  was  confined  to  the  punish- 
ment of  petty  offences  and  tho  mainte- 
nance of  a  local  police. 

8.  The  Township  or  ViUagt  {vicus^ 
villuta ;  tun,  tUnscipe)  was  the  territorial 
unit  of  the  system,  and  is  itself  based  on 
the  family,  which  is  its  original  unit.  The 
first  element  in  the  state  was  the  indi- 
vidual freeman;  his  first  relation  to  the 
cumniuitity  is  that  of  the  family ;  and  the 
tie  uf  kindred  (jncegburh)  was  the  first 


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Chap.  it. 


eonatttiifttoiial  bond.  A  body  of  kinsmen, 
holding  a  district  of  Und  as  their  oommoa 
property,  and  having  their  homesteads 
clustered  together  in  its  midst,  is  the  first 
general  type  of  a  Germanic  oommanity ; 
and  the  original  bond  of  kindred  may 
probably  still  be  traced  in  many  of  the 
names  of  places  in  England  which  end  in 
the  patronymic  ing  (with  or  without  a 
local  termination,  as  ham  (home),  ton 
(town),  kc  But  the  cluster  of  homesteads 
formed  the  village  (vicut,  wick)^  or,  with 
regard  to  its  enclosure  (^lAn\  the  town 
or  township.  When  fortified,  it  be- 
came the  borough  (burh)*  The  land 
around  it,  whether  acquired  by  original 
colonization,  or  (as  must  have  been  usually 
the  case  in  England)  a  division  of  territory 
allotted  to  a  certain  number  of  Coivour- 
ites,  who  cultivated  it  in  common,  and 
severed  from  neighbouring  seUlements 
by  a  belt  of  the  original  forest  or 
waste,  formed  the  mark.f  But  as  no 
certain  traces  of  the  mark  are  to  be  found 
in  England,  the  basis  of  our  polit'cal 
organisation  must  rather  be  sought  hi  the 
township.  "The  historical  township  is 
the  body  of  allodial  ownere  who  have 
advanced  beyond  the  stage  of  land-oom- 
munity,  retaining  many  vestiges  of  that 
organisation;  or,  the  body  of  tenants 
of  a  lord,  who  regulates  them,  or  allows 
them  to  regulate  themselves,  on  prin- 
ciples derived  from  the  same"  (Stubbe, 
1.  p.  85).  *•  It  may  represent  the  original 
allotment  of  the  smallest  subdivision  of 
the  free  community,  or  the  settlement 
of  the  kindred  colonizing  on  their  own 
account,  or  the  estate  of  the  great  pro- 
prietor who  has  a  tribe  of  dependants. 
Its  headman  is  the  t&n-ger^fa  (town- 
reeve),  who  in  the  dependent  townships 
Is  of  course  nominated  by  the  lord,  but 
in  the  independent  ones  may  have  been 
originally  a  chosen  officer,  altbouRh,  when 
the  central  power  has  become  stronger, 
he   may  be  (as  in  the  Frank  villa)  the 

•  "  The  tan  ]b  oiiglnallj  the  eneloiure  or  hedge, 
whether  of  the  single  fiirm  "  (»till  called  in  Scot- 
land the  town),  "  or  of  the  enclosed  vlllnge,  as  the 
burh  U  the  fortlfled  house  of  the  powotful  man 
The  correationdlnj  wonl  In  Norwj  U  ffordr.  our 
garth  or  yard.  The  equivalent  Gemiiui  tennlna- 
tlOD  ii  heim.  our  ham;  the  Danish  fonn  is  6y 
(None  6a  =  German  bau).  The  notion  of  the  tlorf 
wthorpe  seems  to  itand  a  little  further  from  the 
primitive  aetUement.'— Stubbe,  Coast.  Hist.  vol.  L 
V-  82,  note. 

t  On  the  whole  subject  of  the  mark  system,  oee 
BtuMM,  I.  c  p.  83,  and  the  authorities  there  quoted. 
•«*  "PJcWljr  Sir  Henry  Maine.  On  ruiagt  Com- 


nominee  of  the  king,  or  of  his  < 
(lUd.  p.  83). 

9.  Things.  Franlqpledffe.^  In  the 
later  Anglo-Saxon  times,  and  in  the 
southern  distriots  of  England,  we  also  1ko4 
another  smaller  subdivlsioa,  the  toothing, 
or  tything,  i.e.  taUh  part  (of  the  hundred), 
or  ooUec^ion  <{/'  (en,  synonymous  in 
towns  with  loard.  Every  man,  wheae 
rank  and  property  did  not  affoul  an 
ostensible  guarantee  for  his  good  conduct, 
was  compelled,  after  the  reign  of  Athel- 
stan,  to  find  a  surety  (borA).  This  surety 
was  afforded  by  the  tythings,  the  mem- 
hers  of  which  formed,  as  it  were,  a  per- 
petual bail  for  one  another's  appearance 
in  cases  of  crime;  with,  apparently,  an 
ultimate  responsibility  if  the  criminal 
escaped,  or  if  his  eeUte  proved  inadequate 
to  defray  the  penalty  incurred.  In  tbie 
view  the  tythings  were  also  called  f^tk- 
borht,  or  securities  for  the  peace ;  a  term 
which,  having  been  corrupted  into  fri- 
borg,  gave  rise  to  the  Norman  appellatioa 
Q^  frankpledge.  The  institution  seems 
to  have  existed  only  partially  in  ttie 
north  of  England,  where  it  was  called 
<tenMannatai«(tenman'stale).  Whether 
the  tything  arose  out  of  the  township  or 
was  a  separate  association  of  freemen  by 
tern  is  very  doubtfril. 

10.  Puni«Amen(<.— Almost  every  of- 
fence could  be  expiated  with  money; 
and  in  cases  of  murder  and  bodily  in- 
juries, not  only  was  a  price  set  upon  the 
corpse,  called  vxrgild,  or  leodgild^  or 
simply  wer  or  teod^*  but  there  was  also 
a  tariff  for  every  part  of  the  body,  down 
to  the  teeth  and  nails.  OonalderabTe 
value  seems  to  have  been  set  on  personal 
appearance,  as  the  loss  of  a  man's  beard 
was  valued  at  20  shllUng^  the  breaking 
of  a  thigh  at  only  12 ;  the  loss  of  a  front 
tooth  at  6  shillings,  the  breaking  of  a  rib 
at  only  half  that  sum.  In  the  case  of  a 
freeman  tliis  price  was  paid  to  his  rela- 
tives, in  that  of  a  slave  to  his  master. 
In  this  regulation  we  see  but  little  ad- 
vance upon  that  barbarous  state  of  society 
in  which,  in  the  absence  of  any  public 
or  general  law,  each  family  or  tribe 
avenges  its  own  injuries.  The  leergild 
is  merely  a  substitute  for  personal  ven* 
geance.  The  amount  of  the  wergm 
varied  according  to  the  rank  and  property 
of  the  individual,  and  in  this  sense  every 
man  had  truly  his  price.    For  this  pur* 

•   Wer  and  lead  both  signify  man,  and  fUi 
monep  or  paifment. 


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75 


pose  «U  aodety  below  the  rank  of  the 
rojal  fiunily  and  of  an  ealdorman  waa 
diTifded  into  three  claaaea:  first,  the 
twyhynd  man  or  oeorl,  whoee  toergUdt  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  Herda,  was  200 
shillings;  seoondly,  the  aizhynd  man,  or 
leaser  thane,  whoee  wergild  was  600  shil- 
lings; and  thirdly,  the  royal  thane  whose 
death  conld  not  be  compensated  nnder 
laoo  shillings.  The  wergild  of  an  ealdor- 
man was  twice  as  much  as  that  of  a 
royal  thane;  that  of  an  setheling  three 
times,  that  of  a  king  commonly  six  times 
at  much.  The  valne  of  a  man's  oath  was 
alao  estimated  by  his  property.  The  evi- 
dence of  a  thane  in  a  court  of  Justice 
counterbalanced  that  of  12  ceorls,  and  that 
of  an  ealdorman  the  oath  of  6  thanes.  In 
cases  of  foul  or  wilful  murder  (mortk\ 
arson,  and  theft,  capital  punishment  was 
sometimes  inflicted,  if  the  injured  party 
preferred  it  to  the  acceptance  of  a  wer- 
gild. Treason  was  a  (»pital  crime.  Ban- 
ishment was  a  customary  punishment 
for  atrocious  crimes.  The  banished  crimi- 
nal became  an  outlaw,  and  was  said  to 
bear  a  wolfs  head ;  so  that  if  he  returned 
and  attempted  to  defend  himself  it  was 
lawful  for  any  one  to  slay  him.  Cutting 
off  the  h^ndsand  feet  was  another  punish- 
ment for  theft.  Adultery,  though  a  penal 
offence,  m1|^t  be  expiated,  like  murder, 
with  a  fine. 

11.  Oourtt  of  juttiee^—The  two  prin- 
cipal conrta  of  Justice  were  the  shire- 
mote,  or  county  court,  and  the  hundred- 
mote,  of  the  constitution  of  both  of 
which  we  have  already  spoken.  From 
the  county  court  an  appeal  lay  to  the 
king.  In  the  county  court,  as  observed 
above,  all  the  thanes  had  a  right  to  vote ; 
but  as  so  large  and  tumultuous  an  as- 
sembly was  found  inconvenient,  it  gradu- 
ally became  the  custom  to  intrust  the 
finding  of  a  verdict  to  a  committee  usually 
con^isUng  of  12  of  the  principal  thanes, 
but  sometimes  of  24,  or  even  36:  and 
in  order  to  form  a  valid  judgment  it  was 
necessary  that  two-thirds  of  them  should 
concur.  In  the  northern  districts  these 
Judges  were  called  lawmen  (toAmen). 
Their  decisions  were  submitted  for  the 
approval  of  the  whole  court.  The  accused, 
who  was  obliged  to  give  security  (borh) 
for  his  appearance,  might  clear  himself 
by  his  own  oath,  together  with  that  of 
a  certain  number  of  compurgators  or 
feUow-swearert  who  were  acquainted 
with  him  as  nelf^bours,  or  at  all  events 


within  the  Jurisdiction  of  the 
court.  The  compurgators  therefore  w«e 
witnesses  to  character,  and  their  functions 
cannot  be  at  all  compared  to  those  of  & 
modem  Juryman.  The  thanes,  or  Mtaum 
who  fouiMl  the  verdict,  bore  a  nearer 
resemblance  to  a  Jury:  yet  it  is  evident, 
fhmi  the  mode  of  trial  by  compurgation, 
as  wen  as  those  by  ordeal  and  Judicial 
combat,  of  which  we  shall  speak  pre- 
sently, that  they  were  not  called  upon, 
like  ft  modem  Juryman,  to  form  a  Judg- 
ment of  the  foots  ftom  the  evidence  and 
cross-examination  of  witnesses,  but  frata 
their  own  knowledge  of  the  foots  or 
opinion  of  the  accused  person.*  If  the 
accused  was  a  vassal,  and  his  klo^ord^ 
or  lord,  would  not  give  testimony  in  his 
fovour,  then  he  was  compelled  to  bring 
forward  a  triple  number  of  compurgators. 
The  accuser  was  also  obliged  to  produce 
compurgators,  who  pledged  themselves 
that  he  did  not  prosecute  out  of  interested 
or  vindictive  motives. 

Ordeals,  or  God's  Judgments,  were  only 
resorted  to  when  the  accused  could  not 
produce  compurgators,  or  when  by  some 
former  crime  he  had  lost  all  title  to 
credibility.  Some  forms  of  ordeal,  as  the 
consecrated  morsel  and  the  cross-proot 
were  only  calculated  to  work  upon  the 
imagination ;  others,  and  the  more  cus- 
tomary, as  those  by  hot  water  and  fire, 
sul^Jected  the  body  to  a  painful  and 
hazardous  trial,  fh>m  which  it  is  difficult 
to  see  how  even  the  most  innocent  person 
could  ever  have  escaped,  except  through 
the  collusion  of  his  Judges.  These  were 
conducted  in  a  church  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  clergy.  In  the  ordeal 
by  hot  water,  the  accused  had  to  take 
out  a  stone  or  piece  of  iron  with  his 
naked  hand  and  arm  from  a  caldron  of 
the  boiling  element;  in  that  by  fire,  he 
had  to  carry  a  bar  of  heated  Iron  for  a 
certain  distance  that  had  been  marked 
out.  In  both  cases  the  injured  member 
was  wrapped  up  by  the  priest  in  a  piece 
of  clean  linen  cloth,  which  was  secured 
with  a  seal :  and  if.  on  opening  the  cloth 
on  the  third  day,  the  wound  was  found 
to  be  healed,  the  accused  was  acquitted, 
or,  in  the  contrary  event,  was  adjudged 
to  pay  the  penalty  of  his  offence.  Ju- 
dicial combats,  called  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  eomtiU  and  by  the  Danes  Af4in- 
gang,  from  their  being  generally  fought 

•  The  origin  of  trliU  byJaiy  b  dlacuMd  in  • 
note  at  the  end  of  ohi^ter  tIU. 


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NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Chap.  nr. 


<»i  a  sniAll  river-island,  though  not 
entirely  unknown,  appear  to  have  been 
much  rarer  among  those  people  than 
among  their  Norman  saoceeeors. 

Within  the  verge  of  the  king's  court 
an  accused  person  enjoyed  sanctuary  and 
reftige.  Its  limits,  whether  permanent 
or  temporary,  are  defined  with  an  exact- 
ness almost  ludicrous,  and  as  if  there  was 
something  magical  in  the  numbers,  to 
be  on  every  side  ftx>m  the  burgh  gate 
of  the  king's  residence,  3  miles,  3  fur- 
longs, 3  acres,  9  feet,  9  palms,  and  9 
barleycorns. 

12.  (7tttW^.— The  municipal  guilds  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons  may  be  traced  to  the 
heathen  sacrificial  guilds,  an  original 
feature  of  which  was  the  common  ban- 
quet. These  devil's-guilds,  as  they  are 
termed  in  the  Christian  laws,  were  not 
abolished,  but  converted  into  Christian 
institutions.  There  were  even  numerous 
ecclesiastical  guilds.  It  was  incumbent 
on  them  to  preserve  peace,  and,  in  case 
of  homicide  by  one  of  the  memtvers,  the 
a)rporation  paid  part  of  the  wergild.  In 
London  were  several  frith-gilds  (peace- 
guilds)  of  different  ranks ;  and  in  the  time 
of  Athelstan  we  find  them  forming  an 
association  for  the  purpose  of  mutual 
indemnity  against  robbery.  Ealdormen 
are  usually  found  at  the  heads  of  the 
guilds  as  well  as  of  the  cities  themselves. 
The  chief  magistrate  of  a  town  was  the 
toic-gertfat  or  town-reeve,  who  appears 
to  have  been  appointed  by  the  king. 
Other  officers  of  the  same  kind  were  the 
port-reeve  and  burgh-recve.  The  chief 
municipal  court  of  London  was  the  Hut- 
thing,  literally,  a  court  or  assembly  in  a 
house,  in  contradistinction  to  one  held 
In  the  open  air;  whence  the  modem 
hustings.  This  word  was  introduced  by 
the  Northmen,  in  whose  language  ihing 
signified  any  Judicial  or  deliberative 
assembly. 

13.  Oommerctt  nKHineri,  and  custc/ms. 
— England  enjoyed  a  considerable  foreign 
commerce.  London  was  always  a  great 
emporium:  Frisian  merdiants  are  found 
there  and  in  York  as  early  as  the  8th 
century.  Wool  was  the  chief  article  of 
export,  and  was  received  back  from  the 
continent  in  a  manufactured  state.  Mints 
were  established  in  several  cities  and 
towns,  with  a  limited  number  of  privi- 
leged moneyers ;  and  many  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  coins  itill  preserved  exhibit  con- 


siderable skill.  The  Anglo-Saxons  loved 
to  indulge  in  hospitality  and  feasting; 
and  at  their  cheerful  meetings  it  was 
customary  to  send  round  the  harp,  that 
all  might  sing  in  turn.  The  men,  as 
well  as  the  women,  sometimes  wore 
necklaces,  bracelets,  and  rings,  which 
were  of  a  more  expensive  kind  than  those 
used  by  the  female  sex  We  have 
already  adverted  to  king  Alfred's  taste 
for  Jewellery.  The  Anglo-Saxon  ladies 
employed  themselves  much  in  spinning ; 
and  thus  even  king  Alfred  himself  calls 
the  female  part  of  his  family  "the 
spindle-side,"  in  contradistinction  to  the 
spear,  or  male  side.  Hence  the  name  of 
spinster  for  a  young  unmarried  woman. 

B.  ANGLO-SAXON  LANGUAGE  AND 
UTERATURE. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  language  was  con- 
verted into  modem  English  by  a  slow  pio- 
cess  of  several  centuries.  It  still  remains 
the  essential  element  of  our  language, 
all  others  being  but  grails  on  the  parent 
stock.  The  works  of  Alfted,  and  the 
Anglo-Saxon  laws  before  the  reign  of 
Athelstan,  present  the  language  in  its 
purest  state.  On  an  examinatioh  of 
Alft^d's  translations,  Mr.  Turner  found 
that  only  about  one-fifth  of  the  words  had 
become  obsolete  {Anglo-Saxons,  vol.  ii. 
p.  445) ;  so  that  the  great  bulk  of  our  vo- 
cabulary still  remains  Anglo-Saxon.  The 
period  of  transition,  called  by  some  writers 
the  Semi-Soxon,  is  commonly  estimated  to 
extend  from  the  middle  of  tiie  12th  to  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century.  Anglo-Saxon 
became  English  chiefly  through  the 
effects  of  time ;  and  though  the  Norman 
conquest  had  undoubtedly  some  influence 
on  the  process,  it  was  much  less  than 
has  been  commonly  imagined.  A  few 
manuscripts  of  the  13th  century  are 
written  in  as  pure  Saxon  as  that  which 
prevailed  before  the  Conquest.  The  ad- 
mixture of  Norman-French  is  exemplified 
in  our  literature,  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
14th  century,  by  the  genius  and  writings 
of  Chaucer. 

The  Angles  and  the  Saxons  introduced 
two  slightly  different  dialects.  Subse- 
quently the  Danes  settled  in  the  districts 
occupied  by  the  Angles,  and  introduced 
many  Scandinavian  words.  The  bounda- 
ries between  the  Angliin  and  Saxon 
dialects  may  perb'^ps  be  roughly  indl' 


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by  a  line  dnwn  from  the  north 
of  £0sex  to  the  north  of  Worcestershire. 

The  earlier  specimens  of  Anglo-Saxon 
Uteratnre  are  metrical;  the  metre  being 
mariced  by  accent  and  alliteration.  The 
oldest  extant  specimen  of  Anglo-Saxon 
poetry  is  the  "Gleeman's  Song,"  the 
author  of  which  floorished  towards  the 
end  of  the  4tb  and  beginning  or  the  5th 
centuries,  and  consequently  before  the 
invasion  of  England :  the  oldest  MS.  of 
the  poem,  however,  is  five  centuries  later. 
Two  other  poems,  a!so  written  before 
the  Anglo-Saxon  migration,  are  the 
**  Battle  of  Finsburgh  "  and  the  **  Tale 
of  Beowulf."  The  songs  of  Ooadmon,  a 
monk  of  Whitby,  who  flourished  a  little 
before  the  time  of  Bede,  are  probably  the 
oldest  specimens  extant  of  Anglo-Saxon 
poetry  written  in  this  country.  Csnlmon 
remained  for  six  centuries  the  great 
poet,  sometimes  styled  the  Milton  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons.  OUier  poems  and  songs 
are  extant,  reaching  to  the  11th  century. 
One  of  the  noblest  specimens  of  the  last 
period  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  version  of  the 
Psalms.  The  most  important  Anglo- 
Saxon  prose  works  are  the  ChronicUSt 
composed  at  dilTereut  times,  and  usually 
cfted  as  the  Anglo-Saxon  OtronicU. 

Of  king  Alfred's  works,  who  must  also 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
authors,  we  have  already  spoken.  Other 
prose  writers  are  St.  Wulfetan  (arch- 
bishop Wul&tan,  better  known  by  bis 
Latin  name  of  Lupus),  and  ^Ifric,  the 
strenuous  defender  of  the  English  church 
in  the  11th  century  against  the  innova- 
tions of  Rome. 

C.  THE  ANGLO-SAXON  CHRONICLE, 

called  by  Florence  of  Worcester  Anglica 
C^ronicOj  comprises  a  set  of  seven  parallel 
(but  not  all  independent)  chronicles,  which 
were  kept  in  different  monasteries,  three 
of  them  at  Canterbury,  and  the  others 
at  Winchester,  Abingdon,  Worcester,  and 
Peterborough.  Their  range  varies,  but 
all  begin  either  with  the  landing  of 
Julius  C»sar  or  flrom  the  Christian  era, 
and  the  latest  (the  Peterborough  Chroni- 
cU)  reaches  to  the  accession  of  Henry 
IL  tn  1154  The  early  portions  of  the 
CknmicU  for  the  most  part  follow  Bedc's 
EccUtiattical  HUtory;  a  presumption 
that  (at  least,  in  its  present  form)  the 
CknmicU  was  compiled  after  731.  But 
Bede  (af  he  bimself  tells  ui)  UMd  Mrly 


documents  whi^  were  compiled  in  the 
monasteries  from  the  first  establishment 
of  Christianity  among  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
and  which  doubtless  embodied  the  tradi- 
tions (if  not  written  records)  of  the  people 
since  their  arrival  in  EngUmd.  The  use 
of  these  original  sources  may  be  traced  In 
the  Chronicle  by  entries,  relating  chiefly 
to  the  detaiUi  of  the  Conquest  and  other 
military  events,  which  have  no  place  in 
Bede.  The  first  germ  of  the  CKrmixcle^ 
in  its  collected  form,  may  be  traced  to 
king  Alfred,  who— if  we  may  trust  the 
Norman  metrical  chronicle  of  Oeoffiroi 
Gaimar  (L'Estorie  da  EngUs,  time  of 
Henry  L)— caused  an  Englitk  Book  {un 
livrt  RngUU)  to  be  written,  **  of  adven. 
tures,  and  of  laws,  and  of  battles  on  land, 
and  of  the  kings  who  made  war ; "  and  this 
"Chronicle  (c/wie#,  croniJfce),  a  great 
book,"  was  put  forth  by  authority  at 
Winchester,  where  the  king  had  it 
fattened  by  a  chain^  for  all  who  withed 
to  read  it.  An  early,  though  probably 
not  an  original,  copy  of  this  Winchester 
ChronicU^  forming  the  portion  down  to 
A.D.  891,  was  presented  by  archbishop 
Parker  to  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cam- 
bridge (MS.  C.C.C.  clxiii.).  Professor 
Earle  traces  marks  of  division,  indi- 
cating the  composition  of  successive 
sections  of  the  (^ronicle,  at  the  years 
6!«2,  755,  822,  and  855,  and  the  hand  of 
one  editor  through  the  whole  portion 
from  455  to  855.  At  the  year  851  we 
have  the  decisive  proof  of  original  con- 
temporary  authorship  in  the  use  of  (As 
Jirst  person,  and  in  the  phrase,  "the 
present  day."  After  Alfred,  the  marks 
of  contemporary  authorship  are  constant 
in  this  and  the  other  editions  of  the 
Chronicle,  and  the  continuations  by  dif- 
ferent hands  may  be  traced  at  certain 
epochs.  (See  the  Jntroiuction  to  Prof, 
fiarlc's  edition,  "Two  of  the  Saxon 
Chronicles  parallel,  with  Supplementary 
Extracts  from  the  Others,"  and  Sir  T.  D. 
Hardy's  Catalogue,  etc.,  in  the  Rolls 
Series).  The  last  complete  edition,  in  the 
Rolls  series,  exhibits  the  chronicles  in  a 
parallel  form,  with  a  translation  by 
Benjamin  Thorpe. 

D.  AUTHORITIES. 

The  principal  ancient  historical  sources 
for  the  Anglo-Saxon  times  are:  Bede, 
Chronicon  and  Historia  Ecclesiattica ; 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle:  Gildas,  De 


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78 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Chap,  i? 


MKeiMo  Briiammia;  Nennliu,  BiHoria 
Britonum ;  ABser,  Dt  Rtbtu  GettU 
^rtOii  EthelweMd,  Cknmicimi  Flo- 
lenoe  of  Worcester,  CKrtmicati ;  Sime<Ki 
of  Durham,  Eistoria  de  GeMtU  Anglorumt 
continued  by  John  of  Hexham ;  Henry  of 
Huntingdon,  Exit.  Anglorum;  Geoffroi 
Oaimar,  L'Sstorieda  Engleg.  The  pre- 
ceding works,  so  far  as  they  extend  to  the 
Oonqnest,  will  be  found  in  the  Monu- 
menta  Eittorica  liritannieay  as  well  as 
in  other  coIlectionH  and  separate  editions. 
In  the  collection  Just  referred  to  are  also 
contained  the  following  anonymous  pieces 
referring  to  the  period  in  question :  An^ 
Wile*  Oambria ;  Brut  y  Tywytogioriy  or 
Chronicle  of  the  Princes  of  Wales ;  Oar- 
men  de  Bella  Eastingenti.  All  these  are 
In  l^tin,  except  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chroni- 
cle^ the  Brut  y  Tywy$ogiont  and  the 
Norman-French  poem  of  Oaimar.  To 
these  sources  may  be  added  Michel's 
C%roniques  Anglo-yormandr^i. 

The  other  principal  collections  in 
which  these  and  other  historical  works 
relating  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  will 
be  found  are:  Parker's  Collections; 
Savile's  Collection ;  Camden,  Anglica, 
IforvuLnnica^  EibemicOy  Canibrica^  a 
ttteribus  gcripta;  Fulman,  Quinque 
Scriptoret:  Gale,  Eistorue  Anglicana 
Scriptora  Quinque,  and  Scriptoret  Quin- 
decim;  Heame's  Collections;  Twysden, 
Eiitorue  Anglicana  Scriptores  Decern; 
Sparke,  Eist.  Anglicana  Scriptoret  vo- 
rii;  Wharton,  Anglia  Sacra.  These 
collections  contain  the  following  authors, 
besides  most  of  those  already  enumerated 
as  in  the  Monumenta  Eittorica:  Ailred 
of  Rievaulx,  Life  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fettor,  &c.  [Twysden];  John  Brompton, 
Ckroniclet  [ibid.] ;  Eadmer,  Eistoria 
Jfovorum,  etc. ;  Roger  Hoveden,  AnnaUt 
[Sdvile];*  WillUm  of  Malmesbury,  De 
Gettit  Begum  Anglorum  and  De  Getits 
Pontificum  Angl.  [Savile];  Hugo  Can- 
didus,  Hittoria  [Sparke] ;  Peter  IjinRtoa, 
Metrical  Chronicle  [Hearne] ;  St.  Neot 
(Sironicon  [Gale];  the  Floret  Eistoria- 
Tum^  wrongly  attributed  to  Matthew  of 
Westminster  [Parker]. 

The  following  authors  are  published 

*  Ingulpbus,  Hist.  Cro^andtiuit  [Savile  aod 
fUaianl  Is  now  provsd  to  b«  ipurloua. 


in  the  fiyrdgn  collection  of  Dadieaie: 
Gervase  of  Tilbury ;  Bmma  Anglia  E»» 
gina  Encomium. 

The  most  complete  collection  (when 
the  plan  is  fully  executed)  wUl  be  that 
of  Ike  Chronidet  and  MemoruUt  qf 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  during  tk4 
Middle  Aget,  published  by  the  authority 
of  her'  Majesty's  Treasury,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls. 
This  series  Is  in  laiige  8to.  each  work 
being  intrusted  to  a  competent  editor,  and 
famished  with  historical  and  critical  Iik 
troductlons,  besides  notes  and  (in  some 
cases)  translations. 

The  English  translations  of  a  large 
nimiber  of  the  old  chronicles  in  fiohn's 
Antiquarian  Library  are  of  various 
degrees  of  merit  (and  demerit),  but  of 
use  and  interest  for  the  English  reader. 

The  English  Historical  Society  has 
published  the  following  works:  a  Col- 
lection of  Saxon  Charters,  edited  by  the 
late  Mr.  J.  M.  Kemble,  mider  the  Utle 
of  Oodex  DipHomaticut  .^vi  Sommici; 
also,  the  Chronica  of  Roger  of  Wen- 
dover,  by  the  Rev.  H.  0.  Coxe  ;  and 
valuable  editions  of  Gildas,  Nennios, 
Bede,  and  Richard  of  Devisee,  by  the 
Rev.  J.  Stevenson. 

The  best  modem  works  on  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  period  are :  Tumer's  Eittory  qf  the 
Anglo-Saxont,  3  vols.  8vo.;  Palgrave's 
Bite  an'l  Progrett  qf  the  Englitk  Oom- 
monwealth  during  the  Anffi(hSaxon 
Periods  2  vols.  4to.,  and,  JTUfory  <{/ 
England^  Anglo-Saxon  Period  [Amily 
Library,  vol.  xxi.] ;  Kemble's  Saxon*  im 
England,  2  vols.  8vo. ;  Lappenberg's  Eng- 
land under  the  Anglo-Saxon  Eingt,  trans- 
lated fh)m  the  German,  with  additions, 
by  Thorpe,  2  vols.  8vo. ;  PBarson's 
Eittory  qf  England;  PsuITb  Life  qf 
King  Alfred :  Thorpe's  Ancient  Ixiwt  and 
Intlitutet  qf  the  Anglo-Saxon  Kingt; 
Freeman's  Eittory  qf  the  Norwkan  Om- 
quett,  and  Old  Englitk  Eittory;  Pro-' 
fessor  Stubbe's  Documentt  lUuttrativt  <ff 
Englith  Eittory,  vol.  i.,  and  Om' 
ttitulional  Eittory  qf  England.  Gn  Uie 
influence  of  the  Danes  in  England,  the 
best  work  is :  Worsaee,  An  A  ceount  qf  tk$ 
Danet  and  Soruxgiant  in  Englandi 
Scotland,  and  Ireland 


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silver  Ffenoy  of  WlUiain  the  Conqueror,  struck  at  Chester— unique.' 
Obverse :  -f  willblm  bbx  ;  bust,  ftont  (ace,  crowned,  with  sceptre  in  right  hand. 
Reverse:   +  vKXVLr  on  cbstrb;  cross  potent,  in  each  angl«  a  circle,  containing 
respectively  paxs. 

BOOK  II. 

THE  NORMAN  AND  EARLY  PLANTAGENET 
KINGS. 

A.D.  1066-1199. 


CHAPTER  V. 

WILLIAM  L,  BUBNAMED  THE  CONQUEROR.      6.  1027  i   r.  1066-1087. 

§  1.  History  of  Normandy.  Rolf  the  Ganger.  William  I.  Longue-^p^. 
Richard  I.  Sans-peur.  §  2.  Richard  II.  ie  Bon.  Richard  III.  Robert 
the  Devil.  William  II.  of  Normandy  and  I.  of  England.  §  3.  Norman 
manners.  §  4.  Consequences  of  the  battle  of  Hastings.  Submission  of 
the  English.  §  5.  Settlement  of  the  government.  §  6.  William's  return 
to  Normandy.  Revolts  of  the  English,  suppressed  upon  William's  return 
to  England.  §  7.  New  insurrections  in  1068.  §  8.  Insurrections  in 
1069.  Landing  of  the  Danes.  §  9.  Deposition  of  Stigand  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  prelates.  §  10.  Last  struggle  of  the  English.  Conquest  of 
Hereward.  §  11.  Insurrection  of  the  Norman  barons.  §  12.  Revolt  of 
prince  Robert.  §  13.  Projected  invasion  of  Canute.  Domesday  Boole. 
War  with  France  and  death  of  William.  §  14.  Character  of  William. 
His  administration.     Forest  laws.     Curfew-bell. 

§  I.  The  Norman  conquest  produced  a  complete  revolution  in  the 
manners  as  well  as  in  the  government  of  the  English  ;  and  we  must, 
therefore,  here  pause  a  while  in  order  to  take  a  brief  survey  of  the 
conquerors  in  their  native  homes. 

For  a  long  peiiod  the  coasts  of  Gaul,  like  those  of  England,  were 
ravaged  by  the  Northmen;  and  for  the  greater  part  of  a  century 
the  monks  made  the  Neustrian  churches  re-echo  with  the  dismal 


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80  WILLIAM  L  Chap.  ▼. 

chant  of  the  Htany,  A  furore  Normanrwrum  libera  nos,  Domine. 
Thus  the  way  was  prepared  for  the  final  suhjugatiou  of  the  country 
by  Rolf,  or  Rollo,  son  of  the  Norwegian  jatl  IJognwaM.  Rollo  is 
said  to  have  been  so  large  of  limb  that  no  horse  could  be  found  to 
carry  him,  whence  his  name  of  "  Rolf  the  Ganger,"  or  walker.  It 
was  in  November,  876,  that  Rollo  first  landed  in  Neustria;  but 
he  made  no  settlement  there  on  that  occasion,  and  he  had  to  fight 
and  struggle  Ion?  before  he  could  obtain  possession  of  his  future 
dominions.  In  911  the  French  king,  Charles  the  Simple,  conciliated 
him  by  the  cession  of  a  considerable  part  of  Neustria.  As  a 
condition  of  this  gift,  Rollo,  next  year,  abjuring  his  pagan  gods, 
became  a  Christian ;  was  baptised  by  the  archbishop  of  Rouen,  and 
married  Gisla,  Charles's  daughter.  After  the  completion  of  the 
treaty,  when  Rollo  was  required  to  do  homage  to  Charles  for  his 
newly  acquired  domains,  the  bold  Nonhman  started  back  with 
indignation,  exclaiming,  Ne  si,  by  Gctt !  lUit  as  the  ceremony  wa« 
insisted  on,  Rollo  deputed  one  of  nis  soldiers  to  perform  it ;  who, 
proudly  raising  Charles's  foot  to  his  mouth,  in  a  standing  position, 
threw  the  monarch  on  his  back  I 

Uomage  performed  ii  such  a  fashion  did  not  promise  a  very 
obedient  vassal ;  and  in  V\e  course  of  a  few  years  Rollo s  risings  and 
rebellions  extorted  new  cessions  of  territory.  But  towards  the  close 
of  his  life  he  found  it  expedient  to  connect  himself  more  closelv  ^i  h 
the  court  of  France,  and  he  alli>wed  his  son  William  to  receive  in- 
vestiture from  king  Charles  at  Eu.  Rollo  died  in  931.  In  933  we 
find  his  son  and  successor,  Guillaume  Longue-6p^e,  or  William  Long- 
sword,  doing  homage  to  king  Rudolf,  and  receiving  Cornouaille, 
subsequently  known  as  the  Cotcntin,  from  that  monarch,  thus 
extending  the  western  boundary  of  Normandy  to  the  sea.  The  name 
of  "  Normandy  "  (Normannia),  however,-  does  not  appear  till  the 
11th  century ;  and  in  the  earlier  times  the  county  and  the  count, 
for  it  was  not  at  first  a  dukedom,  appear  to  have  been  called  after 
the  capital,  Rouen.  Already  in  the  time  of  William,  though  only 
the  second  ruler,  the  court  had  become  eutiiely  French  in  language 
and  manners ;  whilst  a  pure  Norwegian  population  still  occupied 
the  parts  near  the  coast.  Hence  William,  who  wished  that  his 
son  and  heir,  Richard,  should  be  able  to  speak  to  his  Norse  subjects 
in  their  own  tongue,  sent  him  to  Bayeux  to  be  educated.  William 
was  murdered  by  Flemings  in  942.  He  had,  however,  previously 
engaged  his  subjects  to  acknowledge  his  youthful  son,  Richard, 
afterwards  known  by  the  surname  of  Sans-peur  or  the  Fearless. 
This  prince  married  Emma,  daughter  of  Hugh  le  Grand,  duke  of 
France,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  partisans  who  established  his  son 
Hugh  Capet  on  the  throne  of  France,     Richard  was  engaged  in  a 


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AJ>.  87(H106<(.  THE  NORMANa  81 

war  with  England,  the  causes  of  which  remain  nnezplained.  It  was 
terminated  through  the  mediation  of  pope  John  XV.,  by  a  treaty 
of  peace  signed  at  Rouen  on  the  1st  March,  991. 

§  2.  By  the  sister  of  Hugh  Capet,  Richard  Sans-peur  had  no 
children ;  but  by  Gunnor,  his  second  wife,  he  left  five  sons  and  three 
daughters,  among  whom,  beside  his  successor,  Richard  II.,  or  le 
Bon,  was  Emma,  wife  of  Ethelred  II.  of  England,  and  subsequently 
of  Canute.  As  Richard  |I.,  like  his  father,  was  a  minor  at  his 
accession  in  996,  the  oppressed  peasantry  took  advantage  and  rose 
in  rebellion ;  but  the  insurrection  was  soon  put  down.  Richard's 
reign  is  peculiarly  interesting  to  us  in  consequence  of  his  intimate 
connection  with  England ;  and  as  this  was  continued  under  his  suc- 
cessor Robert,  it  contributed  much  to  introduce  Norman  civilization 
and  influence  into  this  country,  and  to  effect  its  moral  subjugation 
before  its  actual  conquest  Richard  le  Bon  died  in  1026.  His 
eldest  son  and  successor,  Richard  III.,  died  after  a  short  reign, 
|K>isoned,  as  some  suspected,  by  his  brother  Robert,  surnaraed  the 
Devil,  and  also  the  Magnificent.  Robert  assumed  the  reinS  of 
government  in  1028,  not  without  a  struggle.  His  short  reign  was 
marked  by  a  fresh  acquisition  of  territory ;  but  a  few  years  after 
his  accession  he  resolved  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and 
died  on  his  return,  as  it  is  said  by  poison,  at  Nice  in  Bithynia,  in 
the  summer  of  1035.  Before  his  departure  to  the  Holy  Land  he 
bad  induced  the  Norman  barons  to  acknowledge  as  his  successor 
his  natural  son  William,  born  of  a  concubine  named  Herletta 
at  Falaise  in  1027»  to  whom  he  was  much  attached.  But  upon 
the  death  of  Robert  many  of  the  barons  refused  to  acknowledge 
William;  and  during  his  minority  the  country  was  difturbtd  by 
the  feuds  of  the  nobility.  When  William  arrived  at  manhood,  he 
asserted  his  rights  by  force  of  arms.  Active  and  prudent,  just 
though  rigorous,  he  triumphed  over  all  his  adversaries.  His  success 
and  energy  caused  him  to  bo  feared  and  courted  by  the  other 
princes  of  Europe ;  and  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  bestowed  upon 
him  his  daughter  Matilda  in  marriage.  Like  the  rest  of  the 
Normans,  William  was  remarkable  for  his  munificence  and  devotion 
to  the  church  of  Rome. 

§  3.  When  the  Normans  invaded  England,  they  had  lost  all 
trace  of  their  northern  origm  in  language  and  manners ;  and,  though 
little  goodwill  existed  between  them  and  their  French  neighbours, 
they  had  become  in  these  respects  completely  French.  It  has 
been  already  remarked  that,  under  the  second  Norman  prince,  the 
Danish  language  had  become  obsolete  in  the  Norman  capital.  It 
was  in  Normandy,  indeed,  as  Sir  F.  Palgrave  observes,  **  that  the 
langue  {Toil  acquired  its  greatest  polish  and  regularity.     The 


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82 


WILLIAM  L 


Ohap.  t 


earliest  specimens  of  the  French  language,  in  the  proper  sense  ol 
the  term,  are  now  surrendered  by  the  French  philologists  to  the 
Normans."  *  lliey  were  thus  completely  estranged  from  their 
Norwegian  brethren,  who  would  willingly  have  rescued  England 
from  their  grasp.  Yet  the  more  essentisd  attributes  of  body  and 
mind  are  not  so  easily  shaken  off  as  language  and  conventional 
manners ;  and  the  Normans  were  still  distinguished  from  the  other 
natives  of  France  by  their  large  limbs,  their  fair  complexions,  and 
their  moral  qualities.  William  himself  represents  them  as  inroud, 
hard  to  govern,  and  litigious,  and  the  imputation  of  craft  and  vin- 
dictiveness,  brought  against  them  by  Malateria,  is  confirmed  by 
st'veral  French  proverbs.! 

To  return. 

§  4.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  consternation  which  seized 
the  English  when  they  received  intelligence  of  the  unfortunate 
battle  of  Hastings,}  the  death  of  their  king,  the  slaughter  of  their 
principal  nobility  and  of  their  bravest  warriors,  and  the  rout  and 
dispersion  of  the  rest.  That  they  might  not,  however,  be 
altogether  wanting  in  this  extreme  necessity,  they  took  some  steps 
towards  uniting  themselves  against  the  common  enemy.  The  two 
potent  earls,  Edwin  and  Morcar,  who  hastened  to  London  on  the 
news  of  Harold's  fall,  combined  with  the  citizens  and  the  arch- 
bishop of  York  to  laise  Ed^ar,  nephew  of  Edmund  Ironside,  to  the 
throne.  But  when  the  Londoners  prepared  to  risk  another  battle, 
the  earls  withdrew  to  Northumbria  with  their  forces,  in  which  the 
only  hoi)e  of  resistance  lay.  William  proceeded  to  make  sure  of  the 
south-eastern  coast,  and  advanced  against  Dover,  which  imme- 
diately capitulated.  From  Canterbury,  where  he  was  detained  a 
month  by  illness,  he  despatched  messengers  to  Winchester;  on 
his  recovery,  he  advanced  with  quick  marches  to  London.  A 
repulse  which  a  body  of  Londoners  received  from  500  Norman 
horse,  and  the  burning  of  the  suburb  of  South wark,  renewed  in  the 
city  the  terror  of  the  great  defeat  at  Hastings.  As  soon  as  William 
had  passed  the  Thames  at  Wallingford,  and  reached  Berkhampstead, 
Stigand,  the  primate,  and  Aldred,  archbishop  of  York,  made  their 
submissions :  and  l^efore  he  arrived  within  fight  of  the  city,  the 
chief  nobility,  with  Edgar  himself,  the  newly  elected  king,  came 
into  his  camp,  and  declared  their  intention  of  acknowledging  his 
Authority.§    Orders  were  immediately  issued  for  his  coronation; 

•  Normandy    and   England,    vol.    I.  reconciliation,  which  <loM  not  banlBh  «U 

d.  703.  projects  of  vengeAnoe.    These,  howerer. 

t  Ab  Reponse  Normande,  for  an  am-  were  the  taunts  of  their  enemiet. 

biguous  answer:    (Tn   Jin  Aormand,  a  |  Strictly,  of  Senlac. 

lly  fillow,  not  much  to  be  relied  on  ;  and  §  The  authorltleB  ooofiiM  the  older  of 

BtconcUiation  Hormande,  for  a  pretended  the  wbmiwtffni 


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A.D.  1066.  CORONATION  OF  WILLIAM  t  88 

and  William,  asserting  that  the  primate  had  ohtained  his  pall  in 
an  irregular  manner  from  pope  Benedict  IX.,  who  was  himself  a 
usurper,  refused  to  he  consecrated  hy  him,  and  conferred  this  honom 
on  Aldred,  archhishop  of  York.  The  ceremony  was  performed  in 
Westminster  Abhey  on  Christmas  Day  (J 066).  The  most  con- 
siderable of  the  nobility,  both  English  and  Norman,  attended  on 
this  occasion.  Aldred,  in  a  short  speech,  asked  the  English  whether 
th  y  agreed  to  accept  of  William  as  their  king;  the  bishop  of 
Coutances  put  the  same  question  to  the  Normans;  and  as  both 
answered  with  acclamations,  Aldred  administered  to  the  duke  the 
usual  coronation  oath,  by  which  he  bound  himself  to  protect  the 
church,  to  administer  justice,  and  to  repress  violence.  He  then 
anointed  William,  and  placed  the  crown  upon  his  head.  Nothing 
but  joy  appeared  in  the  countenances  of  the  spectators ;  but  in  that 
very  moment  the  strongest  symptoms  of  the  jealousy  and  animosity 
which  prevailed  between  the  two  nations  burst  forth,  and  continued 
to  increase  during  the  reign.  The  Norman  soldiers,  who  were 
posted  outside  in  order  to  guard  the  church,  hearing  the  shouts 
within,  pretended  to  believe  that  the  English  were  offering  violence 
to  their  duke,  immediately  assaulted  the  populace,  and  set  fire  to 
the  neighbouring  houses.  The  alarm  was  conveyed  to  the  nobility 
who  surrounded  the  prince.  Both  English  and  Normans,  full  of 
apprehensions,  rushed  out  to  secure  themselves  from  the  present 
danger ;  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  William  hiniself  was  able 
to  appease  the  tiunult. 

§  5.  William  claimed  the  throne  by  a  pretended  promise  of  king 
Edward,  and  had  won  it  by  force  of  arms;  but  to  cover  the  weakness 
of  his  title,  and  the  appearance  of  having  gamed  it  by  violence, 
he  prudently  submitted  to  the  formality  of  a  popular  election.  He 
now  retired  from  London  to  Barking  in  Essex,  and  there  received 
the  submissions  of  all  those  who  had  not  attended  his  coronation. 
Even  Edwin  and  Morcar,  with  the  other  principal  noblemen  of 
England,  came  and  swore  fealty  to  him,  were  received  into  favour, 
and  were  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  their  estates  and  dignities. 
William  sent  Harold's  standard  to  the  pope,  accompanied  with 
many  valuable  presents:  all  the  considerable  monasteries  and 
churches  in  France,  where  prayers  had  been  put  up  for  his  success, 
now  tasted  of  his  bounty :  the  English  monks  found  him  disposed 
to  favour  their  order :  and  on  the  battle-field,  near  Hastings,  he 
built  Battle  Abbey,  as  a  lasting  memorial  of  his  victory. 

William  introduced  into  England  that  strict  execution  of  justice 
for  which  his  administration  had  been  celebrated  in  Normandy; 
and  his  new  subjects  were  treated  with  affability  and  regard.  No 
signs  of  suspicion  appeared,  not  even  towards  Edgar  ^theling,  th« 


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84 


COKONATION  OF  WILLIAM  I. 


Ohaf.  v. 


heir  of  the  anefent  royal  family,  whom  he  affected  to  treat  with 
the  greatest  kindness,  as  nephew  to  the  Confessor,  his  friend  and 
hene&ctor.  Though  he  confiscated  the  estates  of  Harold  and  of  those 
who  had  fought  at  Hastings,  yet  in  many  instances  the  property 
was  left  in  the  hands  of  its  former  possessors.*  He  confirmed  the 
liberties  and  immunities  of  London  and  other  cities ;  and  his  whole 
administration  bore  a  semblance  of  a  legitimate  king,  and  not  of  a 
conqueror.  But  amidst  all  this  confidence  and  friendship  which  he 
professed  for  the  English,  he  took  care  to  place  all  real  power  in 
the  hands  of  his  Normans,  and  kept  possession  of  the  sword,  to 
which  he  was  sensible  he  owed  his  advancement  to  sovereign 
authority.  He  disarmed  the  city  of  London  and  all  warlike  and 
populous  places ;  he  built  a  castle  in  the  capital,!  as  well  as  in 
Winchester,  Hereford,  and  other  cities  best  situated  for  commanding 
the  kingdom ;  in  all  of  them  he  quartered  Norman  soldiers,  and 
left  nowhere  any  force  able  to  resist  or  oppose  him.  Nothing 
tended  more  to  break  down  the  power  of  the  great  territorial  chiefs, 
and  to  make  the  central  government  supreme,  than  William's  division 
of  England  into  smaller  earldoms,  generally  one  for  each  of  the 
shires,  which  thus  came  to  assume  the  name  of  counties. 

§  6.  By  this  mixture  of  vigour  and  lenity  he  had  so  soothed  the 
minds  of  his  new  subjects,  that  in  the  course  of  the  year  1067  he 
thought  he  might  safely  revisit  his  native  country.  He  left  the 
administration  in  the  hands  of  his  uterine  brother,  Odo,  bishop  of 
Bayeux,  and  of  William  Fitz-Osbem,  the  latter  of  whom  had 
rendered  him  important  services  in  the  conquest  of  England.  That 
their  authority  might  be  exposed  to  less  danger,  he  carried  over 
with  him  the  most  considerable  of  the  nobility  of  England  that 
slill  survived:  and  while  they  served  to  grace  his  court  by  their 
presence  and  magnificent  retinues,  they  were  in  reality  hostages  for 
the  fidelity  of  their  nation.  Among  these  were  Edgar  iEtheling, 
Stigand  the  j^rimate,  the  earls  Edwin,  Morcar,  and  Waltheof,t  with 


*  It  seems  that,  at  the  very  beginning 
of  his  reign,  William  asserted  the  right 
of  conquest,  though  without  fully  acting 
on  it,  by  which  both  the  public  land 
(folc-land)  became  the  king's  (terra 
regis)t  and  the  estates  of  the  conquered 
were  at  his  disposal.  Distinct  mention  is 
found  of  cases  in  which  those  who  sub- 
mitted bad  their  lands  granted  back  to 
them,  or  bought  them  of  William  for 
money.  (See  Freeman's  Norman  Con- 
quest, vol.  Iv.  pp.  14,  25.) 

t  This  is  the  keep,  or  White  Tower, 
of  the  Tower  of  London,  which  a  mis- 
t  tradition  ascribed  (like  the  Norman 


keep  at  other  castles)  to  the  Romans. 
Its  builder  was  Qundulph,  bishop  of 
Rochester.  It  was  re-fiiced  by  Sir  diris. 
topher  Wren,  but  parts  of  the  original 
surface  are  visible.  The  interior  is 
little  altered.  (See  Mr.  G.  T.  Clark's 
paper  on  •♦  The  Military  Architecture  of 
the  Tower  "  in  the  Proceeding$  of  the 
Archaological  Institute,  held  at  London, 
entitled  "  Old  Ix)ndon,"  1867.) 

X  Waltheof,  son  of  Si  ward,  had  been 
made  earl  of  the  shires  of  Northampton 
and  Huntingdon  in  the  famous  WUma- 
gemot  held  at  Oxford  (1065).  There  was  a 
fourth  great  earl,  Oswulf  of  Northumber- 


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AJO.  1067-1068  THE  ENGLISH  REBEL.  85 

others  eminent  for  the  greatness  of  their  fortunes  and  families,  or 
for  their  ecclesiastical  and  civil  dignities.  At  the  ahhey  of  Fecamp, 
where  he  resided  during  some  time,  he  was  visited  by  Rudolph, 
uncle  to  the  king  of  France,  and  by  many  powerful  princes  and 
nobles,  who  had  contributed  to  his  enterprise,  and  were  desirous  of 
partici|)ating  in  its  advantages.  His  English  courtiers,  willing  to 
ingratiate  themselves  with  their  new  sovereign,  outvied  each  other 
in  eqmpages  and  entertainments,  and  made  a  display  of  riches 
which  struck  the  foreigners  with  astonishment.  William  of 
Poitiers,  a  Norman  historian,  who  was  present,  speaks  with  admira- 
tion of  the  beauty  of  th«  ir  persons,  the  size  and  workmanship  of 
their  silver  plate,  the  costliness  of  their  embroideries — an  art  in 
which  the  English  then  excelled; — and  he  expresses  himstlf  in 
such  terms  as  tend  much  to  exalt  our  idea  of  the  opulence  and 
culture  of  the  people. 

But  the  departure  of  William  was  the  immediate  cause  of  all  the 
calamities  which  befel  the  English  in  this  and  the  subsequent 
reigns.  It  gave  rise  to  those  mutual  jealousies  and  animosities 
bi  tween  them  and  the  Normans,  which  were  never  appeased  tili, 
after  a  long  tract  of  time,  the  two  nations  had  gradually  united 
into  one  p<  ople.  During  the  kmg's  absence  discontents  and  com- 
plaints multiplied  everywhere,  secret  conspiracies  were  formed 
against  the  government,  and  hostilities  had  already  begun  in  many 
places.  The  king,  informed  of  these  dangers,  hastened  over  to 
England ;  and  by  his  presence,  and  the  vigorous  measures  which 
he  pursued,  disconcerted  the  schemes  of  the  conspirators.  But  he 
now  began,  if  not  before,  to  regard  the  English  as  irreclaimable 
enemies,  and  thenceforth  resolved  to  reduce  them  to  more  coraj  lete 
subjection.  After  subduing  Cornwall,  quelling  some  disturbances  in 
the  west  of  England,  excited  by  Oytha,  king  Harold's  mother,  and 
building  a  fortress  to  overawe  the  city  of  Exeter,  William  returned 
to  Winchester,  aqd  dispersed  his  army  into  their  quarters. 

§  7.  At  Winchester  he  was  join«  d  by  his  wife  Matilda,  who  had 
not  before  visited  England,  and  whom  he  now  ordered  to  be  crowned 
by  archbishop  Aldrcd  (1068).  'Ihe  English  formed  a  league  for 
expelling  the  Normans  and  restoring  Edgar.  The  two  earls  Edwin 
and  Morcar,  the  former  of  whom  William  had  disgusted  by 
refusing  him  the  hand  of  his  daughter,  which  he  had  promised, 
were  the  chief  instigators  of  the  rebellion.  Cospatric,  earl  of  North- 
umberland beyond  the  Tyne,  ai  d  Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland, 


land  north  of  the  Tyne  (the  present 
ooanty),  v^hfch  bad  scarcely  yet  lost  the 
name  of  Bemicla.  He  appears  to  have 
ktaa  deposed  by  William.  Both  he  and 
6 


bis  successor  met  with  violent  deattai 
soon  after.  The  earldom  was  theft 
bought  of  WUliam  by  Coepaftito, 


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86  WILLIAM  L  Chap,  r 

agreed  to  take  up  arms.  The  conspirators  seem  to  have  received 
promises  of  assistance  from  the  sons  of  Harold,  who  had  fled 
to  Ireland  after  the  hattle  of  Hastings;  from  Blethwallon,  or 
Bleddyon,  king  of  North  Wales ;  and  from  Sweyn,  king  of  Den- 
mark. William  immediately  marched  northwards,  and  took  up 
his  position  at  Warwick,  in  the  heart  of  Mercia.  When  Edwin  and 
Morcar  approached,  they  did  not  venture  a  battle  with  the 
Conqueror.  The  sons  of  Harold,  landing  upon  the  western  coast 
of  England,  were  defeated  and  compelled  to  retire  to  Ireland.  In 
the  north  the  Nor.nans  were  equally  successful.  York,  the  only 
fortress  in  the  country  was  taken,  and  Cospatric,  accompanied  by 
Edgar  iEtheling  and  his  sisters,  fled  to  the  court  of  Malcolm  in 
Scotland.  The  latter  concluded  a  peace  with  William,  to  whom 
he  swore  fealty.*  With  this  act  the  conquest  of  Kngland  may  be 
regarded  as  complete. 

§  8.  In  1069  the  insurrection  broke  out  a  second  time  in  the 
north.  The  Danes,  after  two  or  three  vain  attempts  on  the  south- 
eastern coast,  landed  in  the  Humber,  with  240  ships,  under  the 
command  of  the  brother  of  king  Sweyn ;  Edgar  iEtheling,  with 
Cospatric  and  other  leaders,  appeared  from  Scotland,  and  earl 
Waltheof  left  William's  court  to  join  them.  York  was  taken  by 
assault,  and  the  Norman  garrison,  to  the  number  of  3000  men, 
was  put  to  the  sword.  This  success  proved  a  signal  for  disaffec- 
tion in  many  parts  of  England.  The  inhabitants,  repenting  of 
their  former  easy  submission,  seeme<l  determined  to  make  one 
great  effort  for  the  recovery  of  their  liberties  and  the  expulsion 
of  their  oppressors. 

William  flrst  marched  against  the  rebels  in  the  north,  and 
engaged  the  Danes  by  large  presents  to  retire.  Having  thus  got 
rid  of  his  most  formidable  opponents,  he  found  no  difficulty  in 
crushing  the  rest  of  his  enemies.  Waltheof  and  Cospatric  submitted 
to  the  Conqueror,  and,  while  both  were  confirmed  in  their  earldoms, 
Waltheof  was  rewarded  with  the  hand  of  Judith,  William's  niece. 
Three  years  later,  the  son  of  Si  ward  was  restored  to  that  part  of  the 
Northumbrian  earldom  which  had  been  held  by  Cospatric,  to  which 
that  of  Northumberland  was  subsequently  added.  Malcolm,  king 
of  Scotland,  coming  too  late  to  the  support  of  his  confederates,  was 
constrained  to  ^'etire ;  the  English  submitted,  the  rebels  dispersed, 
and  left  the  Normans  undisputed  masters  of  the  kingdom.  Edgar 
iEthclin?,  with  his  followers,  sought  once  more  a  retreat  in 
Scotland  from  the  pursuit  of  his  enemies,  where  his  sister  Margaret 

•  Ordericus  ViUlis  (p.  61  Id),  the  sole  i  a  word  about  Cumberland,  for  whtdi 
authority  for  this,  says,  •*  Guillelroo  Regl  |  historians  bare  aseomed  that  the  bomagt 
fldele  obeeqoium  Juravit."    There  is  not 


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AJ).  1068-1070.      DEPOSITION  OF  STIGAND.  87 

was  shortly  afterwards  married  to  Malcolm  (1070).  In  her  daughter's 
subsequent  marriage  with  Henry  L,  the  English  and  Norman  royal 
lines  were  united.  William,  who  passed  the  winter  in  the  north, 
issued  orders  for  laying  waste  the  entire  country  for  the  extent 
of  sixty  miles  between  the  Humber  and  the  Tees.  The  lives  of 
100,000  persons,  who  died  by  (amine,  are  computed  to  have  been 
sacrificed  to  this  stroke  of  barbarous  policy,  and  the  country  was 
reduced  to  such  a  state  of  desolation,  that  for  several  years  after- 
wards there  was  hardly  an  inhabitant  left.  This  act,  attributed  to 
William's  vengeance,  was  rather,  perhaps,  a  stem  measure  of  precau- 
tion against  the  incursions  of  the  Scots  and  Danes.  It  is  not  likely 
that  so  avaricious  and  sagacious  a  prince  should  have  resorted  to  a 
measure  that  crippled  his  own  power  and  revenue  merely  out  of 
a  spirit  of  revenge.  The  same  barbarous  measure  was  resorted 
to  in  France  in  much  more  civilized  times,  when  the  constable 
Montmorency  completely  desolated  Provence  in  order  to  check  the 
advance  of  the  emperor  Charles  V. 

Insurrections  and  conspiracies  in  so  many  parts  of  the  kingdom 
had  involved  the  bulk  of  the  landed  proprietors,  more  or  less, 
in  the  guilt  of  treason;  and  the  king  took  the  opportunity  for 
enforcing  against  them,  with  the  utmost  rigour,  the  laws  of 
attainder  and  forfeiture.  Their  lives  were  indeed  commonly 
spared ;  but  their  estates  were  confiscated,  and  either  annexed  to 
the  royal  demesnes,  or  conferred  with  the  most  lavish  bounty  on 
the  Normans  and  other  foreigners.  Several  of  the  English  nobles, 
despairing  of  the  fortunes  of  their  country,  fled  abroad.  Some  took 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Constantinople,  where  they  entered  the  service 
of  the  Greek  emperor,  and,  being  incorporated  with  Danes  and 
others,  formed,  under  the  name  of  Varangians,  the  imperial  body- 
guard. 

§  9.  The  Conqueror  now  proceeded  to  deprive  the  English  of  all 
offices  in  the  state,  as  well  ecclesiastical  as  civil.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
church  had,  to  a  certain  extent,  maintained  its  iudependence  of  the 
Roman  see;  and  accordingly  pope  Alexander  willingly  assisted 
William  in  depriving  the  native  prelates  of  their  benefices.  Three 
papal  legates  were  despatched  into  England,  who  summoned  a 
council  of  prelates  and  abbots  at  Winchester  in  1070.  In  this 
council  the  legate,  upon  some  frivolous  charges,  degraded  Stigand, 
the  primate :  William  confiscated  his  estate,  and  confined  him  at 
Winchester,  where  he  died.  Like  rigour  was  exercised  against  other 
English  Inshops ;  and  Wulstan  of  Worcester  was  the  only  one  that 
escaped  the  general  proscription.  Even  monasteries  were  plundered, 
and  their  plate  carried  off  to  the  royal  treasury. 

Laofrano,  an  Italian  celebrated  for  his  learning  and  piety,  who, 


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88  WILLIAM  L  Chap.  t. 

as  prior  of  Bee  in  Normandy,  had  long  been  William's  chosen  friend 
and  counsellor,  was  now  promoted  to  the  vacant  see  of  Canterbury. 
He  was  rigid  in  defending  the  prerogatives  of  his  see ;  and,  after  a 
long  process  before  the  pope,  obliged  Thomas,  a  Norman  monk, 
who  had  been  appointed  to  York,  to  acknowledge  the  primacy  of 
Canterbury. 

§  10.  The  two  earls,  Morcar  and  Edwin,  sensible  that  they 
had  entirely  lost  their  dignity,  and  could  not  even  hope  to  remain 
long  in  safety,  determined,  though  too  late,  to  share  the  fate  of 
their  countrymen.  They  fled  from  William's  court,  and  made 
some  ineffectual  attempts  to  gather  followers.  Edwin  was  s'.ain 
on  his  way  to  Scotland,  either  by  his  own  men,  or  by  the  Norm-ms 
to  whom  he  was  betrayed.  Morcar  took  shelter  with  the  brave 
Here  ward  in  the  Isle  of  Ely,  then  really  an  island  amidst  the 
waters  of  the  fens,  where  the  English  had  fonned  their  last  "  Camp 
of  Refuge."  The  exploits  of  Hereward  against  the  Normans  lived 
long  in  the  memory  of  the  English,  invested  with  the  romance  of 
patriotic  legends.  Of  his  parentage  and  early  1  fe  nothing  is  known 
except  that  he  possessed  estates  in  Lincolnshire  and  Warwickshire. 
According' to  one  account,  he  was  in  Flanders  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest ;  but,  hearing  that  his  mother  had  l)cen  deprived  of  her 
estate  by  a  foreigner,  he  returned  to  England,  drove  out  the  intruder, 
and  erected  the  banner  of  independence.  He  was  quickly  joined 
by  other  bold  spirits,  and,  protected  by  the  fens  and  morasses  of 
the  Isle  of  Ely,  was  able  to  bid  defiance  to  William.  The  king 
found  it  necessary  to  employ  all  his  endeavoui-s  to  subdue  their 
stronghold,  and  having  surrounded  it  with  flat-bottomed  boats,  and 
made  a  causeway  through  the  morasses  to  the  extent  of  two  miles, 
he  obliged  the  rebels  to  surrender  at  discretion  (1071).  Hereward 
alone  escaped,  with  a  small  band,  in  ships  to  the  open  sea.  Af^cr 
long  harassing  the  Normans,  he  married  a  rich  Englishwoman, 
made  his  peace  with  William,  but  was  at  last  murdered  in  his 
own  house  by  a  band  of  Normans.  Romantic  as  this  story  may 
appear,  thus  much  is  certain,  that  a  Hereward  is  found  in  Domes- 
day Book  as  a  holder  of  lands  under  Norman  'ords  in  Warwick  an<^ 
Worcester  shires.*  Earl  Morcar  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  long 
after  died  in  confinement,  in  Normandy.  To  complete  these 
successes,  Edgar  iEtheling  himself,  weary  of  a  fugitive  life,  sub- 
mitted to  his  enemy;  and,  receiving  a  decent  pension  for  his 
subsistence,  was  permitted  to  live  at  Rouen  despised  and  unmo- 
lested. 

§  11:  As  William  had  now  nothing  to  fear  from  his  English  snb- 

*  8ee  Freeman's  Norman  Om^uMt,  yoL  Iv.  pp.  465^85.  and  Appendix  00,  "  Ite 
'        I  of  Hereward.- 


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A.D.  1071-1076.  INSTTRHECTION  op  NORMAN  BARONa       89 

jects,  it  was  his  policy  to  conciliate  and  protect  them.  But  he  had 
to  encounter  the  jealousy  and  disaffection  of  his  compaDions  in 
arms.  His  resolute  opposition  to  their  feudal  aggressions,  in  the 
maintenance  of  his  royal  authority,  had  excited  general  discoutent 
among  the  haughty  Norman  nohles.  Even  Roger,  earl  of  Hereford, 
son  and  heir  of  Fitz-Oshem,  the  king's  chief  favourite, was  strongly 
infected  with  it.  Intending  to  marry  his  sister  to  Ralph  de  Guader, 
earl  of  Norfolk,  Roger  had  thought  it  his  duty  to  inform  the  king 
and  desire  his  consent ;  hut  meeting  with  a  refusal,  he  proceeded 
nevertheless  to  complete  the  nuptials,  and  assembled  his  own 
friends,  and  those  ot  Guader,  to  attend  the  solemnity  (1076).  The 
two  earls  here  prepared  measures  for  a  revolt ;  and  during  the  gaiety 
of  the  festival,  while  the  company  was  heated  with  wine,  they 
opened  the  project  to  their  guests.  Inflamed  with  the  same  senti- 
ments, the  whole  company  entered  into  a  solemn  engagement  to 
shake  off  the  royal  authority.  Even  earl  Waltheof,  who  had 
married  the  Conqueror's  niece,  inconsiderately  expressed  his  ap- 
probation of  the  plot,  and  promised  his  concurrence  towards 
its  success.  But,  on  cooler  judgment,  he  foresaw  that  the  con- 
spiracy of  these  discontented  barons  was  not  likely  to  prove  suc- 
cessful against  the  established  power  of  William ;  and  he  opened 
his  mind  to  his  wife,  Judith,  of  whose  fidelity  he  entertained  no 
8US)ncion,  but  who,  having  secretly  fixed  her  affections  on  another, 
took  this  opportunity  of  ruining  her  easy  and  credulous  husband. 
She  conveyed  intelligence  of  the  conspiracy  to  the  king,  aggra- 
vating every  circumstance  which  she  believed  would  tend  to  incense 
him  against  Waltheof,  and  render  him  absolutely  implacable. 
Meanwhile  the  earl,  at  the  suggestion  of  Lanfranc,  to  whom  he  had 
discovered  the  secret,  went  over  to  Normandy,  whither  William 
had  gone  some  time  previously  to  quell  an  insurrection  in  his 
province  of  Maine  ;  but  though  he  was  well  received  by  the  king, 
and  thanked  for  his  fidelity,  the  account  previously  transmitted  by 
Judith  sunk  deep  into  William's  mind,  and  had  destroyed  the 
merit  of  her  husband's  repentance. 

Hearing  of  Waltheofs  departure,  the  conspirators  immediately 
concluded  that  their  design  was  betrayed,  and  flew  to  arms  before 
their  schemes  were  ripe  for  execution.  They  were  defeated  at  every 
point.  The  prisoners  had  their  right  feet  cut  off  to  mark  them  for 
the  future  (1075).*  William  returned  to  England,  accompanied 
by  Waltheof,  who  was  soon  afterwards  arrested.  The  earls  were 
condemned,  in  a  council  held  at  Westminster,  to  stricter  imprison- 

*  *«Utootifloentar/'  to  be  known  or  i  Freeman's  Norman   Omquut,  ToL  iv. 
ietocted    (Onleric.    p.   535b).     On   the     pp.  278, 581. 
custom  of  mutilating  prisoners  of  war.  sec  I 


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90 


WILLIAM  L 


Ghap.  X 


meDt.  Ralph,  who  had  escaped,  and  the  earl  of  Hereford,  suflierei) 
forfeiture  or  their  estates ;  and  the  latter  was  kept  a  prisoner  till 
his  death.  But  Waltheof,  being  an  Englishman,  was  treaUd  witl\ 
less  humanity.  At  the  instigation  of  Judith,  and  of  the  rapacious 
courtiers,  who  longed  for  so  rich  a  forfeiture,  he  was  tried, 
condenmed,  and  executed  (1076).  His  lx»dy  was  removed  by  the 
monks  of  Crowland  to  the  abbey,  which  he  had  befriended  and 
enriched.  The  English,  who  considered  this  nobleman  as  the  last 
prop  of  their  nation,  grievously  lamented' his  fate,  and  held  him  for 
a  saint  and  martyr.  The  legend  adds  that  the  infamous  Judith, 
falling  soon  after  under  the  king's  displeasure,  was  abandoned  by 
all  the  world,  aod  passed  the  rest  of  her  life  in  contempt,  remorse, 
and  misery.  It  is  more  certain  that  the  execution  of  Waltheof 
marks  the  turning  point  in  William's  prosperous  career.* 

§  12.  The  king  now  spent  some  years  in  passing  between  England 
and  Normandy,  where  be  was  involved  in  a  series  of  unsuccessful 
wars.  The  climax  of  these  troubles  was  the  revolt  of  his  eldest 
son  Robert,  to  whom  William  had  caused  the  nobles  of  Normandy 
to  swear  fealty  as  his  successor.  When  Robert,  iustigated  by  the 
French  king,  Philip  I.,  demanded  the  full  possession  of  the  duchy, 
his  father  replied  with  the  taunt,  *'  I  am  not  used  to  take  off  my 
clothes  before  I  go  to  bed."  After  various  disputes  Robert 
openly  levied  war  upon  his  father  (1078).  William  called  over 
an  army  of  English  under  his  ancient  captains,  who  soon  ex- 
pelled Robert  and  his  adherents  from  their  retreats,  and  restored 
the  authority  of  the  sovereign  in  all  his  dominions.  The  young 
duke  was  obliged  to  take  shelter  in  the  castle  of  Gerberoi,  in 
the  district  of  Beauvais,  which  the  king  of  France,  who  secretly 
fomented  all  these  dissensions,  had  provided  for  him  (1079)^ 
Under  the  walls  of  the  castle  many  rencounters  took  place,  which 
resembled  more  the  single  combats  of  chivalry  than  the  military 
actions  of  armies.  One  of  them  was  remarkable  for  its  circum- 
stances and  its  event.  Robert  happened  to  engage  the  king,  who 
was  concealed  by  his  helmet ;  and  both  of  them  being  valiant,  a 
fierce  combat  ensued,  till  at  last  the  young  duke  wounded  his 
father  in  the  hand,  and  unhorsed  him.  On  calling  out  for  assist- 
ance, the  king's  voice  was  recognized  by  his  son,  who  quickly 
dismounted,  set  his  father  on  his  horse  again,  and  let  him  depart 


•  The  deacendADts  of  Waltheof  occupy 
An  ImporUot  place  in  the  history  of 
the  Scotch  and  English  royal  families. 
Ib  the  famous  contest  for  the  Scottish 
crown,  the  question  occurs,  ••  How  did  the 
tnoettor  of  the  claimant  come  to  he  earl 
qf  Hwnttngdon  t "  It  was  thus :— MatUda, 


the  daughter  of  Waltheot  married  (Ibr 
her  second  hushand)  David,  son  of 
Malcolm  and  Margaret  (aflerwards 
David  l.\  and  thus  brought  the  earldom 
of  Huntingdon  into  the  Sootiiah  royal 
family,  and  made  Waltheof  an  anoeetog 
of  our  royal  line. 


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A^  1076-1087. 


DOMESDAT  BOOK. 


91 


with  his  defeated  soldiers.  The  interposition  of  the  queen  and  the 
nobles  of  Normandy  at  length  brought  about  a  reconciliation.  The 
king  seemed  so  fiilly  appeased,  that  he  even  took  Robert  with  him 
into  England ;  where  he  intrusted  him  with  the  command  of  nn 
army,  in  order  to  repel  an  inroad  of  Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland. 
This  expedition  is  memorable  for  the  foundation  of  the  New  Castle 
on  the  Tyne,  which  gave  name  to  the  modem  chief  town  of  North- 
umberland. It  was  followed  by  a  fresh  quarrel  between  the  king 
and  his  son,  who  departed  in  anger  to  France  (1080).  About  the 
same  time  William  marched  into  Wales  as  far  as  St  Davids,  and 
the  Welsh,  imable  to  resist  his  power,  were  compelled  to  make  a 
compensation  for  their  incursions.  The  whole  land  was  now  reduced 
to  tranquillity  (1081). 

{  13.  The  remaining  transactions  of  William's  reign  are  not  of 
much  importance.  In  the  year  10B5,  Canute,  who  had  succeeded 
Sweyn  in  the  kingdom  of  Denmark,  collected  a  large  fleet  with  the 
design  of  invading  England ;  and  though  from  various  causes  it  was 
not  carried  into  execution,  it  nevertheless  occasioned  some  calamity 
to  the  nation.  The  odious  tax  of  DancgM  was  reimposed ;  a  large 
army  of  foreigners  was  brought  over  from  the  continent;  and  the 
lands  adjoining  the  sea-coast  were  laid  waste  in  order  to  deprive  the 
expected  enemy  of  support.  In  the  following  year  (August,  1086) 
William  received  at  Salisbury  the  oath  of  fealty  from  all  holders  ot 
land  in  the  kingdom :  thus  coiforcing  direct  homage  to  himself,  and 
not  as  before  to  their  immediate  lords ;  a  modification  of  feudalism 
which  formed  the  strongest  bond  of  imion  to  the  whole  state.  This 
great  change  had  been  prepared  for  by  the  compilation  of  their 
Domeiday  Book* 

In  1087  William  was  detained  on  the  continent  by  a  misunder- 


*  The  origin  and  meaning  of  the  word 
Domesday  is  quite  nnoertain.  It  was 
•omettanes  called  the  Book  of  Winchester, 
becanae  the  requisitions  of  the  oommia- 
atonera  appointed  to  malce  the  surrey 
were  returned  to  Winchetster,  and  hence 
some  have  thought  tliat  the  name  is  a 
o&fruption  of  Domui  Dei,  the  name  of  the 
chapel  in  Winchester  Cathedral  where 
It  was  preserved.  Though  not  complete 
for  all  the  counties,  it  shows  the  extent, 
natme,  and  divisions  of  the  landed  pro- 
perty in  each,  in  the  time  of  Edward 
the  Confessor,  and  at  the  time  of  the 
nrvey ;  the  products  of  various  kinds, 
as  woods,  fisheries,  mines,  etc.  It  was 
ordered  by  William  at  his  Christmas 
court  at  Qloooester  (loss),  and  such  was 
tiM  tipedttion  used  that  it  was  finished 


bjJuly,  1086.  It  consists  of  two  volumes, 
a  large  and  smaller  folio,  written  on 
veUum.  It  was  printed  by  the  govern- 
ment in  1783,  and  fae  HmUes  of  it  in 
photo-xincography  have  lately  been  pub- 
lished by  the  Ordnance  Survey  Office.  A 
complete  account  of  it  will  be  found  in  Sir 
H.  Ellis's  Otneral  Introduction  to  Domes- 
day,  2  vols.  8vo.  By  its  division  into 
modem  counties  it  shows  that  already 
this  arrangement  had  become  perfectly 
fkmiliar  and  was  universally  recognized. 
The  whole  number  of  persons  registered 
in  Domesday  Book  is  283.242.  But  as 
the  work  was  not  intended  for  a  record 
of  population,  all  inferences  on  that  head 
are  uncerUin.  The  tenants  in  capUe  are 
generally  Normans ;  the  inferior  teoanU 
often  Anglo-Saxons. 


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92  WILUAH  L  CtaAP.  ^ 

dtanding  between  himself  and  the  king  of  France,  occasioned  by 
the  inroads  made  into  Normandy  bj  French  nobles  on  the  froa« 
tiers.  His  displeasure  was  increased  by  the  account  he  received 
of  some  railleries  which  that  monarch  had  thrown  out  against  him* 
William,  who  had  become  corpulent,  had  been  detained  in  bed  some 
time  by  sickness;  upon  which  Philip  expressed  his  surprise  that 
his  brother  of  England  should  be  so  long  in  lying  in.  The  king 
sent  him  word  that,  as  soon  as  he  was  up,  he  would  present  so  many 
lights  at  Notre  Dame  as  would  perhaps  give  little  pleasure  to  the 
king  of  France^alluding  to  the  usual  practice  at  that  time  of 
women  after  childbirth.  Immediately  on  his  recovery  he  led  an 
army  into  L'Isle  de  France,  and  laid  it  waste  with  fire  and  sword. 
But  the  progress  of  these  hostilities  was  stopped  by  an  accident 
which  soon  after  put  an  end  to  William's  life.  His  soldiers  having 
burnt  the  town  of  Mantes,  William  rode  to  the  scene  of  action, 
and  as  his  horse  treading  upon  some  hot  ashes  started  aside,  the 
king  was  thrown  violently  on  the  pommel  of  his  saddle.  Being  in 
a  bad  habit  of  body,  as  well  as  somewhat  advanced  in  years,  he 
began  to  apprehend  the  consequences,  and  ordered  himself  to  be 
carried  in  a  litter  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Gervais,  near  Bonen. 
Finding  his  illness  increase,  and  sensible  of  the  approach  of  death^ 
he  was  struck  with  remorse  for  those  acts  of  violence  which  he 
had  committed  during  the  course  of  his  reign  over  England.  He 
endeavoured  to  make  atonement  by  presents  to  churches  and  monas- 
teries, and  issued  orders  that  several  prisoners  should  be  set  at 
liberty.  He  left  Normandy  and  Maine  to  his  eldest  son  Robert. 
Lan franc  was  directed  to  crown  William  king  of  England  ;  and 
to  Henry  he  bequeathed  5000  pounds  of  silver.  His  second  son, 
Richard,  had  been  killed  long  before,  whilst  hunting  in  the  New 
Forest 

I  14.  William  expired  on  the  9th  of  September,  1087,  in  the 
61st  year  of  his  age,  in  the  21st  year  of  his  reign  over  England, 
and  in  the  54th  of  that  over  Normandy.  He  was  buried  in 
the  church  of  St.  Stephen  at  Caen.  Few  princes  have  been  more 
fortunate  than  this  great  monarch,  or  better  entitled  to  grandeur 
and  prosperity,  from  the  abilities  and  the  vigour  of  mind 
which  he  displayed  in  all  his  conduct.  His  spirit  was  bold  and 
enterprising,  yet  guided  by  prudence.  His  ambition  did  not  always 
submit  10  the  restraints  of  justice,  still  less  to  those  of  humanity, 
but  was  controlled  by  the  dictates  of  sound  policy.  Bom  in 
an  age  when  the  minds  of  men  were  intractable  and  unused  to 
obedience,  he  was  yet  able  to  direct  them  to  his  purposes;  and, 
partly  by  the  ascendancy  of  his  energetic  character,  partly  by 
policy,  he  was  enabled  to  establish  and  maintain  his  authority* 


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mA  1087.  HIS  ADMINISTBATION.  98 

ThoDgh  not  insensible  to  generosity,  he  was  too  ofien  hardened 
sgainst  compassion.  In  the  diflScolt  enterprise  of  subduing  a 
hnve  and  warlike  people  he  succeeded  so  completely  that  he 
transmitted  his  power  to  his  descendants,  and  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find  in  all  history  a  revolution  attended  with  a  more  com- 
plete subjection  of  the  ancient  inhabitants.  For  a  time  the 
English  name  became  a  term  of  reproach,  and  generations  elapsed 
before  one  £unily  of  native  pedigree  was  raised  to  any  considerable 
honours. 

The  administration  of  William  was  more  severely  displayed 
in  the  Ft/rest  Laws,  Like  all  the  Normans,  William  was  fond  of 
hunting;  and,  according  to  the  quaint  expression  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  chronicler, "  loved  the  tall  game  as  if  he  had  been  their  father." 
The  forests  had  been  protected  before  the  Conquest ;  but  William, 
for  the  preservation  of  the  game,  established  more  rigid  penalties.' 
The  killing  of  a  deer  or  boar,  or  even  a  hare,  was  punished 
with  the  loss  of  the  delinquent's  eyes,  at  a  time  when  man- 
slaughter could  be  atoned  for  by  a  fine  or  composition.  In  forming 
the  New  Forest  in  the  neighbourhood  of  his  i>alace  at  Winchester, 
the  ooimtry  around  was  "afforested,"  that  is,  subjected  to  the 
forest  laws.  For  that  purpose,  churches  and  villages  were  destroyed, 
but  the  number  has  been  probably  exaggerated. 

The  nnmerous  Castles  erected  in  all  parts  of  England  during 
the  reign  of  ihe  Conqueror  were  at  once  the  means  and  the  visible 
emblems  of  English  subjection.  Of  these  strongholds  no  fewer  than 
46  are  recorded  in  Domesday  as  erected  since  the  time  of  Edward 
the  Confessor. 

William  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  cuffew  (i.e.  couvre  feu) 
bell,  upon  the  ringing  of  which  all  fires  had  to  be  covered  up 
at  sunset  in  summer,  and  about  eight  at  night  in  the  winter. 
The  custom  was  brought  over  from  Normandy,  and  has  been 
thought  by  some  to  have  been  used  in  many  countries  as  a  pre* 
caution  against  fire.  But  it  was  probably  of  ecdeaiastical  origin, 
and  served  originally  for  devotional  porpoees. 


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Heniy  of  Blois,  bishup  uf  Winchester  and  brotlier  of  king  Stephen.    From 
euaiuclled  plate  in  the  British  Museum.* 


CHAWER  VI. 

WILLIAM  n.,  HEKRY   I.,  STEPHEN.      A.D.  1087-1164. 

§  1.  Accession  of  WiLUAM  RuFUS.  Conspiracy  against  the  king.  §  2. 
Inva.sion  of  Normandy,  and  other  wars-  §  3.  Acquisition  of  Normandj, 
§  4.  Quarrel  with  AnselUi  the  primate.  §  5.  Transactions  in  France. 
Death  and  character  of  Kuius.  §  ♦>.  Accession  of  Henry  I.  His  charter. 
§  7  Marriage  of  the  king  §  8.  Duke  Robert  invades  England.  Accom- 
modation with  him.  §  9.  Henry  invades  and  conquers  Normandy.  §  10. 
Ecclesiastical   affairs.     Disputes  respecting   investitures.     §  II.  Wars 

*  For  an  explanation  of  the  inscription,  sun  LaUute,  ArU  qf  the  JhddU  Apn, 
y.zxiv. 


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A.D.  1087-1090.         INVASION  OF  NOKMANDY.  95 

abroad.  Death  of  prince  William.  §  12.  Henry's  second  marriage. 
Marriage  of  his  daugliter.  His  death  and  character.  $  18.  Accession  of 
8TKPHBN.  Measures  for  secuiing  the  goremment.  $  14.  Stephen 
acknowledged  in  Normandy.  Disturbances  in  England.  §  16.  Matilda 
inrades  England  and  obtains  the  crown.  Her  flight.  $  16.  Prince  Henry 
in  England.  Acknowledged  as  Stephen's  saccessor.  Death  and  character 
of  Stephen. 

§  1.  William  II.,  &.  a,d.  1060;  r.  1087-1100.— William,  surnamed 
Bufas,  or  the  Red,  from  the  colour  of  his  hair,  had  no  sooner  pro- 
cared  his  father's  commendatory  letter  to  Lanfranc,  the  primate, 
than  he  hastened  to  England  before  intelligence  of  his  father's 
death  could  arrive.  Pretending  orders  from  the  king,  he  secured 
the  fortresses  of  Dover,  Pevensey,  and  Hastings ;  and  got  possession 
of  the  royal  treasure  at  Winchester,  amounting  to  the  sum  of 
60,000  pounds.  Assembling  some  of  the  bishops  and  principal 
.  nobles,  the  primate  proceeded  at  once  to  crown  the  new  king 
(September  26),  and  thus  anticipate  all  faction  and  resistance. 
The  Norman  barons,  however,  who  for  many  reasons  preferred 
Robert,  with  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  and  Robert,  count  of  Mor- 
taigne,  maternal  brothers  of  the  Conqueror,  envying  the  great 
credit  of  Lan franc,  engaged  their  partisans  in  a  formal  conspiracy 
against  the  king.  William,  who  had  gained  the  affections  of  the 
English  by  general  promises  of  good  treatment,  and  an  amelioration 
of  the  forest  laws,  was  soon  in  a  situation  to  take  the  field.  The 
rapidity  of  his  movements  speedily  crushed  the  rebellion  (1088). 
Freed  from  immediate  danger,  he  took  little  care  to  fulfil  his 
promises.  The  English  still  found  themselves  exposed  to  the  same 
oppressions  as  in  the  reign  of  the  Conqaeror,  oppressions  augmented 
by  the  new  king's  violent  and  impetuous  temper.  The  death  of 
LAnfranc  (1069),  who  had  been  William's  tutor  and  had  retained 
great  influence  over  him,  gave  full  scope  to  his  tyranny  ;  and  all 
orders  of  men  found  reason  to  complain  of  arbitrary  and  illegal  ad- 
ministration.  Even  the  privileges  of  the  church,  usually  held  sacred 
in  those  days,  proved  a  feeble  rampart  against  his  usurpations.  The 
terror  of  William's  authority,  confirmed  by  the  suppression  of  the 
late  insurrections,  retained  every  one  in  subjection,  and  preserved 
the  general  tranquillity  of  England. 

§  d.  Thus  stroDgthened  at  home,  WUliam  invaded  the  dominions 
of  his  brother  Robert  in  Normandy  (1090).  The  war,  however, 
was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  mediation  of  the  nobles  on  both 
sides,  who  were  strongly  connected  by  interest  and  alliances.  It 
was  stipulated  that,  on  the  demise  of  either  brother  without  issue, 
the  survivor  should  inherit  all  his  dominions.  Henry,  disgusted 
that  little  care  had  been  taken  of  his  interests  in  this  accommo- 
dation, retired  to  St.  Michael's  Mount,  a  strong  fortress  on  the 


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96  WILLIAliC  IL  Ohap.tl 

coast  of  Normandy,  and  infested  the  neighbourhood  with  his  incur- 
sions. He  was  besieged  by  Robert  and  William,  with  their  joint 
forces,  and  had  been  nearly  reduced  by  scarcity  of  water,  when 
Robert,  hearing  of  his  distress,  granted  him  permission  to  supply 
himself,  and  also  sent  him  some  pipes  of  wine  for  his  own  table. 
Reproved  by  William  for  this  ill-timed  generosity,  he  replied, 
*•  What,  shall  I  suffer  my  brother  to  die  of  thirst?  Where  shall 
we  find  another  when  he  is  gone  ?  '*  Diu'ing  this  siege,  William 
performed  an  act  of  generosity  little  in  accordance  with  his  character. 
Hiding  out  one  day  alone,  to  take  a  survey  of  the  fortress,  he  was 
attacked  by  two  soldiers  and  dismounted.  One  of  them  drew  his 
sword  in  order  to  despatch  him,  when  the  king  exclaimed,  *'  Hold, 
knave!  I  am  the  king  of  Elngland."  The  soldier  suspended  his 
blow ;  and,  raising  the  king  from  the  ground  with  expressions  of 
respect,  received  a  handsome  reward,  and  was  taken  into  his  service. 
Soon  after  Henry  was  obliged  to  capitulate ;  and  being  despoiled  of 
his  patrimony,  was  reduced  to  great  poverty.  William,  attended 
by  Robert,  returned  to  England ;  and  soon  after,  accompanied  by 
his  brother,  led  an  army  into  Scotland,  and  obliged  Malcolm  to 
accept  terms  of  peace  (1091),  which  were  mediated  by  Robert  on 
the  part  of  William,  and  by  Edgar  uEtheling  on  that  of  Malcolm. 
Advantageous  conditions  were  stipulated  for  Edgar,  who  returned 
to  England ;  Malcolm  consented  to  do  homage  to  William ;  and 
Cumberland,  formerly  held  by  the  Scottish  kings  as  a  fief  imder 
the  English  crown,  was  now  reduced  to  an  English  county,  and 
secured  by  the  fortification  of  Carlisle.  Its  settlement  by  an 
English  colony  extinguished  its  Celtic  character,  though  in  memory 
of  them  it  retains  to  this  day  the  name  of  the  Cymry. 

§  3.  At  the  preaching  of  the  Crusade  by  Peter  the  Hermit  for 
the  recovery  of  the  holy  sepulchre  at  Jerusalem,*  Robert  enlisted 
himself  among  the  Crusaders.  To  provide  himself  with  money,  he 
resolved  to  mortgage  his  dominions  for  a  term  of  five  years ;  and 
he  offered  them  to  William  for  the  inadequate  sum  of  10,000 
marks.  The  bargain  was  concluded ;  the  king  raised  the  money 
by  violent  extortions  from  his  subjects  of  all  ranks,  even  the 
religious  houses,  which  were  obliged  to  melt  their  plate  to  furnish 
the  quota  demanded.  William  was  put  in  possession  of  Normandy 
and  Maine;  and  Robert,  providing  himself  with  a  magnificent 
train,  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land  (1095). 

§  4.  Devoid  alike  of  religious  feeling  and  religious  principle, 
William,  during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  was  engaged  in  dis- 
putes with  the  church.  After  the  death  of  Lanfranc  he  retdned  in 
his  own  hands,  for  several  years,  the  revenues  of  Canterbury,  and 

*  The  history  of  the  Crusades  is  narr&ted  in  the  Student's  Gibbon,  pp.  646,  se^. 

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AJK  1090-1100.  QUARREL  WITH  ANSELIL  97 

of  other  vacant  bishoprics ;  hut  falling  into  a  dangerous  sickness, 
he  was  seized  with  remorse,  and  resolved,  therefore,  to  supply 
instantly  the  vacancy  of  Canterbury  (1093).  For  this  purpose  he 
sent  for  Anselm,  a  native  of  Aosta  in  Piedmont,  abbot  of  Bee  in 
Normandy,  who  was  much  celebrated  for  his  learning  and  piety, 
and  whom  he  persuaded  with  diflSculty  to  accept  the  primacy. 
But  William's  passions  returned  with  returning  healih.  He  re- 
tained ecclesiastical  benefices;  the  sale  of  spiritual  dignities  con- 
tinued as  ojicnly  as  ever.  He  refused  to  surrender  the  temporalities 
of  Canterbury  to  Anselm.  The  division  between  them  grew  more 
serious.  The  new  primate  had  determined  to  receive  bis  pall  in 
Rome  from  the  hands  of  Urban  VI.,  contrary  to  the  king's  wishes, 
who  had  espoused  the  cause  of  the  antipope.  Enraged  at  this 
attempt,  William  summoned  a  council  with  an  intention  of  deposing 
Anselm :  but  he  was  at  last  prevailed  upon  by  other  motives  to 
give  the  preference  to  Urban.  Anselm  received  the  pall  from  that 
pontiff;  and  matters  seemed  to  be  accommodated  between  the  king 
and  the  |rima:e,  when  the  quarrel  broke  out  afresh  from  a  new 
cause.  In  1097  William  had  undertaken  an  expedition  against 
Wales,  and,  requiring  the  archbishop  to  furnish  hb  quota  of  soldiers 
fur  that  service,  accused  him  of  insufficiently  fulfilling  his  feudal 
obligations.  Anselm  retorted  by  demanding  that  the  revenues  of 
his  see  should  be  restored.  He  appealed  to  ifome  against  the  king's 
injustice ;  and,  finding  it  dangerous  to  remain  in  the  kingdom, 
obtained  the  king's  permission  to  retire  beyond  sea  the  same  year. 
His  temporalities  were  seized  by  William;  the  archbishop  was 
received  with  great  lespect  by  Urban,  who  menaced  the  king,  for  his 
proceedings  a.ainst  the  primate  and  the  church,  with  sentence  of 
excommunication. 

{  5.  In  1099  the  Crusaders  became  masters  of  Jerusalem.  Their 
success  stimulated  others  to  follow  their  example;  and  William, 
duke  of  Guienne  and  count  of  Poitou,  like  Robert,  ofi'ered  to  mort- 
gage his  dominions  to  William,  in  order  to  raise  money  for  the 
purpose  of  proceeding  to  the  Holy  Land  with  an  immense  body  of 
followers.  The  king  accepted  the  offer,  had  prepared  a  fleet  and 
an  army  in  order  to  transport  the  money  and  take  possession  of 
the  rich  provinces  of  Guienne  and  Poitou,  when  an  accident  put 
an  end  to  his  life  and  all  his  ambitious  projects.  Ho  was 
engaged  in  hunting  in  the  New  Forest,  attended,  among  others,  by 
Francis  Walter,  sumamed  Tyrrel,  a  French  gen  leman,  remarkable 
for  his  address  in  archery.  As  William  had  dismounted  after 
the  chase,  impatient  to  show  his  dexterity,  Tyrrel  let  fly  an  arrow 
at  a  stag  which  suddenly  started  before  him.  The  arrow,  glancing 
firom  a  tree,  struck  the  king  in  the  breast,  and  killed  him  in* 


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98  HENBY  L  Chap.  ti. 

stantaneously.*  Without  informing  any  one  of  the  accident,  Tyrrel 
put  spurs  to  his  horse,  hastened  to  the  sea  shore,  einharked  for 
France,  and  joined  the  Crusade.  The  body  of  William  was  found 
in  the  forest  by  the  country  people,  and  was  buried  at  Winchester. 
Tradition  long  pointed  out  the  tree  struck  by  the  arrow,  and  a 
stone  still  commemorates  the  spot  where  it  stood. 

William  was  a  violent  and  tyrannical  prince;  a  perfidious^ 
encroaching,  and  dangerous  neighbour ;  an  unkind  and  ungenerous 
relative.  He  was  equally  prodigal  and  rapacious  in  the  manage- 
ment of  his  treasury ;  and  if  he  possessed  abilities,  he  lay  so  much 
under  the  government  of  impetuous  passions,  that  he  made  little 
use  of  them  in  his  administration.  He  built  a  new  bridge  across 
the  Thames  at  London,  surrounded  the  Tower  with  a  wall,  and 
erected  Westminster  Hall,  which  still  retains  portions  of  the 
original  fabric.  It  was  remarked  in  that  age  that  Richard,  an 
elder  brother  of  William,  had  perished  by  an  accident  in  the  New 
Forest ;  and  that  Richard,  his  nephew,  natural  son  of  duke  Robert, 
had  lately  lost  his  life  in  the  same  place,  after  the  same  manner. 
As  the  Conqueror  had  been  guilty  of  extreme  violence  in  ex- 
pelling the  inhabitants  to  make  room  for  his  game,  popular  belief 
ascribed  the  death  of  his  posterity  to  the  just  vengeance  of  Heaven. 
William  was  killed  August  2nd,  1100,  in  the  13th  year  of  his 
reign,  and  about  the  40th  of  his  age.    He  died  unmarried. 

HENRY  I. 

§  6.  Henbt  L,  sumamed  Beauclerk,  6.  a.d.  1070,  r.  1100-1186. 
— Henry  was  hunting  with  Rufus  in  the  New  Forest  when  intelli- 
gence was  brought  him  of  that  monarch's  death.  Sensible  of  the 
advantage  attending  the  conjuncture,  he  hurried  to  Winchester,  to 
secure  the  royal  treasure.  Without  losing  a  moment,  he  hastened 
to  London,  and  having  assembled  such  of  the  nobles  and  prelates 
as  adhered  to  his  i>arty,  he  was  suddenly  elected,  or  rather  saluted, 
as  king.  In  less  than  three  days  after  his  brother's  death,  he 
was  crowned  by  Maurice,  bishop  of  London  (August  5).  As  the 
barons  would  have  preferred  the  more  popular  rule  of  Kobert, 
who  had  not  yet  returned  from  Palestine,  Henry  resolved,  by  fair 
professions  at  least,  to  gain  the  affections  of  his  subjects.  He 
granted  a  charter,  in  which  he  promised — to  the  church,  that  he 
would  not  seize  the  revenues  of  any  see  or  abbey  during  a  vacancy 
—to  the  barons  and  other  tenants  of  the  crown,  that  he  would 


•  Such  is  the  account,  as  related  by 
the  contemporary  chrotilcler,  Florence  of 
Worcester,  and  his  immediate  follower, 
William  of  Malmesbuiy.    Some  deny  the 


charge  against  Tyrrel.  The  AngloSaxtm 
Chronicle  simply  says  that  William  wai 
shot  "  by  one  of  his  men." 


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A.D.  1100,  1101.       ROBERT  INVADES  ENGLAND.  99 

not  oppress  them  with  unlawful  reliefs — and  to  the  people,  that  ho 
would  observe  the  laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Whilst  attempt- 
hag,  by  granting  special  boons  to  each  order  in  the  state,  to  secure 
the  goodAvill  of  all,  Henry  definitively  committed  himself  to  the 
duties  of  a  national  king.*^  Henry  at  the  same  time  granted  a 
charter  to  London,  which  seems  to  have  been  the  first  step  towards 
rendering  that  city  a  corporation.t 

§  7.  Sensible  of  the  great  authority  acquired  by  Anselm,  Henry 
invited  him  to  return.  On  his  arrival  the  king  had  recourse  to  his 
advice  and  authority  respecting  his  marriage  with  Matilda,  daughter 
of  Malcolm  IIL,  king  of  Scotland,  niece  to  Edgar  iEtheling,  and 
great-granddaughter  of  Edmund  Ironside.  This  lady,  whom  the 
English  called  Edith,  had  been  educated  under  her  aunt  Christina 
in  the  nunnery  of  Romsey.  She  had  taken  the  veil,  but  not  the 
vows  required  of  a  nun,  and  doubts  arose  concerning  the  lawfulness 
of  the  act  contemplated  by  Henry.  The  affair  was  examined  by 
Anselm,  in  a  council  of  the  prelates  and  nobles  summoned  at  Lam- 
beth. Matilda  proved  that  she  had  put  on  the  veil,  not  with  a 
view  of  entering  a  religious  life,  but  as  other  English  ladies  had 
done,  to  protect  her  chastity  from  the  brutal  violence  of  the 
Normans.  The  council  pronounced  that  she  was  free  to  marry; 
and  her  espousals  with  Henry  were  celebrated  by  Anselm  with 
great  pomp  and  solemnity,  to  the  delight  of  his  English  subjects. 
His  marriage  with  the  "good  queen  Maud,"  the  heiress  "of  the 
right  royal  race  of  England  "  as  she  is  styled  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle,  united  the  English  and  Norman  blood  in  the  person 
of  her  grandson,  Henry  II. 

§  8.  Meanwhile  Robert  had  taken  possession  of  Normandy 
without  opposition,  and  immediately  made  preparations  for  re- 
covering England.  The  fame  which  he  had  acquired  in  the  East 
assisted  his  pretensions,  and  many  of  the  Norman  barons,  still 
further  alienated  by  the  king's  marriage,  invited  Robert-  to  take 
the  crown,  and  promised  to  join  him  in  the  attempt  with  all  their 
forces.  At  the  end  of  July,  1101,  Robert  landed  at  Portemouth; 
and  Henry,  who  had  collected  his  forces  chiefly  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  primate,  advanced  to  meet  him.  The  two  armies 
lay  in  sight  of  each  other  for  some  days  without  coming  to  action, 
and  both  princes,  apprehensive  of  the  result,  hearkened  the  more 
willingly  to  the  C(>uu8els  of  Anselm  and  others,  who  mediated  an 
accommodation  between  them.     It  was  agreed  that  Robert  should 


•  The  terra  wtton,  that  is,  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  term  for  any  council  or  aaseoibly  of 
DoUes  and  prelates,  now  drops  out  of  utie, 
and  is  supplanted,  as  in  this  ctiarter,  by 
the  Latin  equivalent  6aroii««.  Thetoitan 


and  harong^  however,  to  whom  Henry 
owed  hin  election,  consist*^  of  four  only. 

f  Both  charters  are  printed  in  Professor 
Stubb^'ii  iMKumenU  UluttnUive  qf  Eng' 
litk  nittory. 


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100  HENRY  L  Oha».  ^ 

resign  his  pretensions  to  England,  and  receive  in  lieu  of  tbem 
an  annual  pension  of  3000  marks ;  that,  if  either  of  the  princes 
died  without  issue,  the  other  should  succeed  to  his  dominions; 
that  the  adherents  of  each  should  be  pardoned  and  restored  to 
their  possessions,  whether  in  Normandy  or  in  England ;  and  that 
neither  Robert  nor  Henry  should  thenceforth  encourage,  receive,  or 
protect  the  euemies  of  the  other. 

§  9.  The  indiscretion  of  Robert  soon  made  him  a  victim  to  Henry's 
ambitious  schemes.  During  the  reign  of  this  indulgent  and  disso- 
lute prince,  Normandy  became  a  scene  of  violence  and  depredation ; 
and  Henry,  finding  that  the  nobility  were  more  disposed  to  pay 
submission  to  him  than  to  their  legal  sovereign,  collected  a  great 
army  and  treasure  in  England,  and  landed  in  Normandy  in  1105. 
In  the  second  campaign  he  g^ned  a  decisive  victory  before  the 
castle  of  Tinchebray,  in  which  nearly  10,000  prisoners  were  taken, 
among  whom  was  Robert  himself,  and  the  most  considerable  barons 
who  adhered  to  his  interests.  This  victory  was  followed  by  the  final 
reduction  of  Normandy  (1106).  Having  received  the  homage  of  all 
the  vassals  of  the  duchy,  Henry  returned  into  England,  and  carried 
the  duke  along  with  him.  The  unfortunate  prince  was  detained 
in  custody  during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  for  no  less  a  period 
than  28  years,  and  died  in  the  castle  of  Cardiff,  in  Glamorganshire 
(1134).  William,  his  only  son,  who  had  also  been  captured,  was 
committed  to  the  care  of  Helie  de  St.  Saen,  who  had  married 
Robertas  natural  daughter,  and,  being  a  man  of  probity  and  honour, 
he  executed  the  trust  with  great  affection  and  fidelity.  To  Edgar 
^theling,  who  had  followed  Robert  in  the  expedition  to  Jerusalem, 
had  lived  with  him  ever  since  in  Normandy,  and  was  taken  at 
Tinchebray,  Henry  granted  his  liberty  and  a  small  pension.  He 
lived  to  a  good  old  age  in  England,  totally  neglected  and  forgotten. 
This  prince  was  distinguished  by  personal  bravery ;  but  nothing  can 
be  a  stronger  proof  of  the  meanness  of  his  talents  than  that  he 
was  allowed  to  live  unmolested  and  go  to  his  grave  in  peace. 

§  10.  A  controversy  had  long  been  depending  between  Henry  and 
Anselm,  with  regard  to  investitures,  liefore  bisliops  took  posses- 
sion of  their  dignities  they  had*  been  accustomed,  since  the  days 
of  Charlemagne,  to  pass  through  two  ceremonies.  From  the  hands 
of  the  sovereign  they  received  a  ring  and  a  crozier,  as  symbols  of 
their  spiritual  office,  and  this  was  called  their  investiture ;  they  also 
made  those  submissions  to  the  sovereign  for  their  lands  which  were 
required  of  all  vassals  by  the  feudal  law,  and  this  act  was  known  by 
the  name  of  homage.  As  the  king  might  refuse  both  investiture  and 
homage,  he  could  neutralize  the  right  of  election  granted  to  the 
chapter  by  the  Lateran  council  of  1059,  and  engross  the  sole  power 


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A.D.  1105-1128.       DEATH  OP  PBINOE  WILLIAM.  101 

of  appointing  prelates.  In  1074  Gregory  VIL  had  forbidden  the 
practice.  His  example  was  followed  by  Pascal  II.,  who  now  filled 
the  papal  throne,  and  who  supported  Anselm  in  his  refusal  to  accept 
investiture  from  Henry's  hands,  and  threatened  to  excommunicate 
the  king  for  persisting  in  his  demands.  But  Henry  had  established 
his  power  so  firmly  in  England  and  Normandy,  that  the  pope  con- 
sented to  a  compromise.  Henry  resigned  the  right  of  granting 
investitures,  by  which  the  spiritual  dignity  was  supposed  to  be 
conferred ;  and  Pascal  allowed  the  bishops  to  do  homage  for  their 
temporal  possessions.  The  pontiff  was  well  pleased  to  have  gained 
this  advantage,  which  he  hoped  would  in  time  secure  the  whole ; 
whilst  the  king,  anxious  to  escape  from  a  dangerous  situation,  was 
content  to  retain  a  substantial  authority  in  the  election  of  prelates. 

§  11.  The  acquisition  of  Normandy  had  been  a  great  object 
of  Henry's  ambition;  but  it  proved  the  source  of  great  dis- 
quietude, involved  him  in  frequent  wars,  and  obliged  him  to 
impose  on  his  English  subjects  those  heavy  and  arbitrary  taxes 
of  which  the  historians  of  that  age  complain.  The  cause  of 
William,  the  son  of  Robert,  was  espoused  by  Louis  the  Fat,  king  of 
France,  and  by  other  continental  princes.  The  wars  which  ensued 
required  Henry's  frequent  presence  in  Normandy ;  and,  though  he 
was  generally  successful,  he  was  not  released  from  anxiety  on  this 
account  till  the  year  1128,  when  his  nephew  was  killed  in  a  skirmish, 
shortly  after  he  had  been  created  count  of  Flanders  by  the  French 
monarch. 

Eight  years  previously,  Henry  had  received  a  terrible  blow  in  the 
loss  of  his  only  son  William.  In  1120  the  king,  having  concluded 
in  Normandy  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  French  king,. set  sail  from 
Barfleur  on  his  return,  and  was  soon  carried  by  a  fair  wind  out  of 
sight  of  land.  His  son  William  nnd  his  young  companions,  who 
were  to  follow  in  a  vessel  called  the  White  Ship,  wasted  the  time 
in  feasting  and  revelry.  On  leaving  the  harbour,  the  ship  was 
heedlessly  carried  on  a  rock,  and  immediately  foundered.  William, 
escaping  in  the  long  boat,  had  got  clear  of  the  ship,  when,  hearing 
the  cries  of  his  natural  sister,  Adela,  countess  of  Perche,  he  ordered 
the  seamen  to  put  back  in  hopes  of  saving  her;  but  the  numbers 
who  crowded  in  sunk  the  boat,  and  the  prince,  with  all  his  retinue, 
perished.  Above  140  young  nobles,  of  the  principal  families  of 
England  and  Normandy,  were  lost  on  this  occasion.  Bertold,  a 
butcher  of  Rouen,  who  alone  escaped  to  tell  the  tale,  cluBg  to  the 
mast,  and  was  taken  up  next  morning  by  fishermen.  Fitz-Stephen, 
the  captain  of  the  ship,  who  had  also  gained  the  mast,  being  in- 
formed by  the  butcher  that  prince  William  was  lost,  refused  to  sur- 
Tive  the  disaster,  and  perished  in  the  sea.    For  three  days  Henry 


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102  HENRY  r.  Chat,  yl 

entertained  hopes  that  his  son  had  escaped  to  some  distant  port 
of  England;  but  when  certain  intelligence  of  the  calamity  was 
brought  him  he  fainted  away;  and  it  was  remarked  that  he 
never  after  was  seen  to  sndle,  nor  ever  recovered  his  former  cheer- 
fulness. 

§  12.  William  left  no  children,  and  the  king  now  turned  his 
thoughts  to  Matilda,  his  only  surviving  child,  whom,  in  1110,  he 
had  betrothed,  though  only  eight  years  of  age,  to  the  emperor 
Henry  V.,  and  had  sent  over  to  be  educated  in  Germany.  The 
king  had  lost  his  consort,  **  the  good  queen  Maud,"  in  1118,  and 
after  the  death  of  his  son  he  was  induced  to  marry,  in  1121, 
Adeljds,  daughter  of  Godfrey,  duke  of  Louvain,  and  niece  of 
pope  Calixtus  IL  As  the  emperor  died  witbout  issue  in  1125, 
Henry  sent  for  his  widowed  daughter,  and  endeavoured  to  insture  her 
succession  by  having  her  recognized  as  heir  to  all  his  dominions, 
and  obliging  the  barons,  both  of  Normandy  and  England,  to 
swear  fealty  to  her  at  Christmas,  1126.  Two  years  later,  motives 
of  policy  led  him  to  give  Matilda  in  marriage  to  Geoffrey  the  Hand- 
some, son  of  his  most  formidable  enemy,  Fulk,  count  of  Anjou* 
Geoffrey  succeeded  his  father  in  1129;  and  in  1131  Henry  brought 
Matilda  to  England,  and  caused  the  nobles  to  renew  their  oath 
to  her  at  Northampton.  In  113*3  she  bore  a  son,  at  I^  Mans, 
who  was  named  Henry  after  bis  grandfather.  During  the  latter 
years  of  his  reign  Henry  resided  chiefly  in  Normandy,  where  he 
died  December  1,  1135,  from  a  surfeit  of  lampreys,  in  the  67th 
year  of  his  age,  and  the  3oth  of  his  reign.  By  his  will  he  left 
Matilda  heir  of  all  his  dominions,  without  making  any  mention 
of  her  husband  Geoffi-ey,  who  had  given  him  several  causes  of 
displeasure.  His  body  was  carried  to  England,  and  interred  at 
Reading,  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Mary,  which  he  had  founded. 

Henry,  like  his  father,  was  a  monarch  of  great  ability,  and 
possessed  many  qualities  both  of  body  and  mind,  natural  and 
acquired,  fitted  for  the  high  station  to  which  he  attained.  His 
person  was  manly,  his  countenance  engaging,  his  eyes  clear,  serene^ 
and  penetrating.  From  his  early  progress  in  letters  he  acquired 
the  name  of  Beauchrc,  or  the  Scholar ;  but  his  application  to  such 
sedentary  pursuits  abated  nothing,  in  after  life,  of  the  activity 
and  vigilance  of  his  government.  He  carried  the  oppressions  of  the 
forest  laws  to  an  extreme,  and,  though  he  restrained  the  tyranny 
of  his  nobles,  he  set  no  limits  to  his  own  arbitrary  and  avaricious 
temper.  He  was  susceptible  of  the  sentiments  as  well  of  friendship 
as  of  resentment ;  but  his  conduct  towards  his  brother  and  nephew 
showed  that  he  was  too  disposed  to  sacrifice  to  his  ambition  all  tho 
dictates  of  justice  and  equity. 


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▲J).  liaO-1185.  STEPHEN.  103 

§  13.  Stephen,  b.  a.d.  1096,  r.  1135-1154.— Adela,  fourth 
daughter  of  William  the  Conqueror,  had  heen  married  to  Stephen, 
count  of  Blois,  and  had  brought  him  several  sons,  among  whom 
Henry  and  Stephen,  the  two  now  surviving,  had  been  invited  over 
to  England  by  the  late  king.  Henry  was  created  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, and  Stephen  was  endowed  with  great  estates.  In  1107  the 
king  married  him  to  Matilda,  daughter  and  heir  of  Eustace,  count 
of  Boulogne,  who  brought  him,  besides  a  feudal  sovereignty  in 
France,  immense  property  in  England.  Stephen,  in  return,  pro- 
fessed great  attachment  to  his  uncle,  and  had  been  among  the 
first  to  take  the  oath  for  the  succession  of  Matilda.  But  no  sooner 
had  Henry  breathed  his  last,  than,  insensible  to  all  the  ties  of 
gratitude  and  fidelity,  he  hastened  over  to  England,  and  stopped  not 
till  he  arrived  in  London,  where  he  was  hailed  by  the  citissens  as  their 
deliverer,  and  immediately  saluted  king.  This  irregular  election 
was  confirmed  by  the  nobles,  who  disliked  Matilda  and  her  Angevin 
marriage,  and  hoped  for  license  under  a  sovereign  who  had  a  doubt- 
ful title  and  an  easy  temper.  It  was  pretended  that  the  late  king 
on  his  deathbed  had  disinherited  Matilda,  and  had  expressed  an 
intention  of  leaving  Stephen  heir  to  all  his  dominions.  William, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  with  some  misgivings,  placed  the  crown 
upon  Stephen's  head  on  St.  Stephen's  Day  (December  26). 

To  secure  the  favour  of  his  subjects,  and  strengthen  his  tottering 
throne,  Stephen  granted  a  charter,  and  promised  to  maintain  the 
immunities  of  the  church,  the  laws  and  liberties  of  his  subjects, 
and  to  observe  the  good  customs  of  the  Confessor.  He  invited  over 
from  the  continent,  particularly  from  Brittany  and  Flanders, 
great  numbers  of  mercenary  and  disorderly  soldiers,  with  whom 
every  country  in  Europe  at  that  time  abounded ;  and  he  procured  a 
bull  from  Rome,  which  ratified  his  title. 

§  14.  Matilda  and  her  husband,  Geoffrey,  were  as  unfortunate  in 
Normandy  as  they  had  been  in  England.  The  Norman  nobility, 
hearing  that  Stephen  had  obtained  the  English  crown,  put  him  in 
possession  of  their  government.  Even  Robert,  earl  of  Gloucester, 
natural  son  of  the  late  king,  who  was  much  attached  to  the  in- 
terests of  his  sister  Matilda  and  zealous  for  the  lineal  succession, 
submitted  to  Stephen,  and  took  the  oath  of  fealty,  but  with  an 
express  condition  that  his  rights  and  dignities  should  be  preserved 
inviolate.  In  return  for  their  submission,  Stephen  aUowed  many  of 
the  barons  to  fortify  castles  and  put  themselves  in  a  posture  of 
defence.  As  the  king  found  himself  totally  unable  to  refuse  these 
exorbitant  demands,  England  was  immediately  filled  with  fortresses, 
which  the  nobles  garrisoned  either  with  their  vassals,  or  with 
mercenary  soldiers,  who  flocked  to  them  from  all  quarters. 


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104  STEPHEN.  Chap.  m. 

In  1188  David,  king  of  Scotland,  appeared  at  the  bead  of  an 
army  in  defence  of  his  niece's  title,  and  penetrated  into  Yorkshire, 
where  his  wild  Gralwegians  and  Highlanders  committed  the  most 
barbarous  ravages.  Enraged  by  this  cruelty,  the  northern  clergy 
and  nobility  assembled  an  army,  with  which  they  encamped  at 
Northallerton,  and  awaited  the  arrival  of  the  enemy.  A  great 
battle  was  fought,  called  the  battle  of  the  Standard,  from  the 
consecrated  banners  of  St.  Cuthbert  of  Durham,  St.  Peter  of  York, 
St.  John  of  Beverley,  and  St.  Wilfrid  of  Ripon,  which  were  erected 
by  the  English  on  a  waggon,  and  carried  along  with  the  army  as  a 
military  ensign.  The  king  of  Scots  was  defeated,  and  he  himself, 
as  well  as  his  son  Henry,  narrowly  escaped  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  English  (August  22, 1138). 

§  15.  This  success  might  have  given  some  stability  to  Stephen's 
throne,  had  he  not,  with  incredible  imprudence,  engaged  in  a 
controversy  with  the  clergy.  In  imitation  of  the  nobility,  the 
bishops  of  Salisbury,  Ely,  and  Lincoln  had  erected  strong  fortresses, 
and  Stephen,  who  was  now  sensible  from  experience  of  the  mischiefs 
attending  these  multiplied  citadels,  resolved  to  begin  with  destroy- 
ing those  of  the  clergy.  Accordingly,  he  first  seized  the  bishops  of 
Salisbury  and  Lincoln,  threw  them  into  prison,  and  obliging  them 
by  menaces  to  deliver  up  the  strongholds  they  had  lately  erected, 
he  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  bishop  of  Ely.  To  the  surprise  of 
Stephen,  the  cause  of  the  prelates  was  espoused  by  his  own  brother, 
Henry,  bishop  of  Winchester,  and  papal  legate.  At  a  synod  assembled 
at  Winchester,  complaints  were  made  of  the  king's  proceedings,  and 
Stephen  promised  redress  ;  but  the  empress  Matilda,  invited  by  this 
opportunity,  and  encouraged  by  the  legate  him.«4elf,  had  now  landed 
in  England,  with  Robert,  earl  of  Gloucester  (who  had  renounced  his 
alliance  the  year  before),  and  a  small  retinue  of  knights  (1139). 
She  fixed  her  residence  first  at  Arundel  castle.  The  gates  were 
opened  to  her  by  Adelais,  her  stepmother.  Many  barons  declared 
for  her,  and  open  war  broke  out  between  the  two  parties.  A  fright- 
ful state  of  anarchy  ensued.  The  castles  of  the  nobility  had  become 
receptacles  of  licensed  robbers,  who,  salljing  forth  day  and  night, 
committed  spoil  in  the  open  country,  the  defenceless  villages,  and 
even  the  cities.  They  put  their  captives  to  torture,  in  order  to 
make  them  reveal  their  treasures;  sold  their  persons  into  slavery; 
and  set  fire  to  their  houses  after  they  had  pillaged  them  of  every- 
thing valuable.  The  land  was  left  untilled;  the  instruments  of 
husbandry  were  destroyed  or  abandoned ;  and  a  grievous  famine, 
the  natural  result  of  those  disorders,  affected  equally  both  parties, 
and  reduced  the  spoilers  and  their  victims  to  the  extremity  of 
indigence  and  hunger. 


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MJK  1188-1150.  FLIGHT  OF  MATILDA.  105 

The  unexpected  capture  of  Stephen  himself  by  the  earl  of 
Gloucester,  at  Lincoln,  seemed  to  promise  an  end  to  these 
calamities.  He  was  conducted  to  Gloucester,  and,  though  at 
first  treated  with  humanity,  was  soon  after  loaded  with  irons, 
and  imprisoned  at  Bristol  (1141).  The  claims  of  Matilda  were 
solemnly  recognized  in  a  synod  held  at  Winchester  by  Stephen's 
brother,  the  legate.  The  Londoners,  who  clamoured  in  vain  for 
Stephen's  release,  were  obliged  to  submit ;  and  Matilda's  authority, 
by  the  prudence  of  earl  Robert,  seemed  to  be  established  over  the 
whole  kingdom.  But  besides  the  disadvantage  of  her  sex,  which 
weakened  her  influence  over  a  turbulent  and  martial  people,  Matilda 
was  of  a  passionate,  imperious  spirit,  and  knew  not  how  to  temper 
with  afifability  the  harshness  of  a  refusal.  Stephen's  queen,  seconded 
by  many  of  the  nobility,  and  by  the  citizens  of  Tendon,  petitioned 
for  the  liberty  of  her  husband,  and  imdertook  that  on  (his  con- 
dition he  should  renounce  the  crown  and  retire  into  a  convent. 
The  offended  legate,  who  desired  that  his  nephew  Eustace  might 
inherit  Boulogne  and  the  other  patrimonial  estates  of  his  father, 
retired  to  Winchester  in  disgust,  and  sided  with  Stephen's  partisans. 
The  Londoners  were  alienated  by  a  heavy  fine  imposed  upon  them 
for  the  support  they  had  given  to  Stephen.  To  check  the  designs 
of  the  legate,  he  was  besieged  by  the  empress  at  Winchester. 
The  bishop  held  his  palace  and  Maud  the  castle ;  and  the  burning 
of  that  ancient  capital  put  an  end  to  its  rivalry  with  London. 
At  length  the  legate,  having  joined  his  force  to  that  of  the 
Londoners,  besieged  Matilda.  Hard  pressed  by  famine,  she  made  her 
escape ;  but  in  the  flight  earl  Robert,  her  brother,  while  covering  her 
retreat,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  This  nobleman  was  as 
much  the  life  and  soul  of  one  party,  as  Stephen  was  of  the  other;  and 
Matilda,  sensible  of  his  merit  and  importance,  consented  to  exchange 
prisoners  on  equal  terms  (Nov.  1, 1141).  Next  year  the  civil  war 
was  again  kindled  with  greater  fiiry  than  ever.  Matilda  retired  to 
Oxford,  was  besieged  by  the  legate,  and  escaped  through  the  snow 
to  Walsingford,  scantily  attended  (Dec.  20).  The  war  continued  to 
rage  for  throe  years  longer  with  variable  success;  the  empress 
holding  the  west  of  England,  and  Stephen  the  east  and  London, 
the  barons  being  too  disaflected  towards  both  to  bring  the  contest 
to  a  decision.  Earl  Robert  died  in  1145,  and  the  empress  retired 
into  Normandy  (1146). 

S  16.  In  1149  Matilda's  son,  Henry  of  Anjou,  proceeded  into 
Scotland,  from  which  place  he  made  various  incursions  into  England, 
but  with  little  success.  By  his  dexterity  and  vigour,  his  valour  in 
war,  and  his  prudent  conduct,  he  roused  the  hopes  of  his  party,  and 
gave  indications  of  those  great  qualities  which  he  afterwards  dis- 


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106  STEPHEN.  Chap.  ti. 

played  when  he  mounted  the  throne.  After  his  return  to  Normandy 
he  was,  by  Matilda's  consent,  invested  with  the  duchy,  and  upon 
the  death  of  his  father,  Geoffirey,  in  1150,  he  took  possession  of 
Anjou.  His  dominions  were  still  further  augmented  by  his  marriage 
with  Eleanor,  daughter  and  heir  of  William,  duke  of  Guienne 
and  count  of  Poitou  (1152),  whom  Louis  VIL  of  France  had 
divorced  on  account  of  the  levity  of  her  conduct.  By  this 
marriage  he  obtained  possession  of  Guienne,  Poitou,  and  other 
provinces  in  the  south  of  France  included  under  the  name  of 
Aquitaine.  Enabled  to  push  his  fortunes  in  England  with  greater 
chance  of  success,  Henry  was  encouraged  to  make  an  invasion ;  and 
landing  in  England  at  the  end  of  1152,  he  gained  some  advantages 
over  Stephen,  who  had  finally  broken  with  the  church  by  his 
attempt  to  procure  the  coronation  of  his  son  Eustace,  which  had 
been  forbidden  by  a  papal  bull  obtained  by  archbishop  Theobald. 
A  decisive  action  was  every  day  expected;  when  the  great  men 
of  both  sides,  and  especially  the  archbishop  and  Henry,  the  legate, 
terrified  at  the  prospect  of  further  bloodshed  and  confusion,  inter- 
posed with  their  good  offices,  and  set  on  foot  a  negociation  between 
the  rival  princes.  The  death  of  Stephen's  son,  Eustace  (August 
18),  fiicilitated  arrangements.  It  was  agreed  by  the  treaty  of 
Wallingford  that  Stephen  should  enjoy  the  crown  during  his  life- 
time, and  that  upon  his  demise  Henry  should  succeed  to  the 
kingdom  (November,  1153).  After  all  the  barons  had  sworn  to 
the  observance  of  this  treaty,  and.  done  homage  to  Henry,  as  heir 
to  the  crown,  that  prince  evacuated  the  kingdom ;  and  the  death  of 
Stephen,  which  happened  the  next  year  after  a  short  illness 
(October  25,  1154),  prevented  all  those  quarrels  and  jealousies 
which  were  likely  to  have  ensued  from  so  delicate  a  situation, 

WBngland  suffered  great  miseries  during  the  reign  of  this  prince, 
but  his  personal  character  was  not  liable  to  any  groat  exception. 
He  possessed  industry,  activity,  and  courage  to  a  great  degree. 
Though  not  endowed  with  a  sound  judgment,  he  was  not  deficient 
in  abilities.  He  had  the  talent  of  gaining  men's  affections ;  and 
notwithstanding  his  precarious  situation,  he  never  indulged  himself 
in  the  exercise  of  cruelty  or  revenge.  He  is  commonly  branded  as  a 
usurper ;  but  as  the  right  of  direct  lineal  sucession  was  not  firmly 
established  till  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  his  seizing  of  the  crown^ 
regarded  in  itself,  was  no  more  an  act  of  usurpation  than  that  of 
his  two  predecessors.  He  must,  however,  be  condeirned  for  breaking 
his  oath  of  fealty  to  Matilda,  the  daughter  of  Ms  benefactor. 


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HflDiy  II.    From  his  moDament  at  Fontefnol* 

CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  EARLY  I^LANTAGENET  KINGS. 

HENRY   11.   AND  RICHARD   I.      A.D.    1154-1199. 

(  1.  Accession  of  Henrt  II.  First  acts  of  his  government.  §  2.  His  war 
and  acquisitions  in  France.  §  ^.  Ecclesiovstical  disputes.  Thoma.* 
Becket.  §  4.  Constitutions  of  Clarendon.  §  5.  Opposed  by  Becket. 
§  6.  Compromise  with  Becket  and  return  of  that  prelate.  §  7.  Becket 
assassinated.  §  8.  (irief  and  submission  of  the  king.  §  9.  Conquest  ol 
Ireland.  §  10.  Revolt  of  the  young  king  Henry  and  his  brothers.  §  IL 
Henry's  penance  at  the  tomb  of  Becket.  Peace  with  hif  sons.  §  12. 
Death  of  the  young  king  Henry.  §  13.  Preparations  for  a  CrusaAe. 
Family  misfortunes  and  death  of  the  king.  His  character.  §  14.  Acces- 
sion of  Richard  i.  Preparations  for  the  Crusade.  §  15.  Adventures 
on  the  voyage.  §  16.  Transactions  in  Palestine.  §  17.  The  king's 
return  and  captivity  in  Germany.  His  brother  John  and  Philip  of 
France  invade  his  dominions.  §  18.  Liberation  of  Richard  and  return  to 
England.     §  19.  War  with  France.     Death  and  character  of  the  king. 

§1.  Henry  II.,  b.  1133;  r.  1154-1189.— Henry  IL,  who  now 
ascended  the  throne,  was  the  first  monarch  of  the  house  of  the 
Plantagenets,  whose  name  was  derived  from  the  pianta  genista,  the 
Spanish  broom-f)lant,  a  sprig  of  which  was  commonly  worn  in 
his  hat  by  Geoflfrcy,  Henry's  father.  The  Plantagenets  reigned 
over  England  for  more  than  three  centuries,  and  to  this  family  all 
the  English  mouarchs  belonged  from  Henry  II.  to  Richard  IH. 
Ou©^  1154-1485) ;  but  after  the  deposition  of  Richard  II.  the  liD6 


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108  HENRY  n.  Chap.  tii. 

was  divided  into  the  houses  of  Lancaster  and  York.  To  Lancaster 
belonged  Henry  IV.,  Henry  V.,  and  Henry  VI.  (131*9-1461),  and 
to  York  Edward  IV.,  Edward  V.,  and  Richard  IIL  (1461-1485). 
The  name  of  Plantagenet  was  especially  used  as  a  distinctiro 
sumaroe  by  Edward  IV.  Henry  II.  and  his  two  sons  are  also 
called  Angevtns,  They  were  more  intimately  connected  with 
France  by  their  character  and  possessions  than  even  the  Norman 
princes,  and  it  was  not  till  the  loss  of  Normandy  under  John, 
that  the  interests  of  the  royal  house  were  exclusively  centred  in 
England. 

No  opposition  was  offered  to  the  accession  of  Henry.  He  was  in 
Normandy  at  the  time  of  Stophen*s  death,  and  upon  his  arrival 
in  England  he  was  received  with  the  acclamations  of  all  orders  of 
men.  He  was  crowned  on  Sunday,  the  19th  of  December.  The 
first  acts  of  his  government  corresponded  to  the  idea  entertained 
of  his  abilities,  and  prognosticated  the  re-establishment  of  that 
justice  and  tranquillity,  of  which  the  kingdom  had  so  long  been 
bereaved.  He  dismissed  the  mercenary  soldiers  who  had  committed 
great  disorders ;  revoked  all  grants  made  by  his  predecessor,  even 
those  which  necessity  had  extorted  from  the  empress  Matilda; 
and  he  reformed  the  coin,  which  had  been  extremely  debased  during 
the  reign  of  his  predecessor.  He  was  rigorous  in  the  execution  of 
justice,  and  in  the  suppression  of  robbery  and  violence.  To  main- 
tain bis  authority,  he  caused  all  the  newly  erected  castles  to  be 
demolished,  which  had  proved  so  many  sanctuaries  for  freebooters 
and  rebels. 

§  2.  The  continental  possessions  of  Henry  were  far  more  exten- 
sive than  those  of  any  of  his  predecessors.  In  the  right  of  his 
father,  he  held  Anjou,  Maine,  and  Touraine ;  in  that  of  his  mother, 
Normandy ;  in  the  right  of  his  wife,  Guienne,  Poitou,  Saintogne, 
Auvergne,  Perigord,  Angoumois,  and  the  Limousin.  These  pro- 
vinces composed  above  a  third  of  the  whole  of  France,  and  were 
much  superior,  in  extent  and  opulence,  to  the  territories  imme- 
diately subjected  to  the  jurisdiction  and  government  of  the  French 
monarch.  On  the  deatli  of  his  brother  Geoffrey  in  1168,  Henry 
laid  claim  to  Nantes,  which  had  been  put  into  Geoffrey's  hands 
by  the  inhabitants,  after  they  had  expelled  count  Hoel,  their  former 
prince.  That  Louis  VII.  might  not  interpose  and  obstruct  his 
design,  Henry  paid  him  a  visit,  and  by  the  skilful  diplomacy  of 
Thomas  k  Becket  it  was  arranged  that  young  Henry,  heir  to  the 
English  monarchy,  should  be  affianced  to  Margaret  of  France, 
though  the  former  was  only  five  years  of  age  and  the  latter  was 
still  in  her  cradle.  Secure  against  all  interruption  on  this  side, 
Henry  now  advanced  with  an  army  into  Brittany.    The  duke  ConcD, 


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iuD.  1154-1163.  THOMAS  1  BECKET.  109 

in  despair  of  being  able  to  resist^  not  only  delirered  up  tbe  county 
of  Nantes,  which  he  had  seized  on  pretence  of  being  wrongfully 
dispossessed,  but  also  betrothed  his  daughter  and  only  child,  yet  an 
infant,  to  Geofifrey,  tbe  king's  third  son,  who  was  of  the  same 
tender  years.  On  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Brittany,  about  seven 
years  after,  Henry,  as  mesne  lord  and  natural  guardian  to  his  son 
and  daughter-in-law,  took  possession  of  that  principality,  and  an- 
nexed it  to  his  other  dominions. 

§  3.  In  1162  commenced  the  long  and  memorable  struggle  be- 
tween Henry  II.  and  Thomas  4  Becket 

Thomas  Becket,  or  k  Becket,  as  he  is  generally  called,  was  the 
first  man  of  English  birth  who,  since  the  Korman  conquest,  had 
risen  to  any  considerable  station.  He  was  bora  (1119)  of  respect- 
able parents,  in  the  city  of  London ;  *  was  educated  by  the  prior 
of  Merton,  sent  to  Oxford,  and  afterwards  to  Paris.  Introduced  into 
the  household  of  archbishop  Theobald,  he  readily  acquired  great  in- 
fluence over  the  primate;  was  enabled  by  his  means  to  study  juris- 
prudence at  Bologna ;  and  on  his  return  to  England  was  promoted 
to  the  archdeaconry  of  Canterbury,  to  the  provostship  of  Beverley, 
and  other  valuable  preferments.  His  genius,  intrepidity,  and  know- 
ledge of  the  law,  were  of  great  service  to  Theobald  in  the  trouble- 
some times  of  king  Stephen ;  and  shortly  after  Henry's  accession, 
he  was  recommended  by  his  patron  to  the  new  king's  notice.  He 
soon  ingratiated  himself  with  Henry,  as  he  had  done  with  the 
archbishop,  and  in  1157  was  appointed  chancellor.  Besides  this 
high  office,  he  held  several  baronies  that  had  escheated  to  the 
crown;  and,  to  enhance  his  greatness,  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
education  of  Henry,  the  king*s  eldest  son,  and  heir  to  the  monarchy. 
The  pomp  of  his  retinue,  the  sumptuousness  of  his  furniture,  the 
luxury  of  his  table,  the  munificence  of  his  presents,  corresponded 
to  these  great  preferments.  His  historian  and  secretary,  Fitz- 
Stephen,  mentions,  among  other  particulars,  that  his  apartments 
were  every  day  in  winter  covered  with  clean  straw  or  hay,  and 
in  summer  with  green  rushes  or  boughs,  lest  the  gentlemen  who 
paid  court  to  him,  and  could  not,  by  reason  of  their  great  number, 
find  a  place  at  table,  should  soil  their  fine  clothes  by  sitting  on 
the  floor.  A  great  number  of  knights  were  retained  in  his  sei-vice ; 
the  greatest  barons  were  proud  of  being  received  at  his  table ;  his 
house  was  a  place  of  education  for  the  sons  of  the  chief  nobility ; 
and  the  king  himself  frequently  vouchsafed  to  partake  of  his 
entertainments,  and  lay  aside  with  bis  favourite  the  dignity  of 
royalty. 

Becket,  who  by  his  complaisance  and  good  humour  had  rendered 

•  j^  aBODjiBoai  aoihor  tute*  Uut  hit  partnto  htA  migrated  from  Nofmandj. 

7 


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110  HENRY  11.  Chap,  va 

himself  agreeable,  and  by  his  industry  and  abilities  useful,  to  his 
master,  api)eared  to  be  the  fittest  person  for  supplying  the  vacancy 
caused  by  the  death  of  Theobald.  As  he  was  well  acquainted  with 
the  king's  intentions  of  retrenching  the  ecclesiastical  privileges  of  the 
clergy,  licury  never  exjieciing  any  resistance,  immediately  issued 
orders  for  electing  Becket  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (May  24, 11G2). 
Nor  was  he  inclined  to  waver  in  his  purpose,  though  Becket,  it  ia 
said,  had  warned  him  not  to  expect  from  him,  as  archbishop,  the 
same  undivided  devotion  to  the  royal  interests  he  had  exhibited  as 
chancellor.  No  sooner  was  he  installed  in  this  new  dignity,  than 
he  altered  his  demeanour  and  conduct.  Without  waiting  for 
Henry's  return  from  Normandy,  he  resigned  Into  his  hands  his 
commission  as  chancellor  ;  and  he  now  stood  forth  as  the  champion 
of  the  church,  the  assertor  of  its  rights,  and  of  his  own  privileges,  as 
the  highest  constitutional  adviser  of  the  crown.  He  maintained, 
in  his  retinue  and  attendants  at  his  table  and  in  public,  his  ancient 
ponip  and  lustre ;  but  in  his  own  jwrson  he  practised  the' greatest 
austerity.  He  wore  sackcloth  next  his  skin  ;  was  strictly  temperate 
in  his  diet,  and  abundant  in  his  charity  to  the  jxwr,  feeding  them 
with  the  dishes  from  his  own  table.  In  person,  or  by  deputy, 
he  washed  daily  on  his  knees,  in  imitation  of  Christ,  the  feet  of 
thirteen  lK'<:i;ars.  Relying  on  a  sort  of  promise  nuide  to  him  by 
the  king,  the  new  archbishop  proceeded  to  demand  from  his  former 
associates  the  restitution  of  estates  belonging  to  his  see,  which  he 
accused  them  of  retaining  unjustly. 

He  thus  became  embarked,  as  he  had  been  in  the  days  of 
Tlieobald,  in  defence  of  the  church's  rights  ngainst  the  powerful 
bai"ons ;  and  as  the  king  was  equally  zealous  in  maintairiiiig  and 
augmenting  the  power  of  the  monarchy,  a  rupture  beween  them 
became  imminent.  The  tenants  in  chief  in  different  counties 
had  Ix'cn  accustomed  to  pay  two  shillings  for  every  hide  of  land 
to  the  sheriffs,  as  a  voluntary  gift,  for  their  own  security.  This 
money  the  king  desired  to  confiscate  to  his  own  use,  and  thus 
convert  a  voluntary  into  a  compulsory  tax.  He  hroached  this 
proposal  at  a  council  at  Woo<lstock,  and  when  all  stood  blank  with 
astonishment,  Becket  ventured  to  object.  "  By  God's  eyes !  "  said 
the  king,  "  it  shall  be  paid  as  I  require."  **  By  the  rev  erence  of 
those  eyes  by  which  you  have  sworn,"  replied  the  archbishop, 
"  it  shall  never  be  paid  from  my  lands  whilst  I  am  alive."  **  He 
carried  his  point,"  says  Professor  Pearson,  "  and  is  the  first  English- 
man on  record  who  defeated  an  unjust  tax."  • 

•  Hist,  of  England,  i.  495.  See  Roger  |  to  was  the  Danegeld ;  but  thto  supposltioD 
of  Pountoney,  p.  113,  and  Grim,  21.  Pro-  is  irreconcilable  with  tbe  statements  «l 
feasor  Stubbe  thinks  that  the  lax  referrtd  '  Qrim  and  Roger. 


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A.D.  1162-1164.    CONSTITUTIONS  OF  CLABENDON.  Ill 

Three  months  after,  a  fresh  quarrel  ensued.  Since  the  Conquest 
tiie  spiritual  and  temporal  jurisdiction  had  heen  sharply  divided.  The 
priest  was  no  longer  to  judge  the  ofiFences  of  laymen,  and  by  parity 
of  argument^  the  layman  was  not  to  judge  the  priest.  But  whilst 
the  temporal  laws  were  severe,  and  could  restrain  crime  by  death  or 
mutilation,  the  clerical  tribunals  were  regulated  by  the  milder  code 
of  the  canon  law,  which  forbad  the  shedding  of  blood.  Its  utmost 
censure  proceeded  no  farther  than  degrading  the  ecclesiastic  and 
reducing  him  to  the  condition  of  I  he  laity,  when  he  might  be 
punished  by  the  lay  tribunals  for  a  fresh  offence,  but  not  for  any 
he  had  fonncrly  committed.  In  the  disorders  of  the  last  reign 
discipline  had  been  wholly  relaxed,  and  many  unworthy  clerks  had 
entered  the  church  to  shelter  themselves  and  iheir  crimes  under  its 
immunities.  Henry  proposed,  at  a  council  at  Westminster  (1103), 
that  clerks  guilty  of  felony  should  be  degraded,  and  then  handed 
over  to  ihe  lay  tribunals,  to  be  hanged  or  mutilated,  as  justice 
might  require.  The  proposal  was  opposed  by  Becket,  as  contrary 
to  the  customs  of  the  nation  and  the  privileges  of  the  church.  He 
insisted  that  clerks  should  be  tried  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  and 
be  degraded  if  found  guilty,  but  not  be  punished  twice  for  the 
same  offence.  Shortly  after  the  king  required  of  the  bishoiw  and 
clergy  to  observe  the  laws  of  his  grandfather,  Henry  I.  But  as  no 
one  could  tell  what  those  laws  were,  and  to  allow  them  to  be  deter- 
mined by  secular  judges  would  have  surrendered  the  whole  question 
in  dispute,  Becket  prevailed  upon  the  bishops  to  consent,  '*  saving 
the  honour  of  God  and  their  order."  The  king  dismissed  the 
assembly  in  wrath,  took  from  the  archbishop  the  manors  of  Eye  and 
Berkhampstead,  and  persistently  refused  all  his  offers  of  recon- 
ciliation. 

§  4.  Resolved  to  carry  out  his  purpose,  Henry  summoned  a 
general  council  of  the  nobility  and  prelates  at  Clarendon  (January 
25,  1164),  when  the  laws,  commonly  called  the  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon*  were  enacted.  They  consisted  of  16  articles,  of  which 
the  following  are  the  most  important : — That  bishops  and  abbots 
should  do  homage  to  the  king,  as  their  liege  lord — that  they 
should  not  appeal  to  Rome,  or  quit  the  country  without  his  leave — 
that  they  should  neither  be  elected  without  his  consent,  nor  excom- 
municate any  tenant  in  capitff  without  the  king's  jjermission — that 
the  sons  of  serfs  should  not  be  ordained  without  consent  of  their 
jord — finally,  that  the  clergy  should  be  amenable  to  the  king's 
courts  in  all  causes  not  exclusively  spiritual. 

§  5.  To  these  articles,  which  seemed  to  aim  at  the  independence 

*  The  A»$ite  of  Clarendon  was  not  I  Om*txtut%on*  will  Ito  found  lu  Stubbe, 
iMned  till  the  year  1166.    ThiB  and  the  |  DocwmcnU,  Jcc.,  p.  129. 


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112  HENRY  IL  Ohap.  VU 

ctf  the  church — ^the  only  body  which,  in  the  absence  of  parliament 
or  public  opinion,  could  at  that  time  exercise  any  moral  control 
over  kings  or  their  officers — Becket  demurred.  Moved  at  last  by 
the  entreaties  of  his  brethren,  whom  the  king  had  terrified  into 
compliance,  the  primate  gave  a  reluctant  and  genera]  consent,  but 
immediately  repented  of  his  act.  He  redoubled  his  penance,  sus- 
pended himself  from  ofifering  mass,  and  wrote  to  the  pope  for 
absolution.  Resolved  upon  his  ruin,  the  king  summoned  a  coimcil 
at  Northampton  (Oct.  6,  1164).  Becket  was  condenmed  for  not 
having  personally  appeared  to  a  suit  instituted  against  him 
respecting  certain  lands,  and  as  wanting  in  the  fealty  he  had 
sworn  to  his  sovereign.  His  goods  and  chattels  were  confiscated. 
Not  content  with  this  sentence,  the  king  further  demanded  of  him, 
on  various  pretexts,  large  sums  of  money;  and  finally  required 
him  to  give  in  the  accounts  of  his  administration  while  chancellor^ 
and  to  pay  the  balance  due  from  the  revenues  of  all  the  prelacies, 
abbeys,  and  baronies  which  had,  during  that  time,  been  subjected 
to  his  management.  By  the  advice  of  the  bishop  of  Winchester, 
Becket  offered  2000  marks  as  a  general  satisfaction  for  all  demands; 
but  his  offer  was  rejected.  On  the  seventh  and  last  day  of  the 
council  (Oct.  13),  the  archbishop  entered  the  king's  hall,  bearing 
his  cross  before  him.  It  was  imderstood  that  he  had  come  to 
forbid  his  suflragans  to  take  any  further  part  in  the  proceedings. 
Fierce  words  ensued.  As  he  moved  to  the  door,  the  nobles  cried 
out,  "  Traitor  and  perjurer ; "  but  the  people  fell  on  their  knees  and 
implored  his  blessing.  Considering  his  life  in  danger,  he  asked 
Henry's  permission  to  leave  Northampton.  On  his  refusal,  he  with- 
drew secretly,  proceeded  to  the  Kentish  coast  disguised  as  a  monk, 
under  the  name  of  Brother  Christian,  and  at  last  took  shipping 
and  arrived  safely  at  Gravelines.  Henry  revenged  himself  by 
sequestrating  the  revenues  of  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  banishing 
the  adherents  and  kinsfolk  of  the  archbishop,  to  the  number  of 
400,  in  the  depth  of  winter. 

§  6.  Louis  VII.,  king  of  France,  jealous  of  the  rising  greatness  of 
Henry,  and  the  pope,  whose  interests  were  more  immediately  con- 
cerned in  supporting  Becket,  received  him  with  the  greatest  marks 
of  distinction.  A  war  ensued  between  Louis  and  Henry;  and  the 
pope  menaced  Henry  with  excommunication.  In  1169  peace  was 
concluded  between  the  two  monarchs;  and  the  pope  and  Henry 
began  at  last  to  perceive  that,  in  the  present  situation  of  affairs, 
neither  of  them  could  expect  a  final  and  decisive  victory.  After 
many  ncgociations,  all  difficulties  were  adjusted  (July,  1170).  The 
king  allowed  Becket  to  return,  after  six  years*  banishment.  But 
the  king  attained  not  that  tranquillity  he  had  hoped.     During 


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1164-1170. 


BBCKET  S  RETURN. 


118 


the  heat  of  his  quarrel  with  Beckct,  uhile  he  was  every  day 
expecting  excommunication,  he  had  thought  it  prudent  to  have 
his  son  Henry,  now  fifteen  years  old,  associated  with  him  in  the 
kingdom.  He  was  consequently  crowned  hy  Roger,  archbishop  of 
York  (June  14,  1170).*  But  Becket,  claiming  the  sole  right,  as 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  of  officiating  in  the  coronation,  had  in- 
hibited all  the  prelates  of  England  from  assisting  at  the  ceremony, 
and  had  procured  from  the  pope  a  mandate  to  the  same  purposa 
On  his  arrival  in  England  on  the  first  of  December,  he  notified  to 
the  archbishop  of  York  the  sentence  of  suspension,  and  to  the 
bishops  of  London  and  Salisbury  that  of  excommunication,  which, 
at  his  solicitation,  the  pope  had  pronounced  against  them.  As  he 
proceeded  to  take  possession  of  his  diocese,  he  was  received  in 
Rochester,  and  all  the  towns  through  which  he  passeil,  with  the 
shouts  and  acclamations  of  the  populace.  In  Southwark  the 
clergy,  the  laity,  men  of  all  ranks  and  ages,  came  forth  to  meet 
him,  and  celebrated  with  hymns  of  joy  his  triumphant  return. 

f  7.  Arriving  at  his  see,  he  found  that  the  property  hml  been 
grievously  wasted  in  his  absence  by  Ranulph  de  Broc,  the  se- 
questrator appointed  by  the  king,  and  he  fulminated  the  church's 
censures  against  the  offender.  Meanwhile,  the  suspended  and 
excommunicated  prelates  arrived  at  Bur,  near  Bayeux,  where 
the  king  then  resided,  and  complained  of  the  violent  proceedings 
of  Becket.  Henry,  furious  at  their  ro^wrt,  declaimed  more  than 
once  against  the  ingratitude  of  his  courtiers,  who  were  slow  to 
ftvenga  him  on  a  base-born  priest.  Taking  these  passionate  expres- 
sions for  a  hint,  four  gentlemen  of  his  household,  Heginald  Fitz- 
Urse,  William  de  Tracy,  Hugh  de  Morville,  and  Richard  Brito, 
or  the  Breton,  immediately  took  counsel ;  and,  swearing  to  avenge 
their  prince's  quarrel,  secretly  withdrew  from  court.  Some 
menacing  expressions  whicli  they  had  drop]ied  gave  a  suspicion 
of  their  design ;  and  the  king  despatched  a  messenger  after  them, 
charging  them  to  attempt  nothing  against  the  person  of  the 
primate:  but  these  orders  arrived  too  late  to  prevent  their  fatal 
purpose.  Repairing  by  different  routes  to  Saltwood,t  where  De 
Broc  residetl  (Dec.  28),  they  spent  that  night,  the  Feast  of 
The  Holy  Innocents,  in  planning  the  murder.  Kext  day  they 
proceeded  in  great  haste  to  the  archiepiscopal  palace  of  Canter- 


•  Primse  Henry  wm  called  "the  yonng 
king/'  and  his  father  "the  old  king," 
tboQf^  be  was  only  thirty-seven  years  old 
now  and  flfty-«lz  when  he  died.  Tlie 
yoong  king  is  often  styled  Henry  III.  in 
old  books. 

t  This  castle,  wbkh  was  claimed  l^ 


Becket  as  belonging  to  his  neo,  .wafi  held 
for  the  king  by  the  royal  ofticerm  Robert 
and  Ranulf  de  Broc.  Robert  acct^mpaDied 
the  knights  to  Canterbury,  and  Ranulf 
sheltered  them  for  the  night,  after  the 
murder. 


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114  HENRY  II.  Chat.  vn. 

bury,  pretending  business  firom  the  king.    They  found  the  primate 
slenderly  attended;  and,  among  other  menaces  and  reproaches, 
required  him  to  quit  the  country,  or  absolve  the  excommunicated 
prelates.      Alarmed  by   the  threats  of  the  knights,  the    monks 
hurried    the  archbishop    into   the  transept,  where    vespers   had 
already  commenced.    The  assassins,  who  had  retired  to  arm  them- 
selves, reappeared  at  the  church  door,  which  the  monks  would 
have  fastened,  but  Becket  forbad   them  to  convert  the  house  of 
GtHi  into  a  fortress.    In  (he  dim  twilight  the  trembling  monks  con- 
cealed themselves  under  the  altars  and  behind  the  pillars  of  the 
church.     Becket  was  mounting  the  steps  that  led  from  the  north 
transept  into  the  choir,  when  the  murderers  rushed  in ;  he  then 
turned  round,  came  down,  and  confronted  them.    Fitz-Urse,  wield- 
ing in  his  hand  a  glittering  axe,  was  the  first  to  approach  him, 
exclaiming,"  Where  is  the  traitor?  Where  is  the  archbishop?"    At 
the  second  cnll  Becket  replied,  *'  Reginald,  here  1  am,  no  traitor, 
but  an  archbishop  and  priest  of  God :  what  do  you  wish  ? "  and 
passing  by  him,  took  up  his  station  between  the  central  pillar  and 
the  massive  wall  which  still  forms  the  south-west  comer  of  what 
was  then  the  chaiKil  of  St.  Benedict.    On  his  repeated  refusal  to 
revoke  the  excommunication,  the  assassins  attempted  to  drag  him 
out  of  the  church,  in  order  to  despatch  him  outside  the  sacred 
precincts.    But  Becket  resisted  with  all  his  m'ght,and,  exerting  his 
great  strength,  flung  Tracy  down  upon  the  pavement.     Finding 
it  hopeless  to  remove  him,  Fitz-Urse  approached  him  with  his 
drawn  sword,  and,  waving  it  over  his  head,  dashed  oflf  his  cowl. 
Thereupon  Tracy  sprang  forward  and  struck  a  more  decisive  blow. 
Grim,  a  monk  of  Cambridge,  who  up  to  this  moment  had  his  arm 
round  Becket,  threw  it  up  to  intercept  the  blade.    The  blow  lighted 
upon  the  arm  of  the  monk,  which  fell  wounded  or  broken,  and 
the  spent  force  of  the  stroke  descending  on  Becket's  head,  grazed 
the  crown,  and  finally  resting  on  the  left  shoulder,  cut  through  the 
clothes  and  skin.     At  the  next  blow,  struck  by  Tracy  or  Fitz-Urse, 
u|M)n  his  bleeding  head,  Becket  drew  back,  as  if  stunned,  and  then 
raised  his  clas|X!d  hands  above  it.     The  Mood  from  the  first  blow 
was  trickling  down  his  face  in  a  thin  streak;  he  wiped  it  with  his 
arm,  and  when  he  saw  the  stain  he  said,  "  Into  thy  hands,  O  Lord,  I 
commend  my  spirit."    At  the  third  stroke,  he  sank  on  his  knees, 
and  murmured  in  a  low  voice,  "  For  the  name  of  Jesus  and   in 
defence  of  the  church  I  am  willing  to  die."    Without  moving  hand 
or  foot,  ho  fell  flat  on  his  face  as  he  sjioke,  and,  while  in   this 
jH)sture,   received   from    Richard    the   Breton   a   tremendous  blow 
upon  the  skull.     A  suhdencon  named  Hugh,  an  ass<x!iate  of  the 
assassins,  planting  his  foot  on  the  neck  of  the  corpBe,  caused 


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A.D.  1170.  MURDER  OF  BECKKT.  115 

the  blood  and  brains  to  spirt  out  i4)on  the  pavement  This 
foul  deed  was  perpetrated  on  Tuesday,  the  29ih  December 
(a.d.  1170)  a  day  long  memorable  in  England  as  the  martyrd»m 
of  St.  'J'homas. 

Thomas  Becket  was  a  prelate  of  the  most  lofty,  intrepid,  and 
inflexible  spirit,  and  no  one  who  enters  into  the  genius  of  that  age 
can  reasonably  dt»ubt  of  his  sincerity.  Nor  does  it  detract  from  his 
sincerity,  that  he  was  sometimes  actuated  by  mixed  motives,  in 
which  it  was  difficult  to  determine  whether  his  zeal  for  the  church 
or  his  own  personal  wrongs  and  offended  dignity  had  the  upper 
hand.  He  had  to  contend,  as  he  believed,  for  the  independence  of 
the  clergy,  against  a  monarch  no  less  powerful,  energetic,  and 
absolute  than  Henry  II.  He  had  to  defend  the  spiritual  against 
the  aggressions  of  the  temporal  authority,  armed  with  all  the 
wealth,  the  territorial  possessions,  and  the  influence  of  a  monarch 
more  powerful  than  any  in  Christendom.  Right  as  it  undoubtedly 
was  for  Henry  to  maintain  the  supremacy  of  the  crown,  and  render 
the  clergy  amenable  for  criminal  offences  to  the  temporal  courts, 
the  assertion  of  an  authority  vesting  on  some  higher  sanction  than 
the  will  of  the  monarch  was  no  less  needful  and  important. 

§  8.  The  intelligence  of  the  murder  threw  the  king  int«)  great 
consternation.  ITie  ])oint  of  chief  importance  to  Henry  was  to  con- 
vince the  pope  of  his  innocence ;  or,  rather,  to  persuade  him  that 
he  would  reap  greater  advantages  from  the  submission  of  England 
tlian  from  proceeding  to  extremities  against  that  kingdom.  By 
the  skill  of  his  ambassadors  he  found  means  to  ap|>easo  the 
pontiff,  whose  anathemas  were  only  levelled  in  general  against  all 
the  actors,  accon^plices,  and  abettors  of  Becket's  murder.  The 
cardinals  Albert  and  Theotwin  were  appointed  legates  to  examine 
the  cause,  and  were  ordered  to  proceed  to  Normandy  for  that 
puri)ose.  Henry  made  his  submission,  denying  all  complicity  in 
the  murder  of  the  archbishop,  and  rescinding  the  Constitutions 
of  Clarendon.  Three  years  alter  his  death,  Becket  was  canonized 
by  pope  Aloxander  III.;  his  body  was  removed  to  a  magnificent 
shrine,  enriched  with  presents,  and  visited  by  pilgrims  from  all  parts 
of  Chrihtendom. 

§  9.  As  soon  as  Henry  found  that  he  was  in  no  immediate  danger 
from  the  thunders  of  the  Vatican,  he  undertook  a  long-projected 
ex|)cdition  into  Ireland. 

As  Britain  was  first  peopled  from  Gaul,  so  was  Ireland  probably 
from  Britain.  The  Irish  were  converted  M  Christianity  by  St. 
Patrick,  about  the  middle  of  the  5th  century ;  and  the  ecclesiastics 
of  that  country  pre  erved  a  considerable  share  of  learning  when 
otheK  nations  were  buried  in  ignorance.    The  invasions  of  the  Danes 


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116  HENRY  n.  Chap,  vu, 

and  Northmen  in  the  eighth  century  plunged  Ireland  again  into 
barbarism,  from  which,  however,  the  towns  which  those  invaders 
founded  on  the  coast — Dublin,  Waterford,  Cork,  and  Limerick—* 
were  now  banning  to  emerge.  Besides  many  small  tribes,  there 
were,  in  the  age  of  Henry  IL,  five  principal  sovereignties  in  the 
island — Munster,  Leinster,  Meath,  Ulster,  and  Connaught;  one 
or  other  of  which  was  commonly  paramount  in  Ireland.  Roderic 
O'Connor,  king  of  Connaught,  held  that  dignity  at  this  time.  The 
ambition  of  Henry,  very  early  in  his  reign,  had  been  set  on  attempt- 
ing the  subjection  of  Ireland.  A  pretext  oniy  was  wanting.  For 
this  purpose  he  had  recourse  to  Rome,  which  assumed  a  right  to 
dispose  of  kingdoms  and  empires,  and  especially  of  islands,  according 
to  the  alleged  donation  of  Constantino.  Adrian  IV.  (Breakspear), 
the  only  Englishman  who  has  ever  sat  upon  the  papal  throne, 
gladly  availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  of  bringing  the  Irish 
church  under  the  dominion  of  Rome ;  and  therefore,  in  the  year 
1155,  he  issued  a  bull  in  favour  of  Henry,  giving  him  entire 
right  and  authority  over  Ireland.  The  king,  however,  was  at 
that  time  prevented  by  various  causes  from  putting  his  design  into 
execution. 

.  Dermot  Macmorrogh,  king  of  Leinster,  had  carried  off  Dervorghal, 
wife  of  O'Ruarc,  prince  of  Breffny  (Lei trim).  Her  husband,  collect- 
ing his  forces,  and  strengthened  by  the  alliance  of  Roderic,  king  of 
Connaught,  invaded  the  dominions  of  Dermot,  and  drove  him  from 
his  kingdom.  The  exiled  prince  craved  the  assistance  of  Henry, 
and  offered,  in  the  event  of  being  restored  to  his  kingdom,  to  hold  it 
in  vassalage  under  the  crown  of  England  (1168).  Embarrassed 
by  the  rebellions  of  his  French  subjects  at  that  time,  as  well  as  by 
his  disputes  with  the  see  of  Rome,  Henry  gave  Dermot  no  further 
assistance  than  letters  patent,  empowering  all  his  subjects  to  aid 
the  Irish  prince  in  the  recovery  of  his  dominions.  Supported 
by  this  authority,  Dermot  formed  an  alliance  with  Richard,  earl  of 
Chepstow  or  Strigul,  sumamed  Strongbow,  son  of  Gilbert  de  Clare. 
Richard  had  dissipated  his  fortune;  and  being  ready  for  any 
desperate  undertaking,  he  promised  to  assist  Dermot  on  condition 
of  espousing  Eva,  daughter  of  that  prince,  and  being  declared 
heir  to  the  kingdom  of  Leinster.  While  Richard  was  assembling 
his  forces,  Dermot  engaged  the  assistance  of  two  other  knights 
in  South  Wales,  Robert  Fitz-Stephen  and  Maurice  Fitz-Gerald. 
In  1170  Fitz-Stephen  crossed  over  to  Ireland  with  a  small  force 
and  took  the  town  of  Wexford ;  and  was  shortly  afterwards  joined 
by  Fitz-Gerald.  Next  year  Richard  de  Clare,  having  obtained  an 
ambiguous  permission  from  Henry  to  embark  in  the  enterprise, 
landed  in  Ireland,  took  Waterford  and  Dublin,  and,  marrying  Eva« 


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AJD.  1170-1178.         CONQUEST  OF  IRELAi^D.  117 

became  soon  afler»  by  the  death  of  Dermot,  master  of  LehisteTy 
and  prepared  to  extend  his  authority  over  the  rest  of  Ireland. 
Koderic,  and  other  Irish  princes,  alarmed  at  the  danger,  besieged 
Dublin  with  an  army  of  30,000  men:  but  earl  Richard,  making 
a  sudden  sally  at  the  head  of  90  knights  with  their  followers^ 
put  this  numerous  army  to  rout,  chased  them  from  the  field,  and 
pursued  them  with  great  slaughter.  None  in  Ireland  now  dared  to 
oppose  themselves  to  the  English. 

Henry  now  determined  to  attack  Ireland  in  person,  and  landed 
at  Waterford  at  the  head  of  400  knights  and  4000  soldiers. 
He  found  the  Irish  so  dispirited  by  their  late  misfortunes,  that,  in 
a  progress  which  he  made  through  the  island,  he  had  no  other 
occupation  than  to  receive  the  homage  of  his  new  subjects.  The 
clergy,  in  a  synod  at  Cashel,  not  only  made  submission  to  Henry, 
but  agreed  to  alterations  which  brought  the  native  church  nearer 
to  the  English  model  (1172).  Appointing  Richard  seneschal  of 
Ireland,  he  returned  in  triumph  to  England,  after  a  stay  of  six 
months.  Thus  was  Ireland  subdued  and  annexed  to  the  English 
crown,  whose  king  became  "  Lord  of  Ireland." 

§  10.  The  king*s  precaution  in  establishing  the  several  branches 
of  his  family  seemed  well  calculated  to  prevent  all  jealousy  among 
his  children.  He  had  appointed  Henry,  his  oldest  surviving  son,* 
to  be  his  successor  in  the  kingdom  of  England,  the  duchy  of  Nor- 
mandy, and  the  counties  of  Anjou,  M^ne,  and  Touraine ;  Richard, 
his  third  son,  was  invested  with  the  duchy  of  Guienne  and  county 
of  Poitou ;  Geoffrey,  his  fourth  son,  by  right  of  his  wife,  had  the 
duchy  of  Brittany ;  and  the  new  conquest  of  Ireland  was  destined 
as  an  appanage  for  John,  the  youngest.  But  his  hopes  were 
frustrated.  In  1173  his  three  eldest  sons  fled  to  the  court  of 
France,  and  demanded  of  their  fieither  immediate  possession  of  a 
portion,  at  any  rate,  of  the  territories  promised  them.  They 
had  been  encouraged  in  their  filial  disobedience  by  their  mother, 
fileanor,  who,  offended  with  her  husband  on  account  of  his 
infidelities,  had  attempted  to  fly  to  France,  but  was  seized 
and  thrown  into  confinement.  Young  Henry  had  also  been  in- 
stigated by  his  father-in-law,  Louis  VIL,  who  persuaded  him  that 
the  foct  of  his  having  been  crowned  as  king  conferred  upon  him  the 
right  of  participating  in  the  throne  Many  of  the  Norman  nobility 
deserted  to  the  prince.  The  Breton  and  Gascon  barons  sccnied 
equally  disposed  to  embrace  the  quarrel  of  Geoffrey  and  Richard. 
Disaflfeciion  crept  in  among  the  English ;  and  the  earls  of  Leicester 
and  Chester,  in  particular,  openly  declared  against  the  king.  On  the 
continent,  however,  Henry  obtained  at  all  points,  and  without  much 
*  HiB  firstbum,  WUliAm,  had  died  au  infant,  in  1156. 


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118  HKNKY  n.  Chap.  vu. 

difficulty,  the  advantage  over  his  enemies.  The  defeat  of  Leicester,  at 
Forneham,in  Suffolk  (October,  11 73), was  followed  by  fresh  hostilities 
the  next  year.  William  the  Lion,  king  of  Scotland,  also  entered 
into  this  great  confederacy  ;  and  a  plan  was  concerted  for  a  general 
invasion  at  different  fiarts  of  the  king's  extensive  and  factious 
dominions.  The  king  ol  Scots  crossed  the  border.  Several  of  the 
counties  were  in  open  revolt  The  belief  pained  ground  that  the 
kinz  had  been  privy  to  the  murder  of  the  archbishop,  and  that  these 
disasters  were  a  judgment  upon  him. 

§11.  Under  these  circumstances  Henry  resolved  to  make  a  pil- 
grimage to  the  tomb  of  the  martyr,  and  humble  himself  before  the 
ashes  of  the  saint.  He  crossed  over  from  Normandy  in  1174,  and 
on  July  12  entered  Canterbury.  As  soon  as  he  came  within  sight 
of  the  cathedral  he  dismounted,  walked  barefoot  towards  it,  prostrated 
himself  before  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas,  remained  in  fasting  and 
prayer  for  a  whole  day,  and  watched  all  night  the  holy  relitjues.  He 
even  submitted  to  a  penance  still  more  humiliating.  He  assembled 
a  chapter  of  the  monks,  disrobed  himself  before  them,  put  a  scourge 
of  discipline  into  the  hands  of  each,  and  presented  his  bare  shoul- 
ders to  the  lashes  successivel}'  inflicted  upon  hhu.  Next  day  he 
received  absolution;  and  departing  for  London,  received  soon  after 
the  welcome  intelligence  of  a  great  victory  over  the  Scots  at  Alnwick, 
and  of  the  capture  of  their  king.  As  this  success  was  gained  on  the 
very  day  of  his  absolution,  it  was  regarded  as  the  earnest  of  his 
final  reconciliation  with  Heaven  and  with  St.  Thomas.  The  victory 
proved  decisive.  In  less  than  three  weeks  all  opposition  disappeared, 
and  Henry's  rebellious  subjects  hastened  to  make  their  submissions. 
Louis  was  glad  to  conclude  a  peace;  his  sons  returned  to  their 
obedience ;  and  William,  king  of  Scotland,  who  had  been  imprisoned 
at  Falaise,  was  compelled  with  all  his  barons  and  prelates  to  do 
homage  in  the  cathedral  of  York,  and  to  acknowledge  Henry  and 
his  successors  for  their  sujxjrior  lord  (1175).  Berwick,  Roxburgh, 
and  other  important  places,  were  ceded  to  the  English  monarch, 
and  the  castle  of  Edinburjrh  was  placed  in  his  hands. 

§  12.  Thus  extricated  with  honour,  contrary  to  expectation,  from 
a  situation  in  which  his  throne  was  exposed  to  great  danger,  Henry 
employed  himself  for  several  years  in  improving  the  internal  ad- 
ministration of  his  kingdom.  One  of  the  most  iui^wrtant  of  his 
enactments  was  the  appointment  of  itinerant  justices,  of  which 
institution  an  account  is  given  at  the  close  of  this  book.  Another 
was  the  substitution  in  certain  cases  of  a  trial  by  sixteen  sworn 
recognitors  in  place  of  the  trial  by  battle. 

The  success  which  had  attended  Henry  in  his  wars  prevented  his 
neighbours  from  forming  any  fresh  projects  against  him.    In  1177 


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A.D.  1173-1189.  HIS  DEATH.  119 

he  sent  over  his  fourth  son,  John,  into  Ireland  with  a  view  of 
making  a  more  complete  conquest  of  the  island ;  but  the  petulance 
and  incapacity  of  this  prince  exasperated  the  Irish  chieftains, 
and  obliged  the  king  soon  after  to  recall  him.  The  latter  years  qf 
Henry's  reign  were  embittered  by  the  renewed  rebellion  of  his  sons, 
and  their  mutual  quarrels.  In  1183  his  son  Henry  was  seized  with 
a  fatal  illness  in  the  midst  of  Ms  criminal  designs,  and  died  ex- 
pressing deep  sorrow  for  his  filial  ingratitude.  Richard  and  Geoffrey 
made  war  upon  each  other;  and  when  this  quarrel  was  accom- 
modated, Geoffrey,  the  most  vicious  perhaps  of  all  Henry's  unhappy 
fomily,  levied  war  against  his  father.  Henry  was  freed  from  this 
danger  by  his  son's  death,  who  was  killed  in  a  tournament  at  Tans 
(1186). 

§  13.  In  the  year  1187  the  city  of  Jerusalem  fell  into  the  hands 
of  sultan  Saladin,  and  a  new  Crusade  was  determined  on.  The 
French  and  English  monarchs  and  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa 
assumed  the  cn)S8.  In  the  midst  of  these  preparations  Richard, 
supported  by  Philip  Augustus  of  France  (who  had  succeeded  Louis 
VII.  in  1180),  again  took  up  arms  against  his  father  for  detaining 
certain  lands  belonging  to  Adelais,  Phili[)'s  sister,  who  was  betrothed 
to  Richard  (1189).  After  nuich  fruitless  negociation,  Henry  was 
obliged  to  defend  his  dominions  by  arms,  and  engage  in  a  war  with 
his  son  and  with  France,  in  which  his  reverses  so  subdued  his  spirit 
that  he  submitted  to  all  the  rigorous  terms  demanded  of  him.  But 
this  was  the  least  of  his  mortifications.  When  he  required  a  list 
of  those  barons  to  whom  he  was  bound  to  grant  a  pardon  for  their 
connecti(»n  with  Richard,  he  was  astonished  to  find  at  the  head  of 
them  the  name  of  his  favourite  son  John.  Overloaded  with  cares 
and  sorrows,  the  unhappy  father,  in  this  last  disappointment  of 
his  domestic  tenderness,  broke  out  into  expressions  o(  the  utmost 
despair,  curse<l  the  day  in  wh'ch  he  was  bom,  and  bestowed  on  his 
ungrateful  and  undutiful  children  a  malediction  which  he  never 
could  be  prevailed  on  to  retract.  This  final  blow  quite  broke  his 
spirit,  and  aggravated  the  fever  fix)m  which  he  was  suffering.  He 
expired  at  the  castle  of  Chinon,  near  Saumur  (July  6,  1189).  His 
natural  son,  Geoffrey,  who  alope  had  behaved  dutifully  towards 
him,  attended  his  cor|>se  to  Fontevraud,  where  it  lay  in  state  in 
the  abbey  church.  As  Richard  met  the  sad  procession,  lie  was 
struck  with  horror  and  remorse,  and  expressed  a  deep  sense 
of  his  own  imdutiful  behaviour.  Thus  died,  in  the  68th  year 
of  his  age,  and  34  th  of  his  reign,  the  most  remarkable  prince  of 
bis  time. 

Henry  was  of  a  middle  stature,  strong,  and  well  proportioned  ^  his 
oouQtenaiice  wm  lively  and  engaging;   his  conversation  affable 


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120  RICHABD  I.  Chap,  til 

and  entertdning;  Ms  speech  easy,  persuasive,  and  ever  at  com- 
mand. He  loved  peace,  but  possessed  both  bravery  and  conduct 
in  war ;  was  provident  without  timidity,  severe  in  the  execution 
of  justice,  and  temperate  without  austerity.  Gruel  and  false,  his 
abilities  were  more  conspicuous  than  his  virtues.  He  preserved  his 
health,  and  kept  himself  from  corpulency,  to  which  he  was  some- 
what inclined,  by  an  abstemious  diet,  and  by  frequent  exercise, 
particularly  hunting.  Restless  and  em  rgetic,  he  generally  trans- 
acted business  standing,  and  was  careless  how  he  ate  or  drank  or 
dressed.  In  his  person  were  united  many  of  the  characteristics 
of  his  race,  both  bad  and  good.  He  was  a  fair  scholar,  had  a 
wonderful  memory,  and  was  more  careful  of  the  forms  than  of  the 
spirit  of  religion.  He  had  five  sons  by  Eleanor,  of  whom  only  two, 
Richard  and  John,  survived  him.  Of  his  natural  children  the  most 
distinguished  were  William,  who  received  the  surname  of  Long- 
sword,  and  married  the  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Salisbury,  and 
Geoffrey,  already  mentioned,  who  became  bishop  of  Lincoln  and 
archbishop  of  York. 

RICHARD  I. 

§14.  Richard  I.,  b.  1167;  r.  118^1199.— Richard  succeeded 
his  father  without  opposition.  He  dismissed  his  father's  minister, 
Ranulf  de  Glanville,  the  justiciary,  and  released  his  mother  Eleanor 
from  the  confinement  in  which  she  had  long  been  detained  by  the 
late  king. 

The  history  of  Richard's  reign  ronsists  of  little  more  than  his 
personal  adventures.  Impelled  by  the  love  of  military  glory,  the 
sole  purpose  of  his  government  seems  to  have  been  the  relief  of  the 
Holy  Land,  and  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem  from  the  Saracens.  This 
zeal  against  the  infidels  was  shared  by  his  subjects,  and  broke  out 
in  London  on  the  day  of  his  coronation  (September  3).  The  king 
had  issued  an  edict  prohibit' ng  the  Jews  from  appearing  at  the 
ceremony;  but  some  of  them,  presuming  on  the  large  presents 
made  him  by  their  nation,  ventured  to  approach  the  hall  where  the 
king  was  dining.  Exposed  by  their  appearance  to  the  insults  of 
the  populace,  they  took  to  flight.  A  rumour  was  spread  that  the 
king  had  issued  orders  for  their  massacre.  This  command,  so 
agreeable  to  popular  prejudices,  was  executed  in  an  instant  on  such 
as  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  multitude,  who,  moved  alike  by 
rapacity  and  zeal,  broke  into  their  houses,  plundered,  and  murdered 
the  owners.  The  inhabitants  of  the  other  cities  of  England 
imitated  the  example.  In  York  500  Jews,  who  had  retired  into  the 
oastle  for  safety,  unable  to  defend  the  place,  murdered  their  own 
wives  and  children,  and  then^  setting  fire  to  the  castle,  perished 
i&  the  flames. 


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A.D.  1189-1191.      PREPARES  FOR  THE  CRUSADE.  121 

Hegardlees  of  every  consideration  except  his  expedition  to  the 
Holy  Land,  Richard  endeavoured  to  raise  money  by  all  expedients, 
how  pernicious  soever  they  might  be  to  the  public,  or  dangerous  to 
the  royal  authority.  He  set  to  sale  the  revenues  and  manors  of 
the  crown,  and  the  offices  of  greatest  trust  and  power ;  sold,  for  so 
small  a  sum  as  10,000  marks,  the  vassalage  of  Scotland,  together 
with  the  fortresses  of  Roxburgh  and  Berwick,  acquired  by  his  father 
during  the  course  of  his  victorious  reign.  Leaving  the  adminis- 
tration in  the  hands  of  the  bisho|>3  of  Durham  and  Ely,  whom  he 
appointed  justiciaries  and  guardians  of  the  realm,  Richard  proceeded 
to  the  plains  of  Vezelay,  on  the  borders  of  Burgundy,  the  place  of 
rendezvous  agreed  on  with  the  French  king.  Philip  and  Richard, 
on  their  arrival  there,  found  their  combined  army  amount  to  100,000 
men  (July  1, 1190). 

§  15.  Here  the  French  prince  and  the  English  reiterated  their 
promises  of  cordial  friendship,  and  pledged  their  faith  not  to  invade 
each  other's  dominions  during  the  Crusade,  lliey  then  sei)arated ; 
Philip  took  the  road  to  Genoa,  Richard  the  road  to  Marseilles,  with 
a  view  of  meeting  their  fleets,  wliich  were  severally  appointed  to 
rendezvous  in  these  harbours,  and  met  agam  at  Messina,  where  they 
were  detained  during  the  whole  winter  Here  Richard  was  joined 
by  Berengaria,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Navarre,  with  whom  he  had 
become  enamoured  in  Guienne.  In  the  spring  of  the  following 
year  (1191)  the  English  fleet,  on  leaving  the  port  of  Messina,  met 
with  a  furious  tempest,  and  the  s(|uadron  m  which  Berengaria  and 
her  suite  were  embarked  was  driven  on  the  coast  of  Cyprus.  In 
consequence  of  their  inhospitable  treatment  by  Isaac,  the  ruler 
of  Cyprus,  Richard  landed  there,  dethroned  Isaac,  aud  established 
governors  over  the  island.  Richard  then  espoused  Berengaria 
(May  12),  and  early  in  the  next  mouth  sailed  for  Palestine. 

§  16.  The  arrival  of  Philip  and  Richard  inspired  new  life  into 
the  Crusaders.  The  emulation  between  the  rival  kings  aud  rival 
nations  produced  extraordinary  acts  of  valour :  Richard  iu  particular 
drew  upon  himself  the  general  attention.  Acre,  which  had  been 
attacked  for  above  two  years  by  the  united  force  of  all  the  Christians 
in  Palestine,  now  surrendered,  but  Philip,  instead  of  pursuing 
the  hopes  of  further  conquest,  disgusted  with  the  ascendancy 
assumed  and  acquired  by  Richard,  declared  his  resolution  of  return- 
ing  to  France.  Richard,  with  those  who  still  remained  under  his 
command,  determined  to  lay  siege  to  Ascalon,  and  thus  open  the 
way  to  Jerusalem.  The  march  along  the  seacoast  of  100  miles 
from  Acre  to  Ascalon  was  a  perpetual  battle  of  11  days.  Ascalon 
fell  into  his  hands,  and  Richard  was  even  able  to  advance  within 
sight  of  Jerusalem,  the  object  of  his  enterprise,  when  he  had  the 


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122  RICHARD  L  Chap.  vn. 

mortification  to  find,  from  the  irresistible  desire  of  his  allies  to 
return  home,  that  all  hopes  of  further  conquest  must  be  abandoned 
for  the  present,  and  the  acquisitions  of  the  Crusaders  be  secured 
by  an  accommodation  with  Saladin.  He  concluded  a  truce  for 
three  years  with  that  monarch  (1192);  stipulating  that  Acre, 
Joppa,  and  other  8ea|X)rt  towns  of  Palestine,  should  remain  in 
the  hands  of  the  Christians,  and  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  City  be 
unmolested. 

§  17.  No  business  of  importance  now  remained  to  detain  Richard 
in  Palestine ;  and  the  intelligence  which  he  had  received,  concern- 
ing the  intrigues  of  his  brother  John,  and  those  of  the  king  of 
France,  made  him  sensible  that  his  presence  was  necessary  in 
Europe.  As  he  dared  not  pass  through  France,  he  sailed  to  the 
Adriatic;  and  being  shipwrecked  near  Aquilcia,  he  assumed  the 
disguise  of  a  merchant  returning  from  pilgrimage,  with  the  pur- 
pose of  taking  his  journey  secretly  through  Germany.  At  Vienna 
he  was  betrayed  by  his  prodigality;  was  arrested  by  orders  of 
Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  who  had  been  offended  by  some  insult 
whilst  sen  ing  with  Richard  in  Palestine  (December  20,  1192).  By 
the  duke  he  was  delivered  to  Henry  VI.,  the  German  emperor,  in 
return  for  a  large  sum  which  he  paid  to  Leopi»ld,  and  was  detained 
by  him  in  a  castle  in  the  Tyrol.  The  English  learnt  the  captivity 
of  their  king  from  a  letter  which  the  emperor  sent  to  Philip,  king 
of  France.*  The  news  excited  the  greatest  indignation ;  it  seemed 
incredible  that  the  champion  of  the  Cross  should  be  treated  with 
such  indignity.  Philip  hastened  to  profit  by  the  circumstance ;  he 
formed  a  treaty  with  John,  the  object  of  which  was  the  perpetual 
ruin  of  Richard.  Philip,  in  consequence,  invaded  Normandy,  but 
was  driven  back  with  loss ;  and  John  was  equally  unsuccessful  in 
his  enterprises  in  England.  The  justiciaries,  supported  by  the 
general  affection  of  the  jKJople,  provided  so  well  for  the  defence  of 
the  kingdom,  that  John  was  obliged,  after  some  fruitless  efforts, 
to  conclude  a  truce. 

§  18.  Meanwhile  the  high  spirit  of  Richard  suffered  in  Germany 
every  kind  of  insult  and  indignity.  He  was  brought  before  the 
diet  of  the  empire  at  Hagenau,  and  accused  by  Henry  of  many 
crimes  and  misdemeanours  (March  22,  1193) ;  but  Richard  do- 
fended  himself  with  so  much  ability,  that  he  produced  a  profound 
impression  on  the  German  princes,  who  exclaimed  loudly  against 
the  conduct  of  the  emperor.  The  pope  threatened  him  with  ex- 
communication;  and  Henry  at  last  agreed,  in  a  conference  at 
Worms,  to  restore  Richard  to  his  freedom  for  the  sum  of  100,000 

•The  well-known  story  of  the  discovery  I  page   sinpitMi  a  song  under  Jiis  window 
of  Bl^lurd's  place  of  wnfinement  by  hia  i  raela  oa  oa  hlatorioAi  authority. 


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A.D.  1192-1199.  HIS  DEATH.  123 

marhs  paid  down,  and  50,000  more  on  security.*  Half  of  the  sum 
was  to  be  paid  bef«»ri  he  received  his  liberty,  and  hostages  delivered 
for  the  remainder  (December,  1193).  Making  all  imaginable  hasto 
to  escape,  Richard  embarked  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt,  and 
reached  Sandwich,  March  20,  1194.  As  soon  as  Philip  heard  of 
the  king's  deliverance,  he  wrote  to  his  confederate  John:  Take 
heed  of  yourself,  for  the  devil  is  broken  loose.  The  joy  of  the 
English  was  extreme  at  the  appearance  of  their  monarch,  who 
had  suffered  so  many  calamities,  had  acquired  so  much  glory,  and 
had  sprt  ad  the  reputation  of  their  name  to  the  furthest  East,  'i'he 
barons,  in  a  great  council,  confiscated  all  John's  possessions  in 
England;  and  assisted  the  king  in  i-educing  the  fortresses  which 
still  remained  in  the  hands  of  his  brother's  adherents. 

§  19.  Having  settled  everything  in  England,  Richard  passed  over 
with  an  army  into  Normandy,  impatient  to  make  war  on  Philip, 
and  revenue  himself  for  the  many  injuries  received  from  that 
monarch.  The  incidents  which  attended  these  hostilities  were 
mean  and  frivolous.  The  war,  frequently  interrupted  by  truces,  was 
continued  till  within  a  short  period  of  Richard's  death.  The 
king  was  wounded  in  the  shoulder  with  an  arrow  by  Bertrand 
de  Gourdon,  whilst  bcsiegim:  the  castle  of  Chaluz,  belonging  to 
his  vassal  Vidomar,  viscount  of  Limoges,  who  had  refused  to 
surrender  the  whole  of  a  treasure  which  he  had  discovered.  The 
castle  was  taken,  and  all  the  garrison  hanged,  except  the  un- 
fortunate archer,  whom  the  king  had  reserved  for  a  more  deliberate 
and  cruel  execution.  The  wound  was  not  in  itself  dangerous,  but 
the  unskilfulnesa  of  the  surgeon  made  it  mortal.  A  gangrene  ensued, 
and  Richard,  now  sensible  that  his  life  was  drawing  towards  a 
close,  sent  for  Gourdon,  and  asked  him,  "Wretch,  what  have  I 
done  to  you  to  oblige  you  to  seek  my  life  ? "  "  What  have  you 
done  to  me?"  replied  the  prisoner:  "you  killed  with  your  own 
hands  my  father  and  my  two  brothers,  and  you  intended  to  have 
hanged  myself.  I  am  now  in  your  power,  and  y<'U  may  take 
revenge  by  inflicting  on  me  the  most  cruel  torments;  but  I  shall 
endure  them  with  pleasure,  provided  I  can  think  that  I  have  been 
so  happy  as  to  vid  the  world  of  such  a  plague."  Richard,  struck 
with  the  re})ly,  and  humbled  1  y  the  near  approach  of  death, 
ordered  Gourdon  to  be  set  at  liberty  and  a  sum  of  money  to  be 
given  him ;  but,  unknown  to  the  monarch,  the  unhappy  man  was 
flayed  alive,  and  then  hanged.t  Richard  died  on  the  6th  of  April, 
1199,  in  the  10th  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  42nd  of  his  age.  He 
was  buried  at  his  father's  feet  at  Fontevraud. 

*  In  all  £100,000.  I  de  Baslle,  and  makes  no  menUoo  of  the 

f  A  contemporary  French  MS.  says  that  archer  Gourdon  his  spirited  replj,  and  hla 
Bldiard  was  woundt  d  by  a  knight,  Peter  '  cruel  fate. 

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124 


RICHARD  I. 


Ohap.  vn, 


The  moBt  shining  parts  of  this  prince's  character  are  hia  uiilitory 
talents.  No  man,  even  io  that  romantic  age,  carried  personal 
conrage  and  intrepidity  to  a  greater  height ;  and  this  quality  gained 
him  the  appellation  of  the  lion-hearted,  Cceur  de  Lion,  He  loved 
military  glory  passionately ;  and  as  his  conduct  in  the  field  was 
not  inferior  to  his  valour,  he  seems  to  have  possessed  every 
talent  necessary  for  acquiring  it.  Of  an  impetuous  and  vehement 
spirit,  he  was  distinguished  by  the  good  as  well  as  the  bad 
qualities  incident  to  such  characters.  Open,  frank,  generous,  sincere, 
and  brave,  he  was  revengeful,  ambitious,  haughty,  and  crael; 
and  was  better  calculated  to  dazzle  men  by  the  splendour  of  his 
enterprises,  than  to  promote-  their  happiness  or  his  own  grandtur  by 
a  sound  and  well-regulated  i>olicy.  As  Kichard  was  a  lover  of 
poetry,  and  there  even  remain  some  poetical  works  of  his  composi- 
tion, he  is  ranked  among  the  ProveD9al  poets,  or  Troubadours, 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


A.   THK  ANGLO-NORMAN  CONSTI- 
TUTION. 

1 .  7%t  Feudal  tyttem.—'Amojxg  the  bar- 
barian tribes  which  overran  Europe  after 
the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  every  indi- 
vidual claimed  an  equal  share  of  liberty : 
and  thus,  when  Charles  the  Simple  in- 
quired of  the  Northmen  what  title  their 
leader  bore,  they  replied,  **  None ;  we  are 
all  equally  ftee."  But  when  they  were 
Bettl^  in  the  pofvessions  won  with  their 
■wordB,  they  found  new  cares  devolve  up- 
on them,  and  the  necessity  of  a  new  system 
of  polity.  Having  abandoned  their  life  of 
wandering  and  rapine,  it  became  necessary 
not  only  to  cultivate  the  land  for  a  sub- 
sistence, but  to  be  prepared  to  defend  it 
both  against  the  attempts  of  the  ancient 
possessors  to  regain,  and  of  f^esh  swarms 
of  wanderers  to  seiie,  it.  Retaining  their 
military  character,  and  ignorant  alike  of 
all  systems  of  finance  and  the  expedient  of 
a  standing  army,  each  man  held  himself 
in  readiness  to  obey  the  call  to  service  in 
the  field.  The  superior  officers,  who  held 
large  territories  directly  finom  the  prince, 
were  bound  to  appear  with  a  proportionate 
number  of  followers ;  and  their  followers 
held  their  lands  fh>m  their  immediate 
loud  on  the  same  condition.    Thus,  as 


Dr.  Robertson  observes,  "a  feudal  king- 
dom was  properly  the  encampment  of  a 
great  army ;  military  ideas  predominated, 
military  subordination  was  established, 
and  the  possession  of  land  was  the  pay 
which  the  soldiers  received  for  their 
personal  service."  The  possessions  held 
by  these  tenures  were  called  ^tfs*  or 
beneficia.  The  vassal  who  held  them  was 
not  only  bound  to  mount  his  horse  and 
follow  his  lord,  or  his  suzerain,  to  the  wars, 
but  also  to  assist  him  with  his  counsel, 
and  attend  as  an  assessor  in  his  courts 
of  Justice.  More  special  and  deCnite  ser- 
vices were — to  guard  the  castle  of  his  lovd 
a  certain  number  of  days  in  the  year;  to 
pay  a  certain  sum  of  money  when  his 
lord's  eldest  son  was  made  a  knight, 
and  his  eldest  daughter  was  married;  and 
to  contribute  to  bis  ransom  in  cose  he  was 
taken  prisoner  in  war.  In  return  for  these 
services  the  lord  was  bound  to  afford  h|^ 
vassal  protection  in  the  event  of  his  fief 
being  attacked ;  whilst  the  defence  of  each 
other's  person  was  reciprocal  The  natural 
consequence  of  this  was  the  system  called 
**  sub-infeudotion,"  by  which  the  imme- 
diate holder  parcelled  out  portkms  of  his 
fief  to  others  on  the  same  conditions  of 
tenure  by  which  he  held  it  himself.  These 
sab-tenants  owed  to  him  the  same  duties 


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NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


126 


as  he  owed  to  hie  lord;  and  he  held 
his  own  ooliit  of  Justice,  in  which  be 
exercised  JurisdictioD  over  his  vassals. 
The  few  lands  that  remained  free,  that 
is,  which  were  not  bound  to  render 
service  to  a  superior  lord,  though  liable 
to  burthens  for  the  public  defence,  were 
called  allodial  in  contradistinction  to 
feudal. 

The  ceremony  by  which  the  vassal  ac- 
knowledged his  feudal  dependence  and 
obligations  was  called  homage,  from  homot 
A  man,  because  the  vassal  became  the 
man  of  his  lord.  Homage  was  accom- 
panied with  an  oath  of  fealty  on  the  part 
of  the  vassal,  and  investiture  on  the  part 
of  the  lord,  which  was  the  conveying  of 
possession  of  the  flef  by  means  of  some 
pledge  or  token.  Homage  was  of  t^o 
kinds,  liege  and  simple.  Liege  homage 
Cfrom  Lot.  ligartt  Ft.  lier^  to  bind)  not 
only  obliged  the  liege  man  to  do  personal 
service  in  the  army,  but  also  disabled  him 
from  renouncing  his  vassalage  by  surren- 
dering his  fief.  The  liege  man  took  the 
oath  of  fealty  on  his  knees  without  sword 
and  spurs,  and  with  his  hands  placed 
between  those  of  his  lord.  The  vassal 
who  rendered  simple  homage  had  the 
power  of  finding  a  substitute  for  military 
service,  or  could  altogether  liberate  him- 
self by  the  surrender  of  his  fief.  In 
simple  homage  the  vassal  took  the  oath 
standing,  girt  with  his  sword  and  with 
Us  hands  at  liberty. 

The  aristocratic  nature  of  feudalism  will 
readily  be  inferred  from  the  preceding 
description.  The  great  chief,  residing  in 
his  country-seat,  which  he  was  commonly 
allowed  to  fortify,  lost  in  a  great  measure 
his  connection  or  acquaintance  with  the 
soverpign,  and  added  every  day  new  force 
to  his  authority  over  the  vassals  of  his 
barony.  From  him  they  received  educa- 
tion in  all  military  enterprises ;  his  hos- 
pitality invited  them  to  live  and  enjoy 
society  in  his  hall  i  their  leisure,  wbicli 
was  great,  mode  them  perpetual  re- 
tainers on  his  person,  and  partakers  of 
his  country  sports  and  amusements;  they 
had  no  means  of  gratifying  their  ambi- 
tion but  by  making  a  figure  in  his  train ; 
his  favour  and  countenance  was  their 
greatest  honour;  his  displeasure  exposed 
them  to  contempt  and  ignominy;  and 
they  felt  every  moment  the  necessity  of 
bto  protection,  both  in  the  controversies 
which  occurred  with  other  vossuls,  and, 
what  was  more  material,  in  the  daily 


inroads  and  ii^Juries  which  were  com- 
mitted by  the  neighbouring  barons.  From 
these  causes  not  only  was  the  royal  au- 
thority extremely  eclipsed  in  most  of  the 
European  states,  but  even  the  military 
vassals,  as  well  as  the  lower  dependants 
and  serfs,  were  held  in  a  state  of  sub- 
jection, from  which  nothing  could  free 
them  but  the  progress  of  commerce  and 
the  rise  of  cities,  the  true  strongholds  of 
freedom. 

2.  f\!udalUm  in  Englavd.—VeudaWsok 
was  one  of  the  principal  changes  intro- 
duced into  England  by  the  Conqueft. 
The  king  became  the  supreme  lord  of 
all  the  land;  whence  Coke  says,  "All 
the  lands  and  tenements  in  England  in 
the  hands  of  8ul\)ects  are  holden  medi- 
ately or  immediately  of  the  king,  for 
in  the  law  of  England  we  have  not  pro- 
perly allodium"  (Coke  upon  l.ittUton, 
I.  I).  Even  the  native  landholders  who 
were  not  deprived  of  their  lunUs  were 
brought  under  the  system  of  feud.il  tenure, 
and  were  subjected  to  new  services  and 
imposts.  Most  of  the  manors  were  bestowed 
upon  the  Normans,  who  thus  held  imme- 
diately of  the  king,  and  were  hence  called 
Ttnantt  in  Capite  or  Tenants  in  chi^. 
But  though  the  Anglo-Saxon  thane  was 
thus  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  simple 
freeholder,  or  franklin,  and  though  the 
Norman  lord  perhaps  retained  a  certain 
portion  of  his  estate  as  demesne  land,  yet 
the  latter  bad  no  possessory  right  in  the 
whole,  and  the  estate  was  not  therefore  so 
profitable  to  him  as  might  at  first  Hight 
appear.  The  tenant  in  chief  was  bound 
to  knight  servict^  or  the  obligation  to 
maintain,  40  days  in  the  field,  a  certain 
number  of  mounud  men,  fh)m  his  under- 
tenants, completely  equip|)ed.  Even  re- 
ligious foundations  and  monasteries  were 
liable  to  this  service,  the  only  exception 
being  the  tenure  oi frankalmoign,  or  free 
alms.  Every  estate  of  20  pounds  yearly 
value  was  considered  as  a  knight's  fpe. 
and  was  bound  to  furnish  a  soldier.  The 
tenants  in  chief  appear  from  Domesday 
Book  to  have  amounted  in  the  reign  of 
William  the  Conqueror  to  about  1400. 
including  ecclesiastical  corporations, 
amounting  to  one-half  of  the  number. 
The  mesne  lords,  or  those  holding  flefs 
not  directly  from  the  king,  arc  estimated 
at  about  8000. 

There  were  peculiarities  in  the  feudal 
system  of  Normandy  itself  which  were 
introduced   by    William   into   England 


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126 


ITOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 


Ohap.  Tn. 


According  to  the  generally  received 
principle  of  fends,  the  oath  of  the  vassal 
was  due  only  to  the  lord  of  whom  he 
Immediately  held.  But  William,  as 
already  related,  exacted  the  oath  of  fealty 
from  all  the  landowners  of  England, 
whether  tenants  in  capite  or  under- 
tenants. In  doing  this  he  seems  to 
have  been  guided  by  the  custom  of 
Normandy,  where  the  duke  had  imme- 
diate Jurisdiction  over  all  his  sut^ects.* 
Hence  William's  power  was  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  feudal  sovereigns  of 
the  continent,  and  his  rule  approached 
more  to  an  absolute  despotism.  Tlic 
great  flefs  of  Kngland  did  not,  like  thoNi 
of  France,  date  their  origin  from  a  period 
when  the  power  of  the  vassal  who  received 
them  was  almost  equal  to  that  of  the 
sovereign  who  bestowed  them ;  but  being 
distributed  on  the  same  occasion,  and 
almost  at  the  same  time,  William  took 
care  not  to  make  them  so  large  as  to  be 
dangerous  to  himself;  for  which  reason 
also  tlie  manors  assigned  to  his  followers 
were  dispersed  in  different  counties. 
Hence  the  noblen  in  England  never 
attained  that  pitch  of  power  which  they 
possessed  in  (sermaiiy,  France,  and  Spain ; 
nor  do  we  find  them  defying  the  sove- 
reign's Jurisdiction,  as  was  very  common 
in  those  countries,  by  exercising  the  right 
of  carrying  on  private  wars  amonp  them- 
selves. 

3.  ne  (7reat  Councilor  Parliament. — 
The  supreme  legislative  power  of  Eng- 
land was  confined  to  the  king  and  the 
Great  Council  of  the  realm,  called  (im- 
mune Concilium.  Kegni,  and  also  Curia 
/tegit.  It  was  attended  by  the  arch- 
bishops, bishops,  and  principal  abbots, 
and  also  by  the  GrtaUr  Barons.  "The 
great  tenants  of  the  crown  were  of  two 
descriptions— those  who  held  by  Knight 
Service  in  ni/>i7»%ttiid  tlioso  ^\|io  held  also 
tn  (Upite  hy  (irand  S^rjrantry,  so  cjilled, 
says  Littleton,  from  being  a  greater  and 
more  worthy  service  than  Kniglit  Service 
-attending  the  king  not  only  in  wsr  but 
in  bit  court.  ...  To  both  descriptions 
of  tenants  the  word  Ba  uon,  in  its  more 
extended  sense  of  lord  of  a  manor,  was 
applical  Ic ;  but  the  latter  only,  or  those  who 
held  ol  the  king  by  Grand  Serjeantry,  held 
Ibeir  laiids  per  Baroniam^  and  were  the 
King's  Barons,  and  us  such  possessed  both 

*  8w  Houard.  Ane.  LaUdn  /Van^tiu.  i.  p.  ]i«. 
•pu  Tborpe.  ^jm^tmhen't  Anglo-Nomuin  Kingt, 
Ik.  90k    OMa».H»UMauMiddUAgm,fx)Llp.lOb. 


a  civil  and  criminal  Jurisdiction,  each  in 
his  Curia  Baronit,  or  Court  Baron,  whilst 
the  Lesser  Barons  had  only  a  civil  Juris- 
diction over  their  vassals.  To  both  ranks 
alike  pertained  the  service  of  attending 
the  sovereign  in  war  with  a  certain 
number  of  knights  according  to  the 
number  of  Knights,  Fees  holden  of  the 
crown,  and  to  those  who  heldpfr  Htironiam 
was  annexed  the  duty  also  of  attertding 
him  in  bis  Great  Councils,  afterwards 
designated  Parliaments;  for  it  was  the 
principle  of  the  feudal  system  that  every 
tenant  should  attend  the  court  of  bis 
immediate  superior,  nnd  hence  it  was  that 
he  who  held  per  Baroniam^  having  no  su- 
perior but  the  crown,  was  bound  to  attend 
his  sovereign  In  his  Great  Council  or 
Parliament,  which  was  in  fact  the  Great 
Court  Baron  of  the  Realm"  (NicoUs. 
Hiitoric  Peerage  qf  England,  ou  by 
Courthope,  p.  xviii.).  It  has  been 
tlioiiglit,  but  there  Is  no  distinct  au 
tliority  for  the  statement,  that  the  lesser 
barons  were  sometimes  summoned,  par- 
ticularly when  taxes  were  to  be  Imposed  i 
for  OS  the  crown  had  only  the  right 
to  exact  from  its  immediate  tenants  the 
customary  feudal  aids,  it  became  neces- 
sary, when  the  crown  needed  any  ex* 
traordinary  aid,  to  summon  all  the  chief 
tenants  in  order  to  obtain  their  con- 
sent to  the  imposition.  It  was  onoe  dis- 
puted with  great  acrimony  whether  the 
Commons  or  representatives  of  counties 
and  boroughs  formed  a  part  of  the  Great 
Council;  but  it  is  now  universally  ac 
knowledgcd  that  they  were  not  admitted 
into  it  till  tlie  reign  of  Henry  III.,  and 
that  the  tenants  alone  of  the  crown 
compose«l  the  supreme  and  legislative 
asseml)Iy  under  tlie  Anglo-Norman  kings. 
Mr.  Ilallam  bos  summed  up  the  con- 
stitution of  this  national  assembly  down 
to  the  reign  of  .John  as  follows: — ••  I.  All 
tenants  in  cliier  had  a  constitutional  riglit 
to  attend,  and  ought  to  be  summoned ;  but 
whether  they  could  attend  without  a  sum- 
mons is  not  maniTest.  2.  The  summons 
was  usually  directed  to  the  higher  barons, 
LoA  to  sucli  of  a  second  class  as  the  king 
pleased,  many  being  omitted  for  different 
rea.<tons,  tliougli  all  had  a  right  to  it.  3. 
On  orcoi^ions  wtien  money  was  not  to  be 
demanded,  but  alterations  made  in  the 
law,  BonvB  of  these  second  borons,  or 
tenants  in  cliief,  were  at  least  oocosionally 
summoned,  but  whether  by  strict  right  or 
usage   does   not   fully   appear.     4.  The 


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127 


Irrrguiamy  of  phasing  over  many  or  them 
when  councils  were  held  for  the  purpose 
of  levying  money,  led  t*  the  provision  in 
the  Great  Charter  of  John  by  which  the 
king  promises  that  they  shall  be  sum- 
moned through  the  sheriff  on  such  occa- 
sions; but  the  promise  does  not  extend 
to  any  other  sutject  of  parliamentary 
deliberation  "  iMiddU  Ages,  ill.  p.  213). 

Under  the  Conqueror  and  his  sons  it 
was  customary  to  assemble  such  councils 
at  the  three  great  festivals  of  Christmas, 
Easter,  and  Whitsuntide,  and  on  other 
occasions  when  needed.  It  does  not, 
however,  appear  probable  that  such  a 
council  could  have  assembled  so  fre- 
quently in  any  Uirge  numbers.  What 
limitation  it  imposed  on  the  royal  preroga- 
tive in  the  matter  of  legislation  cannot  be 
determined.  Practically,  the  authority  of 
the  Norman  kings  was  absolute. 

4.  L^uio^iVm.— There  was  indeed  little 
or  no  legislation  under  the  early  Norman 
kings;  fbr  the  charters  and  other  acts 
which  they  passed  were  rather  conflrma- 
tkms  of  ancient  privileges  than  new 
enaeiments.  Even  in  Normandy  itself 
there  seems  to  be  no  trace  of  Norse  Juris- 
prudence, nor  of  ^tats  nor  courts,  previous 
to  the  conquest  of  England;  the  law 
wems  to  have  lain  in  the  breast  of  the 
aorerelgns  (Palgrave,  Normandy  and 
England,  il.  2M).  There  is  at  all  events 
no  monument  of  Jurisprudence  previous 
lo  that  epocli ;  and,  though  a  similarity 
may  be  subsequently  traced  between  the 
English  and  Norman  laws,  yet  England 
indisputably  gave  more  than  she  borrowed. 
Learned  men  have  even  maintained  that 
tbe  (amoUM  Norman  code  called  the  Grand 
ObAtHMier,  or  (Ireat  Customary,  was  of 
Anglo-Saxon  origin;  nay,  the  later  Nor- 
mans claimed  Magna  Oarta  as  the 
loumlation  of  their  franchises.*  In  Eng- 
land the  earliest  legisdation  of  the  Norman 
•overeigni*  must  be  referred  to  the  time 
of  Henry  II.,  and  most  of  the  changes 
nsikiily  ascribed  to  the  Conqueror  were 
really  not  effected  before  that  reign.f 

5.  CourU  qf  /t(«(ux.— Besides  the 
Great  Council  of  the  realm,  the  king  h.nd 
an  ordinary  or  select  council,  for  admi- 
nistrative and  Judicial  purposes,  which 
was  also  called  Curia  or  Aula  HegU  (the 

*  Pakrar*.  Narmandpatnl  Kiigtauit,  t  pp.  107, 
Mq.  MMlnoCM.  p.790.  Cuiiip.  HnlUm.  MUM*  A  fffs, 
IL  p  8U.  Hm  Gnuid  Cuataiiiai7  llirir.  bowvrer. 
"  •  tbe  roUactloa  to  Kolf :  I.npvenb«rg.  ^  nglo- 


^trman  Ktng$,  bj  Thorpe,  p.  92: 
t  I'alBiar*.  ma.  p.  Hi ;  UaUam.  MM.  p.  4J3, 


King's  Court).  It  attended  the  person  of 
the  sovereign,  and  was  composed  of  tbe 
great  officers  of  state;  as  the  chief  Jus- 
ticiary,* chancellor,  constable,  marshal, 
chamberlain,  treasurer,  steward,  and 
others  nominated  by  the  king.  These 
were  his  councillors  in  political  matters, 
and  also  the  supreme  court  of  Justice  of 
the  kingdom,  in  which  the  king  some- 
t.mcs  sat  in  person.  A  particular  branch  of 
it,  afterwards  known  as  the  Oaurt  <^  Ex- 
chequer, was  established  in  very  early  times 
for  the  administration  of  all  matters  con- 
nected with  the  revenue.  Its  existence  can 
at  all  events  be  traced  to  tbe  reign  of 
Henry  I.  By  dc-grees,  when  suits  began 
to  multiply  in  the  king's  court,  and  plead- 
ings became  more  technical  and  intricate, 
another  branch  was  detached  for  the 
decision  of  private  suits,  which  was  called 
the  (\)urt  if  Oommon  Pleas.  It  seems  io 
have  had  its  beginning  in  tbe  reign 
of  Richard  I. ;  but  it  was  completely 
established  by  Magna  Carta,  of  whidi 
the  Uth  clause  enacted,  '*  Common  Pleas 
shall  not  foUuw  our  court,  but  be  held  in 
some  certain  place."  The  Court  qf  King's 
Bench,  primarily  intended  to  decide  suits 
between  tlie  king  and  hU  subjects,  was 
formed  out  of  the  ancient  Curia  Regit. 
The  rolls  of  the  King's  Bench  begin  In 
the  sixth  year  of  Richard  I.f 

The  County  courts  and  Hundred-courts 
still  continued  as  in  Anglo-Saxon  times. 
All  the  freeholders  of  the  county,  even  the 
greatest  barons,  were  obliged  to  attend  the 
sheriffs  in  these  courts,  and  assist  in  the 
administration  of  Justice.  Such  courts, 
which  were  unknown  upon  the  continent, 
served  as  a  powerful  check  upon  the 
courts  of  the  barons.  Appeals  were 
allowed  from  the  county  and  baronial 
courts  to  the  court  of  the  king ;  and,  lest 
the  expense  and  trouble  of  a  Journey  to 
court  should  discourage  suitors,  itinerant 
judges  {in  Byre)  were  established  In  the 
relgnofHenryII.(A.D.  1176).  Theymade 
their  circuits  through  the  kingdom,  and 
tried  all  causes  that  were  brought  before 
them;  for  this  purpose  England  was 
divided  into  six  districts. 

In  Judicial  proceedings  the  ancient  prac- 
tice of  compurgation    by  the   oaths   of 

•  The  chlH  jurtldarj  prerided  In  the  klii»:'i  court, 
and  WW.  bjr  virtue  of  hU  offlre.  the  recent  of  tbe 
kingdom  during  tbe  abewnce  of  the  nuvereign.  Ua 
was  thus  tbe  RreAtett  aubjrct  in  the  klnKdooi. 

t  Armrding  to  Froft-isur  Slubbs.  it  was  not  antll 
the  end  of  the  reiini  of  Henry  IIL  that  the  ancient 
Curia  was  divided  into  then  wparata  and  bidtpsa 


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NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Chap,  til 


friends  and  of  trial  by  ordeal  (p.  77)  sUU 
aobsisted  under  the  Norman  kings ;  but 
tbe  trial  by  ordeal  was  to  some  extent 
enperseded  by  that  of  combat,  which,  if 
not  introduced  by  the  Normans,  was  very 
seldom  practised  before  the  Conquest. 
Trial  by  ordeal  was  abolished  by  tbe 
fourth  Uteran  Council  in  1216.  The 
privilege  of  compurgation,  an  evident 
source  of  perjury,  was  abolished  by 
Henry  II.,  though  by  some  exemption  it 
continued  to  be  preserved  long  afterwards 
in  London  and  in  boroughs.  A  regulation 
of  Henry  11.  introduced  an  important 
change  in  suits  for  the  recovery  of  land,  by 
allowing  a  tenant  who  was  unwilling  to 
risk  a  Judicial  combat  to  put  himself  on 
the  assize;  that  is,  to  refer  the  case  to 
four  knights  chosen  by  the  sheriff,  who  in 
their  turn  selected  twelve  more.  These 
twelve  decided  the  case  by  their  verdict ; 
but  this  proceeding  was  limited  to  the 
king's  court  and  that  of  the  itinerant  Jus- 
tices, and  never  took  place  in  the  county 
court  or  in  that  of  the  hundred.  This 
practice  will  again  claim  our  attention 
when  we  come  to  trace  the  history  of  trial 
by  Jury. 

6.  Revenue  qf  the  Crown.— The  power 
of  the  Norman  kings  was  supported  by  a 
great  revenue  that  was  fixed,  perpetual, 
and  independent  of  the  subject.  The  first 
branch  of  the  king's  stated  revenue  was 
the  royal  demesnes  or  crown  lands.  AVhen 
the  king  was  not  content  with  the  stated 
rents,  he  levied,  at  his  pleasure,  heavy 
taxes,  called  tallaget,  on  the  inhabitants 
both  of  town  and  country  who  lived  within 
his  demesne.  They  were  assessed  by  the 
itinerant  Justices  on  their  circuits.  l*he 
tenants  in  capUe  were  bound,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  to  furnish  in  war  a  soldier 
for  every  knight's  fee;  and  if  they  neg- 
lected to  do  8o,  they  were  obliged  to  pay 
the  king  a  coniiwsition  in  money  called 
eKuatje  or  taitage.  Another  tjix,  levied 
upon  all  the  landa  at  the  king's  discretion, 
was  Daiufffld,  which  was  continued  after 
all  apprehension  of  the  Danon  had  passed 
away.  Before  the  Conquest  it  was  a  tax 
of  two  shillings  on  every  hide  of  land, 
and  was  raised  by  William  I.  to  six 
diillings.  Tbe  name  disappears  after 
1163,  but  the  carucage  levied  by  Richard 
I.  was  virtually  the  same.  The  king  also 
derived  a  considerable  revenue  from  cer- 
tain burthens  to  which  his  military  tenants 
were  liable.  The  most  important  of  these 
feudal  incidents,  as  they  were  called,  were 


Reliefe,  Fines  upon  Allenatfon.  Escheats, 
Forfeitures,  Aids. Wardship,  and  Marriage. 

1.  A  Reli^,  which  was  the  same  as  the 
Saxon  kerud,  was  a  fine  paid  by  the  heir 
to  bis  lord  on  succeeding  to  a  fief.  The 
fine  was  at  first  arbitrary,  but  by  Magne 
Carta  it  was  fixed  at  about  a  fourth  of 
the  annual  value  of  the  fieC.  The  king 
was  entitled  to  a  sort  of  extra  relief,  called 
Primer  Seisin^  on  the  death  of  any  of  his 
tenants  in  capite,  provided  the  heir  had 
attained  his  majority.  The  primer  seisia 
consisted  of  one  year's  profits  of  the  land. 

2.  A  Fine  upon  Alienation  was  a  som 
paid  to  the  lord  when  the  tenant  trans- 
ferred his  fief  to  another.  3.  An  BKkeat 
was  when  a  fief  reverted  to  the  superior 
lord  in  consequence  of  the  tenant  having 
died  without  heirs.  4.  A  ftnfeiture  arose 
from  the  vassal  failing  to  perform  his 
duties  towards  either  his  lord  or  the  state. 
"Under  rapacious  kings,  such  as  the 
Norman  line  in  England,  a  new  doctrine 
was  introduced,  the  corruption  of  blood, 
by  which  the  heir  was  effectually  excluded 
from  deducing  his  title,  at  any  distant 
time,  through  an  atUtnted  ancestor" 
(llallam).  5.  Aids  were  contributions 
which  the  lord  was  entitled  to  demand 
from  his  vassal  under  certain  circum- 
stances. They  were  raised  according  to 
local  customs,  and  were  felt  to  be  a  great 
grievance.  Three  only  were  retained  by 
Magna  CarU— to  make  the  lord's  eldest 
son  a  knight,  to  marry  bis  eldest  daugh- 
ter, and  to  ransom  bis  person  ftrom  cap- 
tivity. 6.  Wardship  was  the  right  of 
the  lord  to  the  care  of  his  tenant's  person 
during  his  minority,  and  to  receive  certain 
profits  of  his  estate.  7.  Marriage,  The 
lord  might  tender  a  husband  to  his  female 
ward  in  her  minority,  and  if  she  rejected 
the  proposal  she  forfeited  the  sum  which 
the  guardian  could  have  obtained  for  such 
an  alliance.  This  was  afterwards  ex- 
tended to  male  wards.  In  both  cases 
it  became  the  source  of  great  abuse  and 
extortion. 

7.  The  Church.— The  policy  of  William 
the  Conqueror  was  favourable  to  the 
pope,  who  had  supported  hb  claims  te 
tbe  English  throne.  One  of  his  most 
important  innovations  was  the  separation 
of  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdictions, 
which  had  been  united  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
times.  He  prohibited  the  blahops  from 
sitting  in  the  county  courts,  and  allowed 
ecclesiastical  causes  to  be  tried  in  spiritual 
courts  only. 


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129 


t.  FAZmo^w^— A  great  part  of  the  popu- 
lation under  Um  Anglo-Norman  kings 
was  in  a  state  of  slavery,  to  which  the 
name  of  ViUenage  was  applied.  In  the 
Anglo-Saxon  times  a  large  part  of  the 
popolation  consisted  of  osorl*,  or  free- 
men, forming  a  class  between  the  thanes 
and  the  serfs.  But  mider  the  Normans 
most  of  the  ceorls  were  thrust  down  into 
slaTery,  and  the  Anglo-Saxcm  ceorls  and 
■erfi  became  the  Norman  viUeim.  It 
would  seem,  however,  that  the  ceorls  who 
had  acquired  land  were  allowed  in  many  ' 
cases  to  retain  their  land  and  their  free- 
dom. These  are  the  Socmanni  or  Socmen 
of  Domesday  Book,  the  same  as  the  small 
lk«eholder8  or  yeomanry  of  later  times. 
The  condition  of  the  villeins  appears  to 
have  increased  in  rigour  under  the  succes- 
sive Anglo-Norman  kings  down  to  the 
time  of  Henry  II.,  at  which  period  the 
vfUein  was  absolutely  dependent  upon  the 
will  of  his  lord,  and  was  incapable  of 
holding  any  property  of  his  own.  Yet  he 
appears  to  have  possessed  some  personal 
rights;  for.  though  liable  to  be  sold  by 
his  master,  an  action  would  lie  against  the 
latter  for  murder,  rape,  or  mutilation. 
Villeins  were  divided  into  two  classes, 
called  viUeim  r^ardant  and  viUeint  in 
grots.  The  former  were  adtcn'pti  gUha^ 
or  attached  to  certain  lands ;  and  when 
these  lands  changed  owners  the  villeins 
regardant  became  the  property  of  the  new 
possessors.  The  viXUint  in  grotty  on  the 
contrary,  might  be  sold  in  open  market, 
and  transferred  from  hand  to  hand  with- 
out regard  to  any  land  or  settlement. 
They  were  called  en  grots  beoause  this 
term,  in  our  legal  phraseology,  indicates 
property  held  absolutely,  and  without 
reference  to  any  other.  But  there  appears 
to  hAve  been  no  rasential  difference  in  the 
condition  of  these  villeins.  The  way  in 
which  the  villeins  emerged  fh>m  this 
degraded  position  into  the  peasantry  of 
England  will  be  narrated  at  the  end  of  the 
next  book. 

B.  AUTHORITIES  FOR  NORMAN 
HISTORY 

The  principal  sources  of  Norman  his- 
tory are: — Dudo  of  St.  Quentin,  whose 
work  contains  the  lives  of  the  first  three 
dukee  (in  Duchesne);  'Williani  of  Ju- 
ffliiges  (Gemeticensis),  who  epitomized  the 
preceding  work,  and  continued  it  down  to 
ebe  battle  of  Hastings  [ibid.] ;  William  of 
Poitiers,  Outa  WiUelmi  ducis  yorvMn- 


norvim  et  regis  Anglorum  [ibid.^ ;  Or- 
dericus  yitaUs,  Historia  Eecl.  [t'Md.]  ; 
Wace,  or  Qasse,  Moman  de  Eou;  tht 
Bypodigma  Neustria  [Parker,  Camden]. 

llie  best  modem  works  on  the  early 
history  of  Normandy  are :— The  EpiUme 
prefixed  to  Lappenberg's  Hist,  of  England 
under  the  AVorman  Kings^  translated  and 
supplemented  by  Benjamin  Thorpe ;  Pal- 
grave,  Hist  <if  Normandy  and  England^ 
8vo;  Thierry,  Histoirt  de  la  ConquCte  de 
VAnglecerrepar  les  yormands,  4  vob.  8vo. 

C.  AUTHORITIES  FOR  ANGLO- 
NORMAN  HISTORY. 

Many  of  these  authorities  have  been 
already  enumerated  in  Note  D,  appended 
to  Book  i.  Thus,  of  those  mentioned 
there,  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicles  con- 
tinue to  the  year  11 M;  Florence  of 
Worcester  to  1108;  Simeon  of  Durham, 
with  the  continuation,  to  1156;  Eadmer 
to  1122;  Henry  of  Huntingdon  to  1154; 
Brampton  to  1199;  Hovedcn  to  1201; 
William  of  Malmesbury's  Gesta  Regum 
and  Qeata  Pontificum  to  1142 ;  Hugo 
Condidus  to  1155;  Matthew  of  West- 
minster implores  Ilistoriarum)  to  1307; 
Roger  of  Wendover  to  1236. 

Of  the  authorities  for  Norman  history 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  note,  the 
work  of  Ordericus  A'italls  is  also  service- 
able for  Anglo-Norman  history.  It 
comes  down  to  the  year  1141. 

Robert  de  Thorigny,  a  monk  of  the 
abbey  of  Bee,  continued  the  history  of 
William  of  Jumieges  down  to  the  year 
1137 ;  and  it  forms  the  8th  book  of  that 
work  as  published  in  Cumden's  AnglicOt 
yormanica,  &c.  William  of  Newburgh 
treats  of  the  period  from  1066  to  1197.  The 
Chronicle  of  Radulphus  de  Diceto,  a  dean 
of  St.  Paul's,  with  a  continuation,  comes 
down  to  the  year  1199,  and  is  published 
in  Twysden's  and  the  Rolls'  Collection. 
The  Chronicle  of  Gervase  of  Canterbury 
reaches  to  about  the  same  period  as  the 
preceding  (ibidX  Benedict  of  Peter- 
borough's Chronicle  embraces  the  period 
from  1170  to  1192  (in  Heame  and  the 
Rolls'  Series).  Walter  of  Coventry  con- 
tinued Hoveden,  besides  writing  other 
chronicles ;  but  his  works  exist  only  in 
manuscript.  Ralph  of  Coggeshall,  who 
died  about  1227.  wrote  a  Chronicom 
Anglicanum  from  the  Conquest  to  the 
year  1209.  It  will  be  found  in  Mart^ne 
and  Durand's  Collection,  and  more  com- 
plete in  the  Rolls'  Series.    The  chronidM 


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NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRA.TIONS. 


Chap,  vn, 


ol  St.  Alban's,  fonnerly  cited  under  the 
name  of  Matthew  Paris,  are  in  reality 
by  three  peraona — Roger  of  Wendover, 
Matthew  Paris,  and  WillUm  Rishanger. 
Roger  of  Weiuiover,  who  has  been  already 
mentioned,  is  a  contemporary  authority 
(hnn  1201  to  1235.  His  work  has  been 
published  by  the  l!:ngU8h  Historical 
Society.  The  principal  work  of  Matthew 
i>ari8  is  the  HUtoria  Major  (a.d.  1066  to 
1 269,  with  a  continuation  to  1 273);  but  only 
the  portion  fh>m  1235  to  1259  belongs 
to  M.  Paris,  the  remainder  being  adopted 
fh>m  Wendover  with  interpolations. 
William  Rishanger  is  the  continuator  of 
Paris  from  1259  to  1307.  and  hU  work 
therefore  belongs  to  the  period  embraced  in 
the  next  book— «lso  in  the  Roils'  Series. 

Other  works  that  may  be  mentioned 
relating  to  the  present  period  are— a 
chronicle  firom  1066  to  1289,  by  Thomas 
Wikes  (Oale  and  in  the  Rolls'  Series). 
Many  chronicles  of  this  period  bear  no 
author's  name,  and  are  called  after  the 
abbey  or  monastery  in  which  they  were 
composed  or  preserved.  Among  the 
principal  of  them  may  be  named -the 
AnnaU*  BurtonenaeSy  a.d.  llU-1263 
(in  Fulman's  Collection)  ;  AnndUt 
Waverleimtet,  1066-1291  (Qale) ;  Chro- 
nicon  de  MdUroi  (Melrose),  731-1270. 
(Fulman  and  the  Bannatyne  Club.  Also 
ir  the  Rolls'  Series.) 

Among   the   works   relating  to  par- 


ticular periods  may  be  named  the  IJvei 
of  Thomas  Becket  by  John  of  Salisbury, 
Benedict  of  Peterborough,  Edward  Orim« 
Herbert  of  Boeham,  and  others,  pub- 
lished by  Dr.  Giles,  in  the  Patret 
Kcdetift  AnglicaruK, 

Richard  of  Devizes  wrote  a  chronicle 
of  the  first  three  years  of  Richard  I., 
which  is  published  by  the  English  His- 
torical Society.  The  Itinerarium  Regit 
Ricardi  (in  Qale)  contains  an  account 
of  king  Richard's  Crusade.  It  was  for- 
merly wrongly  ascribed  to  Geoffrey 
Vinesauf,  but  wa.n  probably  written  by 
Richard,  canon  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
London. 

Among  modem  works  relating  to 
this  period  may  be  mentioned  that  of 
Thierry,  alluded  to  in  the  preceding 
note;  Lappenberg's  Hi»t.  qf  England 
under  the  Norman  Kings,  translated  by 
Thorpe  (also  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
ceding note),  which  comes  down  to  the 
end  of  Stephen's  reign  ;  the  continu- 
ation of  this  work  by  Pauli,  Geschickte 
von  England  ;  and  Lord  Lyttelton's 
Life  of  Henry  II.  (6  vols.  8vo).  More 
important  still  are  the  works  ot  Mr. 
Freeman  and  Professor  Stubbs,  and 
especially,  for  the  reigns  and  characters 
of  Henry  II.  and  Richdrd  1.,  Professor 
Slubbs's  Introductions  to  the  Rolls' 
Editions  of  Benedict  of  i^terborough  aiMl 
the  Memorialt  qf  Richard  I. 


BScbard  L    From  his  monument  at  Fontevraud. 


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John.    From  his  tomb  in  Worcester  Isabella.    From  her  tomb  at  Fontevranl 

Cathodnd. 

BOOK  in. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF 
THE    ENGLISH    CONSTITUTION. 

FROM  THE  ACCESSION  OF  JOHN  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  BICHABD  ni. 
A.D.   1199-1485. 


CHAPTER  Vni. 
HOUSE  OF  PLANT  AGENET—Gmtfnaeil. 

JOHN   AND   HENRY    III.      A.D.    1191)-1272. 

§  1.  Introduction.  §  2.  Accession  and  marriage  of  JoiiN.  §  3.  War  with 
France.  Murder  of  pnnce  Arthur.  John  is  expelled  from  Fi  ince.  §  4. 
The  king's  quarrel  with  the  court  of  Rome.  Interdict  of  the  kingdom. 
§  5.  Excouiinunication  and  submission  of  the  king.  He  does  homage  to 
the  pope.  §  6.  War  with  France.  §  7.  Discontent  and  insurrection  of 
the  barons.  §  8.  Magna  Carta.  §  9.  Civil  wars.  Prince  Louis  called 
over.  Death  and  character  of  the  king.  §  10.  Acce.ssion  of  Henry  HI. 
General  pacification.  §  11.  Commotions.  War  with  Fiance.  §  13. 
The  king's  administration.   His  partiality  to  toreigtiers,     §  liJ.  Usurp»- 


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132 


JOHN. 


Chap.  ▼m. 


tions  and  ezactioms  of  the  court  of  Rome.  §  H.  Richard,  earl  of  Corn- 
wall, king  of  the  Romans.  Simon  de  Montfort.  §  15.  Parliament  of 
Oxford,  or  the  Mad  Parliament.  §  16.  Opposition  to  the  barons.  Treaty 
with  France.  §  17.  Civil  wars.  Battle  of  Lewes.  §  18.  Leicester's 
parliament.  House  of  Commons.  §  19.  Battle  of  Evesham  and  death 
of  Leicester.  §  20.  Prince  Edw»rd*s  Crusade.  Death  and  character  of 
the  king. 

§  1.  The  reign  of  John  marks  an  important  epoch  in  the  history 
of  the  English  nation.  Under  the  early  Norman  kings  there  had 
heen  two  different  races  dwelling  upon  the  English  soil,  speaking 
different  languages,  and  jjossessing  no  common  interests ;  but  during 
the  reigns  of  Henry  II.  and  Richard  I.  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  Nor- 
mans became  fused  into  the  English  people.*  Not  only  were  the 
foundations  laid,  but  much  of  the  superstructure  was  reared,  of 
those  liberties  which  are  still  the  glory  and  the  safety  of  the 
English  nation. 

§2.  John,  b.  1167;  r.  1199-1216.— John  was  the  fifth  and 
youngest  son  of  Henry  II.,  and  as  he  received  from  his  father 
no  great  fiefs,  like  his  brothers,  he  obtained  the  surname  of  San$ 
terre  or  Lackland,  by  which  he  was  commonly  known.  Although 
Geoffrey,  the  fourth  son  of  Henry  II.,  had  left  two  children,  Arthur 
and  Eleanor,  and  John  had  attempted  to  deprive  Richard  of  his 
crown,  yet  Richard  was  induced,  by  the  influence  of  their  mother, 
to  name  John  as  his  successor.  He  was  acknowledged  by  the  Nor- 
man barons ;  but  Arthur,  who  had  become  duke  of  Brittany  in  right 
©f  his  mother,  was  not  left  without  supporters.  The  nobles  of 
Anjou,  Maine,  and  Touraine  immediately  declared  in  his  favour,  and 
applied  for  assistance  to  the  French  monarch  as  their  superior  lord. 
Philip,  who  desired  only  an  occasion  to  embarrass  John,  and  dis- 
member his  dominions,  embraced  Arthur's  cause,  and  sent  him  to 
Paris  to  be  educated  along  with  his  own  son  Louis.  John,  after 
being  crowned  at  Westminster  on  the  27th  of  May,t  crossed  over  to 
France  in  order  to  conduct  the  war  against  Philip,  and  to  recover 
the  revolted  provinces  from  his  nephew,  Arthur.  Constance,  the 
prince's  mother,  seized  with  a  jealousy  that  Philip  intended  to 
usurp  his  dominions,  found  means  to  carry  off  her  son  secretly  from 
Paris.  She  put  him  into  the  hands  of  his  uncle,  and  restored  the 
provinces  which  had  adhered  to  her  son.  From  this  incident  Philip 
saw  that  he  could  not  hope  to  make  any  progress  against  John ; 
and  the  two  monarchs  entered  into  a  treaty  (1200)  by  which  they 
adjusted  the  limits  of  their  several  territories.     John,  now  secure. 


•  See  Not«8  and  Illustrations  (A)  on 
the  amalgamation  of  the  Saxon  and 
Norman  races. 

t  This  was  Ascension  Dajr,  and  Joba'e 


regnal  years  were  dated,  not  from  May 
27th  of  each  year,  but  from  that  moveaUe 
feasl,  thus,  they  vary  from  May  a  to 
June  2. 


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AJ).  1199-1206.  DKATH  OF  ARTHUR.  133 

as  he  imagined,  on  the  side  of  Prance,  indulged  his  passion  for 
Isabella,  the  daughter  and  heir  of  Aymar  Taillefer,  count  of 
Angoul^me,  a  lady  of  whom  he  had  become  much  enamoured, 
though  his  queen,  the  heiress  of  the  family  of  Gloucester,  was  still 
living.  Isabella  had  been  affianced  to  the  count  de  la  Marcbe,  and 
was  already  consigned  to  the  care  of  that  nobleman's  brother,  though, 
by  reason  of  her  tender  years,  the  marriage  had  not  yet  been  con- 
summated. The  passion  of  John  made  him  overlook  all  these 
obstacles ;  he  persuaded  the  count  of  Angoul^me  to  carry  off  his 
daughter  from  her  guardian;  and  having,  on  some  pretence  or 
other,  procured  a  divorce  from  his  own  wife,  he  espoused  Isabella 
regardless  of  the  resentment  of  the  injured  count 

§  3.  But  John's  government,  equally  feeble  and  violent,  gave 
great  offence  to  his  Poitevin  barons,  who  appealed  to  the  king  of 
France,  and  demanded  redress  from  him  as  their  superior  lord. 
Philip  perceived  his  advantage,  interposed  in  behalf  of  the  barons, 
and  began  to  talk  in  a  high  and  menacing  style  to  the  king  of 
England.  The  young  duke  of  Brittany,  who  was  now  rising  to 
man's  estate,  sensible  of  the  dangerous  character  of  his  uncle, 
determined  to  seek  both  his  security  and  elevation  by  a  union 
with  Philip  and  the  malcontent  barons  (1202).  He  joined  the 
French  army,  which  had  begun  hostilities  against  the  king  of 
England :  he  was  received  with  great  marks  of  distinction  and 
knighted  by  Philip,  espoused  his  daughter  ISfary,  and  was  invested 
not  only  in  the  duchy  of  Brittany,  but  in  the  counties  of  Anjou  and 
Maine,  which  he  had  formerly  resigned  to  his  uncle.  Success 
attended  the  allies  till  an  event  happened  which  seemed  to  turn 
the  scale  in  favour  of  John,  and  to  give  him  a  decided  superiority 
over  his  enemies.  He  fell  on  Arthur's  camp,  who  was  besieging 
Mirabeau,  before  that  prince  was  aware  of  the  danger,  dispersed 
his  army,  took  him  prisoner,  together  with  the  most  considerable 
of  his  revolted  barons,  and  returned  in  triumph  to  Normandy. 
The  greater  part  of  the  prisoners  were  sent  over  to  England,  but 
Arthur  was  sSut  up  in  the  castle  of  Falaise.  His  fate  is  in- 
volved in  obscurity;  but  there  is  little  reason  to  doubt  that  he 
was  put  to  death  by  John's  command,  though  probably  not  by 
the  king's  own  hand. 

The  states  of  Brittany  now  carried  their  complaints  before  Philip 
as  their  liege  lord,  and  demanded  justice  for  the  violence  com- 
mitted by  John  on  the  person  of  Arthur  (1203).  Philip  received 
their  application  with  pleasure,  summoned  John  to  trial,  and,  on 
his  non-appearance,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  peers,  passed  sen- 
tence upon  him,  declared  him  guilty  of  felony,  and  adjudged  him 
to  forfeit  to  his  superior  lord  all  his  seignories  and  fiefs  in  France. 
8 


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134  JOHN.  CuAP.  vm. 

Philip  now  embraced  the  project  of  expelling  the  English,  or  rather 
the  English  king,  from  France,  and  of  annexing  to  the  crown  the 
many  considerable  fiefs,  which  during  several  ages  had  been  dismem- 
bered from  it.  Whilst  he  was  making  considerable  progress  in  this 
design,  John  remained  in  total  inactivity  at  Rouen,  passing  the 
time,  with  his  young  wife,  in  amusements,  as  if  his  state  had  been 
in  the  most  profound  tranquillity,  and  his  affairs  in  the  most  pros- 
perous condition.  Philip  pursued  his  victorious  career  without 
opposition.  Town  after  town  fell  into  his  hands.  At  length,  by 
the  surrender  of  Touen,  the  whole  of  Normandy  was  reunited  to 
the  crown  of  France,  about  three  centuries  after  the  cession  of  it 
by  Charles  the  Simple  to  Rollo,  the  first  duke  (1204).  Philip 
carried  his  victorious  army  into  the  western  provinces;  he  soon 
reduced  AnjoU,  Maine,  and  Touraine ;  and  thus  the  French  crown, 
during  the  reign  of  one  able  and  active  prince,  received  such  an 
accession  of  power  and  grandeur,  as  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
events  it  would  have  required  ages  to  attain. 

§  4.  The  papal  chair  was  filled  at  this  time  by  Innocent  III., 
who,  being  endowed  with  a  lofty  and  enterprising  genius,  gave  full 
scope  to  his  ambition,  and  attempted,  perhaps  more  openly  than 
any  of  his  predecessors,  to  convert  that  suiieriority  which  was 
yielded  him  by  all  the  European  princes  into  a  real  dominion  over 
them.  A  favourable  incident  enabled  him  to  extend  his  usurpa- 
tions over  so  contemptible  a  prince  as  John.  Hubert  Walter,  the 
primate,  died  in  1205 ;  and,  as  the  chapter  of  Christchurch,  Canter- 
bury, claimed  the  right  of  electing  their  prelate,  some  of  the  juniors 
of  the  order  met  clandestinely  on  the  night  of  Hubert's  death, 
and  chose  Reginald,  their  sub-prior,  fur  his  successor.  Having 
enjoined  him  the  strictest  secrecy,  they  sent  him  immediately  to 
Rome,  in  order  to  obtain  confinnation  of  his  election.  The  vanity 
of  Reginald  prevailed  over  his  prudence.  He  had  no  sooner  arrived 
in  Flanders  than  he  revealed  the  pur])ose  of  his  journey,  which 
was  immediately  made  known  in  England.  The  king  was 
enraged  at  the  novelty  and  temerity  of  the  attempt,  in  filling  so 
important  an  oftice  without  his  knowledge  or  consent.  'J'be  suffra- 
gans of  Canterbury,  accustomed  to  concur  in  the  choice  of  their 
primate,  were  no  less  displeased  at  their  own  exclusion ;  whilst 
the  senior  monks  of  Christchurch  repudiated  the  irregular  pro- 
ceedings of  their  juniors.  The  chapter,  at  the  command  of  the 
king,  now  chose  John  de  Grey,  bishop  of  Norwich,  for  their  primate, 
and  the  suffragans  subsequently  ac(iuiesced  in  the  choice.  The 
king  and  the  convent  of  Christchurch  despatched  twelve  monks  of 
that  order  to  support,  before  the  tribunal  of  Innocent,  the  election 
of  the  bishop.      But  Innocent,  refusing   to  recognize  their  elei> 


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A.D.  1204-1214.     INTERDICT  OF  INNOCENT  m.  135 

tion,  compelled  the  twelve  monks,  under  the  penalty  of  excom- 
munication, to  choose  for  their  primate  Stephen  Langton,  an 
Englishman  by  birth,  but  educated  in  France,  and  connected  by 
interest  and  attachments  with  the  see  of  Rome  (1207). 

§  6.  Inflamed  with  rage  when  he  heard  of  this  attempt  of  the 
court  of  Rome,  John  immediately  vented  his  passion  on  the  monks 
of  Chri>tchurch  for  consenting  to  Langton *s  appointment,  expelling 
them  from  the  convent  and  taking  possession  of  their  revenues. 
Innocent,  in  return,  placed  the  kingdom  under  an  interdict  (March 
23,  1208).  By  this  terrible  sentence  public  worship  and  the  sid- 
ministraiion  of  the  sacraments,  except  private  baptism,  were  sus- 
pended. Marriages  were  only  celebrated  outside  th**  churches,  and 
the  dead  were  buried  in  diiches  and  wa  te  places  without  funeral 
rites.  John  retaliated  by  seizing  the  projicrty  of  such  ff  the  clergy 
as  obeyed  the  interdict  It  was  followed  up  the  next  year  (IC09) 
by  a  threat  of  excommunication  .  and,  as  the  king  still  refused  to 
yield,  the  pope  in  1212  carried  out  the  threat,  absolved  the  king's 
subjects  from  their  oaths  of  allegiance,  and  called  upon  Philip  to 
carry  the  sentence  of  depositi«  n  into  effect.  The  French  monarch 
colli  cted  a  large  force  for  the  purpose  of  invading  England ;  and 
John,  finding  that  he  could  not  rely  ui)on  his  own  subjects,  agreed 
to  submit  to  the  lequirements  of  the  pope.  He  not  only  acknow- 
ledged Langton  as  primate,  but  he  issued  a  charter,  by  which 
he  re-signed  England  and  Ireland  to  God,  to  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
and  to  popt^  Innocent  and  his  successoi's  in  the  apostolic  chair,  nnd 
agreed  to  hold  these  dominions  as  feudatory  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  by  the  annual  payment  of  1000  marks.  In  token  of  this 
submission  he  did  homage  to  Pandulf,  the  papal  nuncio,  with  all 
the  ceremonies  required  by  the  feudal  law  of  vassals  to  their  liege 
lord  and  superior  (May  15,  1213). 

§  6.  Returning  to  Franco,  Pandulf  congratulated  Philip  oh  the 
success  of  his  pious  enterprise ;  and  informed  him  that,  as  John 
had  now  made  his  kingdom  a  part  of  St.  Peter's  imtrimony,  no 
('hristian  prince  could  attack  him  without  manifest  and  flagrant 
impiety.  Enraged  at  this  intelligence,  Philip  resolved  to  continue 
his  enterprise,  although  an  English  fleet  assembled  under  William 
Longsword,  earl  of  Salisbury,  the  king's  natural  brother,  had 
attacked  the  French  in  their  harbours,  destroyed  and  captured  a 
great  number  of  their  ships  in  the  Flemish  harbour  of  Damme,  and 
Philip,  to  prevent  the  rest  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  set  fire  to  them  himself. 

§  7.  When  the  interdict  was  removed,  John  went  over  to 
Poitou  (1214),  to  fulfil  his  part  in  a  great  alliance  which  he  had 
formed  against  France,  and  carried  war  into  Philip's  dominions.    At 


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186  JOHN.  ChiAP.  vm. 

the  sanic  time  his  nephew,  the  emperor  Otho  IV.,  aided  by  English 
mercenaries,  InTaded  France  from  the  side  of  Flanders.  The  great 
and  decisive  victory  gained  by  the  king  of  France  at  Eouvines, 
in  July,  established  for  ever  the  glory  of  Philip,  and  gave  full 
secarity  to  all  his  dominions.  The  earl  of  Salisbury  was  taken 
prisoner ;  and  John,  baffled  in  his  great  scheme,  and  deserted  by 
the  nobles  of  Poitou,  concluded  a  five  years'  truce  at  Chinon 
(September  18). 

Equally  odious  and  contemptible  in  public  and  private  life, 
he  had  affronted  the  barons  by  his  insolence,  dishonoured  their 
fiamilies  by  his  gallantries,  enraged  them  by  his  tyranny,  provoked 
the  rising  power  of  the  towns,  and  given  discontent  to  all  ranks  of 
men  by  his  repeated  exactions  and  impositions.  This  discontent 
was  further  aggravated  by  the  king's  demands  of  an  unusual 
Bcutage  from  the  disatl'ected  barons ;  and,  after  he  had  reconciled 
himself  to  the  pope  and  betrayed  the  independence  of  the  king- 
dom, all  his  subjects  thought  they  might  with  safety  and  honour 
insist  upon  a  redress  of  grievances.  Nothing  forwarded  this 
confederacy  so  much  as  the  concurrence  of  Langton,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  — a  man  whose  memory,  though  he  was  obtruded 
on  the  nation  by  the  encroachments  of  the  see  of  Rome,  ought 
always  to  be  respected  by  the  English.  The  patriotic  efforts  of 
this  prelate  were  warmly  seconded  by  William  Marshal,  eldest 
son  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke ;  and  to  these  two  distinguished  men 
the  English  nation  are  under  the  deepest  obligations  for  the  foun« 
dation  of  their  liberties.  In  a  meeting  at  St.  Paul's,  Langton 
showed  to  some  of  the  principal  barons  a  copy  of  Henry  I.'s 
charter,  which  he  said  he  had  happily  found  in  a  monastery ;  and 
he  exhorted  them  to  insist  on  its  renewal  and  observance.  Upon 
the  defeat  of  John's  continental  alliance,  the  barons  held  a  more 
solemn  meeting  at  St.  Edmundsbury,  and  swoie  before  the  high 
altar  to  obtain  from  the  king  a  charter  continuing  the  ancient 
liberties  of  England  (November,  1214).  Appearing  in  arms  at  his 
Christmas  court  in  London,  they  presented  their  claims.  He 
promised  an  answer  at  Easter,  but  in  order  to  break  up  the  con- 
federacy of  the  barons,  and  detach  their  clerical  associates,  he 
offered  (January  15, 1215)  to  relinquish  for  ever  that  important 
prerogative  for  which  his  father  and  his  ancestors  had  zealously 
contended,  by  yielding  to  the  chiux^h  freedom  of  election  on  all 
vacancies,  reserving  only  to  himself  the  congi  (Telire  and  con- 
firmation of  the  election ;  declaring,  further,  that,  if  either  of  these 
were  withheld,  the  choice  should  nevertheless  be  deemed  just  and 
valid.  Both  parties  had  sent  deputies  to  Rome,  requesting  the 
Interference  of  Innocent    But  the  pope,  preferring  the  cause  o( 


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I.D.  1314,  1215.  MAGNA  CABTA«  137 

John,  condexnr.cd  Langton  and  the  harons  for  the  course  they  had 
taken,  and  ordered  them  to  reconcile  themselves  with  the  king. 
The  harons,  who  had  advanced  too  far  to  recede,  assembled  at 
Stamford  (May  19) ;  and,  as  John  still  continued  to  temporize, 
choosing  Robe»  t  b  itz- Walter  for  their  general,  whom  they  called 
the  Marshal  of  the  army  of  God  and  of  Holy  Churchy  they  marched 
to  London  (Sunday,  May  *J4th).  They  were  received  without  oppo- 
sition ;  and  finding  the  great  superiority  of  their  force,  they  issued 
proclamations  requiring  other  barons  to  join  them.  After  wandering 
to  and  fro  between  Winchester  and  Windsor,  the  king  was  left  with 
only  a  few  adherents,  and  was  at  last  obliged  to  submit  at  discretion. 
§  8.  A  conference  between  the  king  and  the  barons  was  appointed 
at  Runnymede,  near  Staines,  a  place  which  has  ever  since  been 
celebrated  on  account  of  this  great  event.  The  two  parties 
encamped  apart,  like  open  enemies,  the  barons  on  the  field  oi 
Runnymede,  the  king  on  the  Buckinghamshire  side  of  the  river, 
and  the  conferences  were  held  on  a  little  island,  still  called  '*  Magna 
Carta  Island."  After  a  debate,  which  lasted  only  a  single  day, 
the  king,  with  a  facility  somewhat  suspicious,  granted  the  charter 
required  of  him  (June  15,  1215).  This  famous  deed,  commonly 
called  Magna  Carta,  or  The  Great  Charter,  either  granted  or 
secured  very  important  liberties  and  privileges  to  every  order  of 
men  in  the  kingdom — to  the  clergy,  to  the  barons,  and  to  the 
people.  The  privileges  offered  to  the  clergy  in  the  preceding 
January  are  confirmed  by  the  Great  Charter,  and  have  been  already 
enumerated.  The  barons  were  relieved  from  the  chief  grievances 
to  which  they  had  been  subjected  by  the  crown.  The  "  reliefs  "  of 
heirs  of  the  tenants  in  chief,  on  succeeding  to  an  inheritance,  were 
limited  to  a  certain  sum,  according  to  the  rank  of  the  tenant ; 
guardians  were  restrained  from  wasting  the  lands  of  their  wards ; 
heirs  were  to  be  married  without  disparagement,  and  widows  secured 
from  wedding  on  compulsion.  The  next  clause  was  still  more 
important.  It  enacted  that  no  "  scutage  "  or  "  aid  "  should  be  im- 
posed without  the  consent  of  the  Great  Council  of  the  kingdom, 
except  in  the  three  feudal  cases  of  the  king's  ransom,  the  knighting 
of  his  eldest  son,  and  the  marriage  of  his  eldest  daughter;  and  it 
provided  that  in  all  cases  of  aid  the  prelates,  earls,  and  greater 
barons  should  be  summoned  to  this  great  council,  each  by  a  par- 
ticular writ,  and  all  other  tenants  in  chief  by  a  geneial  summons  of 
the  sherifif.  The  privileges  and  immunities  thus  granted  to  the 
tenants  in  chief  were  extended  to  the  inferior  vassals.  The  fran- 
chises of  the  city  of  London,  and  of  all  other  cities  and  boroughs, 
were  declared  inviolable;  and  no  aids  were  to  be  required  of  London, 
except  by  the  consent  of  the  great  council.    One  weight  and  one 


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138 


JOHN. 


Chap.  Ym. 


measure  were  extended  throughout  the  kingdom.  The  freedom  of 
commerce  was  granted  to  alien  merchants.  The  court  of  Common 
Pleas  was  to  be  stationary,  instead  of  following  the  king's  person. 
But  "  the  essential  clauses "  of  Magna  Carta,  as  Mr.  Hallam  re- 
marks, are  those  "  which  protect  the  personal  liberty  and  property 
of  all  freemen,  by  giving  security  from  arbitrary  imprisonment 
and    arbitrary   spoliation.      ]No   fbki^han  shall  be   taken   or 

IMPRISONED,  OR  BE  DISPOSSESSED  [OF  HIS  FREEHOLD,  OR  LIBERTIES, 
OB  FREE  customs],  OR  BE  OUTLAWED,  OB  EXILED,  OR  ANT  OTHERWISE 
DESTROYED;  NOR  WILL  WE  PASS  UPON  HIM,  NOR  LET  PASS  UPON  HIM, 
BUT  BY  LAWFUL  JUDGMENT  OF  HIS  PEERS,  OR  BY  THE  LAW  OF  THE 
LAND.      We   will  sell   TO   NO  MAN,  WE  WILL  NOT  DENY  OR  DELAY 

TO  ANY  MAN  JUSTICE  OR  RIGHT."*  "It  is  obvious,"  Mr.  Hallam 
adds,  "  that  these  words,  interpreted  by  any  honest  court  of  law, 
convey  an  ample  security  for  the  two  main  rights  of  civil  society. 
From  the  era,  therefore,  of  king  John's  charter,  it  must  have  been 
a  clear  principle  of  our  constitution  that  no  man  can  be  detained  in 
prison  without  trial.  Whether  courts  of  justice  framed  the  writ  of 
Habeas  Corpus  in  conformity  to  the  spirit  of  this  clause,  or  found 
it  already  in  their  register,  it  became  from  that  era  the  right  of 
every  subject  to  demand  it."  t 

Other  clauses  of  the  charter  protected  freemen  and  even  villeins 
from  excessive  fines.  The  latter  were  not  to  be  deprived  of  their 
carts,  ploughs,  and  implements  of  industry.! 

The  barons  obliged  the  king  to  agree  that  London  should  remain 
in  their  hands,  and  the  Tower  be  consigned  to  the  custody  of  the 
primate,  till  the  15th  of  August  ensuing,  or  till  the  execution  of 
the  several  articles  of  the  Great  Charter.  The  better  to  insure  the 
same  end,  John  allowed  them  to  choose  five  and  twenty  members 
from  their  own  body,  as  conservators  of  the  public  liberties.  The 
authority  of  these  men  was  unbounded  in  extent  and  duration. 
Any  four  of  them  might  claim  redress  for  the  infraction  of  the 
charter,  and  in  event  of  refusal  proceed  to  levy  war  on  the  king 
himself.  All  men  throughout  the  kingdom  w^ere  bound,  under 
the  i>enalty  of  confiscation,  to  swear  oU'dience  to  them ;  and  the 
freeholders  of  each  county  were  to  choose  twelve  knights,  who 
were  to  make  reiK)rt  of  such  evil  customs  as  required  redress,  con- 
formably to  the  tenor  of  the  Great  Charter. 


•  These,  howover,  are  not  the  words  of 
Magna  Carta,  but  of  the  charter  a»  re- 
issued with  Bomc  altemUonsby  Henry  IH., 
and  caUed  the  Charter  of  Liberties.  The 
words  in  brackets  arc  not  in  the  original. 

+  Middle  Ages,  voL  ii.  p.  324. 

j  John's  charter  is  in  Kyiuer's  J'lcderUt 


in  Stubbs's  Select  CharUrtt  &c,  and  othei 
places.  Respecting  the  subsequent  con- 
firmations of  the  charter,  see  Notes  and 
lllnstrations  (B).  The  "Charter of  the 
Forests,"  which  was  a  supplement  to  the 
Great  Charter,  was  not  executed  till  tlM 
confirmation  of  the  latter  in  1217. 


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A.D.  1215,  121«.  CIVIL  WAR,  139 

To  all  these  regulations,  however  injurious  to  majesty,  John 
seemed  to  submit  passively ;  but  he  only  dissembled  till  he  should 
find  a  favourable  opportunity  for  annulling  all  his  concjessions,  and 
he  was  determined  to  throw  off,  at  all  hazards,  so  ignominious  a 
slavery.  He  secretly  sent  abr()ad  emissaries  to  enlist  foreign 
soldiers,  and  he  despatched  a  messenger  to  Rome,  in  order  to  lay 
before  the  pope  the  Great  Charter,  which  he  had  been  compelled 
to  grant,  and  to  complain,  before  that  tribunal,  of  the  violence 
which  had  been  imi>osed  upon  him.  Innocent,  considering  himself 
as  feudal  lord  of  the  kingdom,  was  incensed  at  the  temerity  of  the 
barons,  and  issued  a  bull,  in  which  he  annulled  the  charter,  as 
obtained  illegally,  as  a  violation  of  the  privileges  pertaining  to  a 
champion  of  the  Cross — for  John  had  assumed  the  Cross  some 
weeks  before— and  as  derogatory  to  those  rights  which  the  pope 
now  claimed  as  John's  feudal  superior  (August  25). 

§  9.  As  his  foreign  forces  arrived  along  with  this  bull,  the  king 
now  threw  off  the  mask;  and,  under  sanction  of  the  pojKj's  sentence, 
he  recalled  all  the  liberties  he  haJ  granted  to  his  subjects,  and  had 
solemnly  sworn  to  observe.  The  barons,  after  obtaining  the  Great 
Charter,  seem  to  have  been  lulled  into  a  fatal  security.  From  the 
first,  the  king  was  master  of  the  field,  and  imme<liately  laid  siege 
to  the  castle  of  Rochester,  which  was  obstinately  defended  by 
William  EPAubignd,  at  the  head  of  140  knights  with  their  re- 
tainers, but  was  at  last  reduced  by  famine.  The  capture  of 
D'Aubigni^,  the  best  officer  among  the  confederated  barons,  was  an 
irreparable  loss  to  their  cause,  and  no  regular  opposition  was  thence- 
forth offered  to  the  progress  of  the  royal  arms.  The  mercenaries, 
incited  by  a  cruel  and  enraged  prince,  were  let  loose  against  the 
estates,  tenants,  manors,  houses  and  parks  of  the  barons,  spreading 
devastation  over  the  surface  of  the  kingdom.  Marching  through 
the  whole  extent  of  England,  from  Dover  to  Berwick,  John  laid 
waste  the  provinces  on  each  side  of  him,  i)ermitting  his  mercenary 
troops  to  carry  fire  and  sword  in  all  directions,  sparing  neither 
sex  nor  age,  neither  things  sacred  nor  profane. 

Reduced  to  this  desj  erate  extremity,  and  menaced  with  the 
loss  of  their  liberties,  their  pro|  erties,  and  their  lives,  the  barons 
employed  a  remedy  no  less  des|)erate ;  and  making  application  to 
the  court  of  France,  they  offered  to  acknowlc<lgc  Louis,  the  eldest 
son  of  Philip,  for  their  sovereign,  on;condition  that  he  Would  afford 
them  protection  from  the  violence  of  John.  Philip  was  strongly 
tempted  to  lay  hold  on  the  rich  prize  thus  offered  him  \  and,  having 
exacted  from  the  barons  hostages  of  the  most  noble  birth  in  the 
kingdom,  he  sent  over  an  army  with  Louis  himself  at  its  head, 
who  landed  at  Stonor  (May  21^  1216).    The  king  was  assembliDg 


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140  HENKY  in  Ohap.  Tin. 

a  couiiiderable  amiy,  with  a  view  of  striking  one  great  blow  for 
his  crown;  but  passing  from  Lynn  to  Lincohishire  his  road  lay 
along  the  sea-shore,  which  was  overflowed  at  high  water,  and,  not 
choosing  the  proper  time  for  his  journey,  he  lost  in  the  inundation 
all  his  carriages,  treasure,  baggage,  and  regalia.  The  anguish  occa- 
sioned by  this  disaster,  and  vexation  from  the  distracted  state  of 
his  affairs,  increased  the  sickness  under  which  he  then  laboured ; 
and,  though  he  reached  the  castle  of  Newark,  he  was  obliged  to  halt 
there,  and  his  distemper  soon  after  put  an  end  to  his  life,  October  19, 
1216,  in  the  50th  year  of  his  age,  and  18th  of  his  reign.  Hia 
tomb  stands  in  the  midst  of  the  choir  at  Worcester. 

Though  John  was  not  without  ability,  his  character  is  little  else 
than  a  complication  of  vices,  ruinous  to  himself  and  destructive  to 
his  people  Folly,  levity,  licentiousness,  ingratitude,  treachery, 
tyranny,  and  cruelty — all  these  qualities  appear  in  the  several  inci- 
dents of  his  life.  His  continental  dominions,  when  they  devolved  to 
him  by  the  death  of  his  brother,  were  more  extensive  than  have 
ever,  since  his  time,  been  ruled  by  an  English  monarch ;  but  he 
lost,  by  his  misconduct,  the  flourishing  provinces  in  France,  the 
ancient  patrimony  of  his  family :  he  subjected  his  kingdom  to  a 
shameful  vassalage  under  the  see  of  Rome :  he  saw  the  prerogatives 
of  his  crown  diminished  by  law,  and  still  more  reduced  by  faction : 
and  he  died  at  last  when  in  danger  of  being  totally  expelled  by  a 
foreign  power,  and  of  either  ending  his  life  miserably  in  prison,  or 
seeking  shelter,  as  a  fugitive,  from  the  pursuit  of  his  enemies. 

It  was  in  this  king's  reign  that  a  charter  was  granted  to  the  city 
of  London  (1215),  giving  it  the  right  of  electing,  annually,  a  mayor 
out  of  its  own  body,  an  office  which  was  till  now  held  for  life.*  The 
city  also  had  power  to  elect  and  remove  its  sheriffs  at  pleasure,  and 
its  common  councilmen  annually.  Old  London  Bridge  was  finished 
in  this  reign ;  the  former  bridge  was  of  wood.  Queen  Maud,  it  is 
8aid«  was  the  first  that  built  a  stone  bridge  in  England. 

HENRY  III. 
§  10.  Henry  III.,  h.  1207,  r.  1216-1272.— The  earl  of  Pembroke, 
who,  at  the  time  of  John's  death,  was  marshal  of  England,  was, 
by  his  office,  at  the  head  of  the  army,  and  consequently,  during  a 
state  of  civil  war  and  convulsion,  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment. It  happened  fortunately  for  the  young  monarch  and  for  the 
nation  that  the  power  could  not  have  been  intrusted  to  more  able 
or  more  fnithful  hands.  The  earl  carried  young  Henry,  now  nine 
years  of  age,  immediately  to  Gloucester,  where  the  ceremony  of  his 
coronation  was  performed  (October  28,  1216),  as  Westminster  was 
*  Stabte's  SeUct  Ckarten,  with  nine  other  cbartera  to  cities  and  towns. 


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AJ>.  1216,  1217.        GENERAL  PACIFICATION.  141 

at  that  time  in  the  hands  of  the  hostile  barons.  Papal  support 
was  important  to  Henry  in  the  weakness  of  his  condition;  and 
Ghialo,  the  papal  legate,  was  joined  iu  the  administration.  Henry 
swore  fealty  to  the  pope,  and  renewed  the  homage  of  his  father. 
To  enlarge  the  authority  of  Pembroke,  a  general  council  of  the 
barons  was  summoned  at  Bristol  (November  12),  where  that  noble- 
man was  chosen  protector  of  the  realm,  and  the  Grand  Charter,  with 
some  alterations,  and  with  the  more  popular  clauses  omitted,  was 
renewed  and  confirmed.  This  act  was  received  with  satisfaction. 
Many  of  the  malcontent  barons,  most  of  whom  had  begun  secretly 
to  negotiate  with  him  already,  now  openly  returned  to  their 
allegiance.  Louis  soon  found  that  the  death  of  John,  contrary  to 
his  expectations,  had  given  an  incurable  wound  to  his  cause.  A 
short  truce  followed,  his  English  adherents  fell  away,  and  when 
the  war  was  renewed  the  French  army  was  totally  defeated  at 
Lincoln,  and  driven  from  that  city  (May  20,  1217).  A  French 
fleet   brining  over  reinforcements,  was  attacked  by  the  English 


Henry  III.    From  his  tomb  in  Westminster  Alibey. 

at  Sandwich,  and  routed  with  considerable  loss  (August  24).  Ud' 
able  to  make  head  against  these  reverses,  abandoned  by  his  English 
allies,  and  threatened  with  excommunication  from  the  pope,  Louis 
concluded  a  peace  with  Pembroke,  and  promised  to  evacuate  the 
kingdom  (September,  1217).  Thus  happily  ended  a  civil  war  which 
had  threatened  the  kingdom  with  the  most  fatal  consequences. 
§  11.  The  carl  of  Pembroke  did  not  long  survive  the  pacification. 


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im  HEKRY  ni.  Chap.  Tm 

which  had  been  cniefly  owing  to  his  wiadom  and  valour,  and  he 
was  succeeded  in  the  government  by  Peter  des  Roohes,  bishop 
of  Winchester,  and  Hubert  de  Burgh,  the  justiciary  (1219).  The 
counsels  of  the  latter  were  chiefly  followed ;  and  had  he  poesesfiod 
equal  authority  in  the  kingdom  with  Pembroke,  he  seemed  to  be 
every  way  worthy  of  filling  the  place  of  that  nobleman.  But  the 
powerful  liarons,  who  had  once  broken  the  reins  of  subjection  to 
their  prince,  and  obtained  an  enlargement  of  their  liberties  and 
independence,  could  ill  be  restrained  by  laws  under  a  minority. 
They  detained  by  force  the  royal  castles,  which  they  had  seized 
during  the  past  convulsions,  or  which  had  been  committed  to  their 
custody  by  the  protector ;  and  they  usurped  the  king's  demesnes. 

But  notwith^Anding  these  intestine  commotions,  and  the  pre* 
carious  authority  of  his  crown,  Henry  was  obliged  to  carry  on  war 
with  France.  Louis  YIII.,  who  had  succeeded  to  his  father  Philip, 
instead  of  complying  with  Henry's  claim  for  the  restitution  of 
Normandy  and  the  other  provinoea  wrested  from  England,  made 
an  irruption  into  Poitou  (1224),  took  Hochelle  after  a  long  siege, 
and  seemed  determined  to  expel  the  English  from  the  few  provinces 
which  still  remained  to  them.  Henry  sent  over  his  uncle,  the  earl 
of  Salisbury,  who  stopped  the  progress  of  Louis's  arms ;  but  no 
military  action  of  any  moment  was  performed  on  either  side. 

§  12.  As  the  king  grew  to  man's  estate,  his  chamcter  became 
every  day  better  known;  and  he  was  found  in  every  respect  ill 
qualified  for  maintaining  an  efficient  control  over  his  turbulent 
barons.  Qentle,  humane,  and  merciful  even  to  a  fault,  he  seems  to 
have  been  steady  in  no  one  circumstance  of  his  character;  but 
to  have  received  impressions  from  those  who  surrounded  him,  and 
whom  he  loved,  for  the  time,  with  the  most  injudicious  and  unre- 
served afiection.  While  Hubert  de  Burgh  enjoyed  his  authority, 
he  gained  entire  ascendancy  over  Henry,  and  was  loaded  with 
honours  and  favours  beyond  any  other  subject.  Rewarded  with 
many  castles  and  manors,  he  married  the  eldest  sister  of  the  king 
of  Scots,  was  created  earl  of  Kent,  and,  by  an  imusual  concession, 
was  made  chief  justiciary  of  England  for  life;  yet,  in  a  sudden 
fit  of  caprice,  Henry  threw  off  this  faithful  minister  (1232),  and 
exposed  him  to  the  violence  of  his  enemies.'^  He  was  succeeded  in 
his  post  as  justiciary  by  Stephen  de  Segrave ;  but  so  much  had  he 
suffered  in  Henry's  estimation,  that,  after  many  indignities,  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  and  the  king  transferred  his  favour  and 
afiection  to  Peter  des  Roches,  bishop  of  Winchester.  Des  Roches 
was  a  Poitevin  by  birth,  who  had  been  raised  by  the  late  king, 

*  ArchUfihop  Ijaogton,  who  had  opposed  with  ODTUTiDg  finnneoB  every  •ttaaijpi  to 
nentraliie  ^e  Gmt  Charter,  died  In  1238. 


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AJk  1819-1258.   HIS  PARTIALITY  TO   FOREIQKERa  143 

and  was  no  less  distinguished  by  his  arbitrary  piinciples  and 
violent  condoct  than  by  his  courage  and  abilities.  He  had  been 
left  by  John  justiciary  and  regent  of  the  kingdom  during  an 
expedition  which  that  prince  made  into  France ;  and  his  illegal  ad- 
ministration was  one  chief  cause  of  that  great  combination  among 
tho  barons,  which  finally  extorted  from  the  crown  the  Magna 
Carta.  Though  incapable  from  his  character  of  pursuing  the 
violent  maxims  which  had  governed  his  father^  Henry  had  imbibed 
the  same  arlntrary  principles ;  and,  in  prosecution  of  Peter's  advice, 
he  invited  over  a  great  number  of  Poitevins  and  other  foreigners 
in  whom  he  placed  greater  coufidence  than  in  his  English  subjects, 
and  expected  to  find  them  useful  in  counterbalancing  the  great 
and  independent  power  of  the  nobles.  Offices  and  commands  were 
bestowed  on  these  strangers;  they  exhausted  the  revenues  of  the 
crown,  already  too  much  impoverished ;  they  invaded  the  rights  of 
the  people;  and  their  insolence,  or,  at  least,  what  appeared  so, 
drew  on  them  general  hatred  and  envy. 

As  the  king  had  married  Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  count  of  Pro- 
vence (January  14,  1236),  he  was  surrounded  by  a  number  of 
strangers  from  that  country  also,  whom  he  caressed  with  the  fondest 
affection,  and  enriched  by  his  imprudent  generosity.  The  resentment 
of  the  English  barons  rose  high  at  the  preference  given  to  foreigners, 
but  no  remonstrance  or  compl^t  could  ever  prevail  on  the  king  to 
abandon  them,  or  even  to  moderate  his  attachment  towards  them. 
Tbe  king's  conduct  would  have  appeared  more  tolerable  to  his 
English  subjects  had  anything  been  done  meanwhile  for  the  honour 
of  the  nation,  or  had  Henry's  enterprises  in  foreign  countries  been 
attended  with  success  or  glory  to  himself  or  the  public.  But  though 
he  declared  war  against  Louis  IX.  in  1242,  and  noade  an  expedition 
into  Quienne,  upon  the  invitation  of  his  stepfather,  the  count  do 
la  Marche,  who  promised  to  join  him  with  all  his  forces,  he  was 
worsted  at  Taillebourg;  was  deserted  by  his  allies;  abandoned  Poitou, 
and  was  obliged  to  return,  with  loss  of  honour,  into  England.  The 
people  of  Guienne  attempted  to  throw  off  his  obedience,  but  failed 
(1253).  These  wars  involved  Henry  and  his  nobility  in  an  enor- 
mous debt,  which  both  increased  their  discontents  and  exposed 
him  to  greater  danger  from  their  opposition. 

§  13.  But  the  chief  grievances  of  the  reign  were  the  usurpations 
and  exactions  of  the  court  of  Rome.  The  best  benefices  of  the 
kingdom  were  conferred  on  Italians;  and  non-residence  and  plurali- 
ties were  carried  to  enormous  lengths.  It  was  estimated  by  €h*08tSte 
that  the  benefices  held  by  the  Italian  clergy  in  England  amounted 
to  60,000  marks  a  year,  a  sum  which  equalled  the  annual  revenues 
q£  tbe  crown.     Upon  occasion  of  a  Crusade  for  the  Holy  X^and 


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144  HENBT  m.  Obap.  mt. 

(1245),  Innocent  IV.  demanded  a  moiety  of  all  ecclesiastical  profite 
for  three  years ;  a  moiety  of  all  impropriatioDS  and  of  all  benefices 
where  the  incumbent  was  non-resideut ;  a  twentieth  of  all  incomes 
amounting  to  100  marks,  and  a  third  of  all  beyond  that  sum.  He 
attempted  to  claim  the  goods  of  intestate  clergymen ;  annulled 
usurious  bonds ,  and  when,  backed  by  the  church,  the  king,  con- 
trary to  his  usual  practice,  prohibited  these  exactions.  Innocent 
thr^tened  him  with  excommunication. 

A  more  mischievous  influence  was  exerted  by  Alexander  IV., 
who  involved  Henry  in  a  project  for  the  conciuest  of  Naples,  or  Sicily 
on  this  side  the  Fare  or  Straits  of  Messina,  then  held  by  Manfred  as 
the  representative  of  the  Hohenstaufen  (1255).  He  claimed  to 
dispose  of  the  Sicilian  crown,  both  as  superior  lord  of  that  parti- 
cular kingdom,  and  as  vicar  of  CJhrist,  to  whom  all  kingdoms  of  the 
earth  were  subjected ;  and  he  made  a  tender  of  it  to  Henry  for  his 
second  son  Eldmund.  Henry  accepted  the  insidious  proposal,  gave 
the  pope  unlimited  credit  to  expend  whatever  sums  he  thought 
necessary  for  completing  the  conquest,  and,  when  Alexander  pressed 
for  payment,  Henry  was  surprised  to  find  himself  on  a  sudden 
entangled  in  an  immense  debt  of  135,500  marks,  beside  interest. 
He  applied  to  the  larliament  for  supplies,  but  the  barons  and 
prelates  refused,  determined  not  to  lavish  their  money  on  such 
chimerical  projects.  In  this  extremity  the  clergy  were  his  only 
resource,  and  they  offered  Henry  52,000  marks,  a  sum  wholly  in- 
adequate to  his  necessities  (1257). 

§  14.  About  the  same  time  Kichard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  the  brother 
of  the  king,  was  engaged  in  an  enterprise  no  less  ruinous.  The 
immense  opulence  of  Richard  had  made  the  German  princes  cast 
their  eyes  on  him  as  a  candidate  for  the  empire,  and  he  was 
tempted  to  expend  vast  sums  of  money  on  his  election.  He 
succeeded  so  far  as  to  be  chosen,  by  a  double  election,  as  king 
of  the  Romans,  with  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile,  and  was  crowned  by 
his  partisans  (1257).  But  he  never  attained  the  imperial  power, 
and  found  at  last  that  he  had  lavished  the  frugality  of  a  life  on 
an  empty  title. 

The  king  was  engaged  in  constant  disputes  with  his  barons, 
and  was  compelled  to  confirm  the  Gkeat  Charter;  on  one  occa- 
sion with  extraordinary  solemnity  (1253).  All  the  prelates  and 
abbots  were  assembled ;  they  held  burning  tapers  in  their  hands ; 
the  Great  Charter  was  read  before  them ;  they  denounced  the  sen- 
tence of  excommunication  against  every  one  who  sh<»uld  thenceforth 
violate  that  fimdannntal  law;  then  they  threw  their  tapers  on  the 
ground,  and  exclaimed,  May  the  soul  of  every  one  who  incurs  thi$ 
sentence  so  stink  and  perish  in  hell!    The  king  bore  a  part  in 


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A.D.  1255-1258.         THE  MAD  PARLIAMENT.  145 

this  ceremony,  saying,  "So  help  me  Ood,  I  will  keep  all  theee 
articles  inviolate,  as  I  am  a  man,  as  I  am  a  Christian,  as  I  am 
a  knight,  and  as  I  am  a  king  crowned  and  anointed."  Yet  no 
sooner  was  this  tremendous  ceremony  finished,  than  his  fovourites, 
abusing  his  weakness,  made  him  return  to  the  same  arbitrary  and 
irr^ular  courses,  and  the  reasonable  expectations  of  his  people 
were  thus  perpetually  eluded  and  disappointed.  These  imprudent 
'and  iUegal  measures  provoked  an  avenger  in  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl 
of  Leicester,  a  younger  son  of  that  Simon  de  Montfort  who  had 
conducted  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses.  He  had  married 
the  king's  sister,  Eleanor,  widow  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke ;  had 
governed  Gascony  for  some  years  with  vigour  and  success ;  and  he 
had  now  returned  home  dissatisfied  with  the  little  support  he  had 
received  from  the  king,  who  wanted  either  the  ability  or  inclination 
to  aid  him.  To  add  to  these  causes  of  aggravation,  he  had  been  for 
some  time  engaged  in  a  tedious  litigation  with  the  king  touching 
his  wife's  jointure.  De  Montfort  was  supported  by  the  clergy, 
and  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Adam  de  Marsh  and  Robert 
Grost^te.  He  called  a  meeting  of  th^  most  considerable  barons, 
who  embrdced  the  resolution  of  redressing  the  public  grievances 
by  taking  the  administration  into  their  own  hands.  Henry  having 
summoned  a  parliament  (April  9th — May  2,  1258)  in  expectation 
of  receiving  supplies  for  his  Sicilian  project,  the  barons  appeared 
in  the  hall  clad  in  complete  armour,  and  with  their  swords  by 
their  sides.  After  a  violent  altercation,  the  king  promised  to 
summon  another  parliament  at  Oxford  on  June  11,  in  order  to 
arrange  a  new  plan  of  government. 

§  15.  This  parliament,  which  the  royalists,  and  even  the  nation, 
afterwards  denominated  the  Mad  Parliament,  met  on  the  day 
appointed.  As  the  barons  brought  with  them  their  military 
retainers,  and  appeared  with  an  armed  force,  the  king,  who  had 
taken  no  similar  precautions,  was  in  reality  a  prisoner,  and  was 
obliged  to  submit  to  any  terms  they  were  pleased  to  dictate.  A 
council  of  state,  consisting  of  24  barons,  was  selected  to  make  the 
necessary  reforms.  The  king  himself  took  an  oath  that  he  would 
maintain  whatever  ordinances  they  should  think  proper  to  enact 
for  that  purpose.  Simon  de  Montfort  was  at  the  head  of  this 
supreme  council,  to  which  the  legislative  power  was  thus  in  reality 
transferred ;  and  all  their  measures  were  taken  by  his  influence  and 
direction.  By  their  chief  enactments,  called  the  Provisions  of 
Oxford,  four  knights  were  to  be  chosen  by  each  county,  to  point 
out  such  grievances  of  their  neighbourhood  as  required  redress; 
three  sessions  of  parliament  were  to  be  regularly  held  every  year,  in 
the  months  of  February,  June,  ^nd  October,  at  which  twelve  pei^ 


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146  HENRY  UL  Chap.  Tin 

fom  chosen  by  tbe  barons  should  act  for  the  whole  commonalty ; 
aherifis  were  to  hold  office  for  one  year  only;  the  great  officers 
of  state  were  annually  to  give  an  account  of  their  proceedings; 
no  heirs  were  to  be  committed  to  the  wardship  of  foreigners,  and 
no  castles  intrusted  to  their  custody.  Soon  after  the  king's  eldest 
son,  Edward,  in  his  twentieth  year,  pledged  his  oath  to  observe  these 
provisions,  and  the  king  publicly  declared  his  assent  to  them. 

Opinions  are  divided  as  to  the  purity  of  De  Montfort's  intentions. 
It  is  certain  that  many  among  the  barons  had  no  other  object  than 
to  secure  the  aggrancUsement  of  their  own  order.  At  their  head 
was  Richard  de  Clare,  earl  of  Gloucester.  They  formed  an  asso- 
ciation among  themselves,  and  swore  that  they  would  stand  by  each 
other  with  their  lives  and  fortunes ;  they  displaced  all  the  chief  minis- 
ters of  the  crown,  the  justiciary,  the  chancellor,  the  treasurer,  and 
advanced  either  themselves  or  their  creatures  to  the  vacant  offices. 
When  they  had  thus  transferred  to  themselves  all  powers  of  the 
state,  they  proceeded  to  impose  an  oath,  by  which  all  subjects 
were  obliged  to  swear,  under  the  penalty  of  being  declared  public 
enemies,  that  they  would  obey  and  execute  all  the  regulations, 
both  known  and  unknown,  of  the  barons.  Not  content  with  this 
usurpation  of  the  royal  power,  they  introduced  an  innovation  in 
the  constitution  of  parliament,  of  the  utmost  importance.  They 
ordained  that  this  assembly  should  choose  a  committee  of  twelve 
persons,  who  should,  in  the  intervals  of  the  session,  possess  the 
authority  of  the  whole  parliament,  and  should,  on  a  summons, 
attend  the  person  of  the  king  in  all  his  movements.  Thus  the 
monarchy  was  totally  subverted,  without  its  being  possible  for  the 
king  to  strike  a  single  stroke  in  defence  of  the  constitution  against 
the  newly  elected  oligarchy. 

§  16.  But,  in  proportion  to  their  continuance  in  power,  the 
barons  began  gradually  to  lose  that  popularity  which  had  assisted 
them  in  obtaining  it.  The  fears  of  the  nation  were  roused  by 
certain  new  edicts,  obviously  calculated  to  procure  immunity  to 
the  harons  in  all  their  violences.  They  appointed  that  the  cir- 
cuits of  the  itinerant  justices,  the  sole  check  on  their  arbitrary 
conduct,  should  be  held  only  once  in  seven  years ;  and  men  easily 
saw  that  a  remedy  which  returned  after  such  long  intervals 
against  an  oppressive  power  which  was  perpetual,  would  prove 
totally  insignificant  and  useless.*  The  cry  became  loud  in  the 
nation  that  the  barons  should  produce  their  intended  regulations. 
The  current  of  popularity  now  turned  to  the  side  of  the  crown,  and 
the  rivalship  between  the  earls  of  Leicester  and  Gloucester,  the  chief 
leaden  among  the  barons,  began  to  disimite  tbe  whole  confederacy. 
•  ThitiidoubtftaL    See  Prot  Peanoa's  HlBtorj,  li.  227. 


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AJX  IMMHlJnl  THE  BAB0R8'  WAB.  147 

Louis  IX.,  who  then  goYemed  France,  used  &11  his  authority 
with  the  earl  of  Leicester,  his  native  subject,  to  bend  him  to  com* 
pliance  with  Henry.  He  made  a  treaty  with  England  (20th  May, 
i2bd)  at  a  time  when  the  distractions  of  that  kingdom  were  at 
the  greatest  height,  and  when  the  king's  authority  was  totally 
annihilated;  and  the  terms  which  he  granted  might,  in  a  more 
prosperous  state  of  affairs,  have  been  deemed  reasonable  and 
advantageous  to  the  English.  He  invaded  certain  territories 
which  had  been  conquered  from  Poitou  and  Guienne;  he  insured 
the  peaceable  possession  of  the  latter  province  to  Henry ;  he  agreed 
to  pay  him  a  large  sum  of  money;  and  he  only  required  that 
in  return  Henry  should  make  a  final  cession  of  Normandy  and 
the  other  provinces,  which  he  could  never  entertain  any  hopes  of 
recovering  by  force  of  arms.  The  cession  thus  made  by  the  barcms 
was  ratified  by  Henry,  his  two  sons  and  two  daughters,  and  by 
the  king  of  the  Romans  and  his  three  sons. 

$  17.  The  situation  of  Henry  soon  after  wore  a  more  favourable 
aspect,  and  the  desertion  oi  the  earl  of  Gloucester  to  (he  crown 
seemed  to  promise  him  certdn  success  in  any  attempt  to  recover 
his  authority.  The  pope  absolved  him  from  his  oath ;  but  his  son 
£)dwu:d  refused  to  accept  the  like  dispensation.  The  kiug  soon 
afterwards  seized  the  Tower  of  London,  resumed  the  government, 
and  levied  mercenary  troops.  Thus  began  (he  civil  contest  which 
is  called  "  the  Barons'  War."  Leicester  retired  to  France,  but  the 
dcn(h  of  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  and  the  accession  of  his  son  Gilbert 
do  Clare  to  Leicester's  side,  soon  changed  the  scene  (1262).  The 
war  was  carried  on  with  various  success,  till  at  length  the  king  and 
the  barons  agreed  to  submit  their  differences  to  the  arbitration  of 
the  king  of  France.  At  a  congress  at  Amiens  (January,  1 204)  Louis 
annulled  the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  left  the  king  free  to  appoint 
his  own  minifiters,  employ  allies,  and  enjoy  his  royal  authority  as 
unrestricted  as  before.  But  this  decision,  instead  of  quenching 
the  fianies,  only  caused  them  to  break  forth  with  redoubled  vehe- 
mence. Leicester,  having  summoned  his  partisans  from  all  quarters, 
gained  next  year  a  decisive  victory  over  the  royal  forces  at  Lewes 
(May  14),  taking  Henry  and  his  brother,  the  king  of  the  Romans, 
prisoners.  Prince  Edward,  who  commanded  tbe  right  wing  of  the 
royal  army,  was  obliged  to  assent  to  a  treaty  with  the  conqueror, 
called  from  an  old  French  term  the  Mise  of  Lewes.  In  order  to 
obtain  the  liberation  of  the  English  monarch,  prince  Edward,  and 
Henry,  son  of  the  king  of  the  Romans,  surrendered  themselves 
as  hostages.  Peace  was  declared  (May  26),  and  was  finally  settled 
by  a  parliament  at  London  (June  11,  1264) 

(18.  Acting  as  sole  regent,  De  Montfort  now  proceeded  to  wasor 


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148 


HENRT  III. 


Ohap.  Tm. 


mon  a  parliament.  Writs  *  were  issued  in  the  king's  name  from 
Worcester,  summoning  a  new  parliament  in  London  (January  20, 
1265),  which  forms  a  memorable  epoch  in  constitutional  history. 
Besides  the  barons  of  Leicester's  party,  and  117  ecclesiastics  (for 
the  clergy  in  general  sided  with  De  Montfort),  he  ordered  returns  to 
be  made  of  two  knights  from  each  shire,  and  of  two  representatives 
from  each  borough.  This  is  usually  regarded  as  the  first  meeting  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  but  Leicester  only  anticipated  Edward  L 
in  an  institution  for  which  the  general  state  of  things  was  now  pre- 
paring the  nation  f  Thus  supported  by  a  parliament  of  his  own 
model,  and  trusting  to  the  attachment  of  the  populace  of  London, 
De  Montfort  seized  the  opportunity  of  crushing  his  rivals  among 
the  powerful  barons. 

$  19.  But  he  soon  found  himself  embarrassed  by  the  opposition, 
as  well  as  by  the  escape,  of  prince  Edward.  The  royalists,  secretly 
prepared  for  this  latter  event,  immediately  flew  to  arms ;  and  the 
joy  of  this  gallant  prince's  deliverance,  the  expectation  of  a  new 
scene  of  affairs,  and  the  accession  of  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  procured 
Edward  an  army  which  Leicester  was  unable  to  withstand.  He 
was  defeated  and  killed  at  the  battle  of  Evesham  (August  4, 1265), 
with  his  eldest  son  Henry,  and  about  160  knights,  and  many  other 
gentlemen  of  his  party  The  king,  placed  by  the  rebels  in  front, 
and  disguised  by  his  vizor,  was  wounded  in  the  battle  and  in  danger 
of  his  life  ;  but  crying  out,  lam  I  enry  of  Winchester,  your  kirnj, 
he  was  saved,  and  put  in  a  place  of  safety  by  his  son,  who  flew  to  his 
rescue.  The  lifeless  body  of  Leicester  was  mangled  by  the  victors, 
exasperated  at  this  wanton  exposure  of  the  king's  person,  but  he 
was  long  regarded  as  a  martyr  to  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  miracles 
were  ascribed  to  his  remains.  The  victory  of  Evesham  proved 
decisive,  and  the  king's  authority  was  re-established  in  all  parts  of 
the  kingdom.  All  further  resistance  was  ended  by  the  moderate 
terms  granted  by  prince  Edward  in  the  "  Dictum  de  Kenilworth  " 
(October  15,  1266);  and  a  parliament  at  Marlborough,  a  year  after, 
confirmed  the  king's  title,  while  binding  him  afresh  to  the  observ- 
ance of  the  Great  Charter. 


*  Stnbbe,  Sdect  Chartert^  p.  401. 

f  **  Important  as  is  this  anseiObly  In 
the  history  of  the  constitution,  it  was  not 
primarily  and  essentiaUy  a  constitutional 
assembiy.  It  was  not  a  general  convoca- 
tion of  tenants  m  capiUy  or  of  the  three 
estates,  bat  a  parliamentary  assembly  of 
the  supporters  of  the  existing  govern- 
ment." Only  five  earls  were  summoned 
and  eighteen  barons,  tea  of  whom  were 
frtonds  of  De  Montfort.     Stnbbs,  Oonst. 


Hist  ii.  92.  It  in  fact,  this  assembly  be 
considered  in  its  real  character  as  a  con- 
vention of  De  Montforf  6  iiupporters.  the 
admi«sion  of  representatives  tram  the 
towns,  who  were  not  regularly  summoned, 
affords  less  difficulty.  In  England,  and 
still  more  in  De  Montfort's  native  land, 
the  towns  had  now  gained  so  much  In 
wealth  and  political  importance,  that  it 
was  natural  he  should  avail  himself  of 
their  support. 


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kJK  IMr-mS. 


HIS  DEATH. 


149 


§  20.  Finding  the  state  of  the  kingdom  thus  composed,  Edward 
was  led  (1270)  by  his  avidity  for  glory,  and  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow 
made  during  his  captivity,  as  well  as  by  the  earnest  solicitations 
of  the  king  of  France,  to  undertake  an  expedition  against  the 
infidels  in  the  Holy  Land.  He  sailed  from  England  with  an  army, 
accompanied  by  his  wife,  EUeanor  of  Castile,  and  arrived  in  the  camp 
of  Louis  IX.  before  Tunis  in  Africa,  where  he  found  that  monarch 
already  dead,  from  the  sickliness  of  the  climate  and  the  fatigues  of 
his  enterprise.  Undeterred  by  this  event,  he  continued  his  voyage 
to  the  Holy  Land,  where  he  signalized  himself  (1271)  by  acts  of 
valour,  revived  the  glory  of  the  English  name,  and  struck  such 
terror  into  the  Saracens,  that  they  employed  an  assassin  to  murder 
him,  who  wounded  him  in  the  arm,  but  perished  in  the  attempt. 
In  her  heroic  afifection  Eleanor  sucked  the  poison  from  her  husband's 
wound.  During  his  absence  the  old  king  expired  at  Bury  St.  Ed- 
munds (November  16, 1272),  in  the  66th  year  of  his  age,  and  57th 
of  his  reign,  and  was  buried  in  the  new  abbey  church  of  West- 
minster, which  he  had  rebuilt.  His  brother,  the  king  of  the 
Bomans,  had  died  nearly  a  year  before  him. 

The  most  obvious  feature  of  Henry's  character  is  an  incapacity 
for  government,  which  rendered  him  as  much  a  prisoner  in  the 
hands  of  his  ministers  and  favourites,  and  as  little  at  his  own  dis- 
posal, as  when  detained  a  captive  in  the  hands  of  his  enemies. 
From  this  source,  rather  than  from  insincerity  and  treachery,  arose 
his  n^ligence  in  observing  his  promises;  and  he  was  too  easily 
induced,  for  the  sake  of  present  convenience,  to  sacrifice  the  lasting 
advantages  arising  from  the  trust  and  confidence  of  his  people. 


NOTES  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


A.  ON  THE  AMALGAMATION  OP 
THE  ANGLO-SAXON  AND  NOE- 
MAN   RACES. 

Th«  period  at  which  this  erent  took 
pUce  has  given  rise  to  much  <liscaBeion. 
It  was  the  CtvooHte  theory  of  Thierry 
that  the  distinction  between  the  two 
races  oontinned  till  a  very  late  time. 
^Td  Maoanlsy  sapposes  the  amalga- 
mation to  have  uken  place  between  the 
•cceaston  of  John  and  the  death  of 
Bdward  I.  Bnt  even  this  is  too  long. 
The  distinction  was  greatly  obliterated  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  and  more  com- 


pletely  80  after  the  separatkm  of  Nor^ 
mandy  from  lilngland  in  the  reign  of  John. 

a  CONFIRMATIONS  OF  THE 
GREAT  CHARTER. 
The  Great  Charter  had  no  fewer  than 
thirty-eight  solemn  ratifications  recorded : 
six  by  Henry  IIL,  three  by  Edward  I., 
fifteen  by  Edward  III.,  six  by  Richard 
U..  six  by  Henry  IV.,  one  by  Heniy 
v.,  and  one  by  Henry  VI.  The  most 
important  change  in  the  charter,  as 
confirmed  by  Henry  III.,  was  the  omis- 
sion of  the  clause  which  prohibited  the 
levying  of  aids  or  escuages  save  by  the 


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160 


NOT£S  AND  ILLUSTIEATIONS. 


Ohap.  vm. 


ooBUDOQ  ooonoU  of  the  realm.  Tboogh 
this  dauae  was  omitted,  it  was  generally 
observed  during  the  reign  of  Ueory, 
tbe  barons  constantly  reftising  him  ike 
aids  or  suUsidies  which  his  prodigality 
demanded.  But  he  sUil  reUined  the 
right  of  levying  money  upon  towns 
nnder  tlie  name  of  tallage,  and  he  also 
claimed  other  imposts,  as  upon  the  ex- 
port of  wool.  On  Magna  Carta,  sec  Black- 
stone's  IfUroduction  to  the  Charter; 
Thomson's  JCseay  on  Magna  (Mrta; 
Creaky,  On  the  Xnglish  CwitUuUan, 
pp.  128,  seq. 

C.  TRIAL  BY  JURY. 

We  hAve  already  adverted  (p.  78)  to  the 
mistaken  and  now  obsolete  opinion,  that 
trial  by  Jury  existed  in  England  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  times.  The  twelve  thanes 
who  sat  in  the  sheriflTs  court  have  no 
analogy  to  a  modem  Jury  except  in  their 
number.  Their  function  of  pres^ting 
offenders  gave  them  more  the  resem- 
blance of  the  present  grand  Jury ;  and 
they  seem,  like  the  scabini  or  ichevina 
of  the  continent,  to  have  formed  a  perma- 
nent magistracy.  So  also  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  compurgators  resembled  the 
witnesses  in  a  modem  trial  rather  than 
Jurymen. 

The  first  approach  to  trial  by  Jury 
is  the  Grand  Asslxe  introduced  in  the 
lelgn  of  Henry  II.  By  this  custom, 
in  a  suit  for  the  recovery  of  land,  a 
tenant  who  was  unwilling  to  risk  a 
Jndidal  combat  might  put  himself  on 
the  assize— tliat  is,  refer  the  case  to  four 
kni^ts  chosen  by  the  sheriff;  who  in 
their  turn  selected  twelve  more.  The  six- 
teen knights  thus  impanelled  were  then 
sworn,  and  decided  the  case  by  their  ver- 
dict. In  the  assize  of  Novel  Disseisin  the 
twelve  knights  were  chosen  directly  by  the 
sheriff.  Whether  the  words  in  the  charter 
of  John,  that  •'  a  man  is  to  be  tried  by 
the  lawful  Judgment  of  his  peers,"  really 
mean  trial  by  Jury  may  admit  of  dis- 
pute; but  at  any  rate  they  clearly  re- 
cognize the  great  principle  upon  which 
trial  by  Jury  rests. 

In  criminal  cases,  at  all  events,  we 
find  an  approach  to  a  Jury  under  Henry 
UL     1^  by  ordeal  had  now  grown 


o«t  of  fiMhton ;  and  though  the  trial  by 
combat  still  rentained,  it  could  not  of 
coarse  be  practised  unless  some  pixMe- 
cutor  appeared.  Bat  as  a  person  vehe- 
mently eospected  of  a  crime  might  be 
committed  to  safe  custody  on  the  pre- 
sentment of  a  Jury,  he  had  the  option  of 
appealing  to  a  second  Jury  which  was 
sometintes  composed  of  twelve  persons , 
Such  a  Jury,  however,  still  differed  from 
a  modem  one  In  the  essential  principle, 
that  it  dfcl  not  come  to  a  dectsioa  upon 
the  evidence  of  otliers.  The  Jurors  in 
fikct  continued  to  be  witnesses,  and 
founded  their  verdict  on  their  own  know- 
ledge of  the  prisoner  and  of  the  facts  of 
the  case.  Hence  they  are  often  called 
recognitors,  because  they  decided  fh>m 
previous  Icnowledge  or  recognition,  In- 
doding  what  they  had  heard  and  be- 
lieved to  be  true.  They  seem  to  luve 
admitted  documentary  evidence,  bat 
parole  evidence  seldom  or  never. 

The  great  distinction  between  a  mo- 
dem and  an  ancient  Jury  lies  in  the 
circumstance,  that  the  former  a>«  not 
witnesses  themselves,  but  merely  Judges 
of  the  testimony  of  others.  A  previoiM 
knowledge  of  the  facts  of  the  case,  which 
would  now  be  an  ol^ection  to  a  Juryman, 
constituted  in  former  days  his  merit 
and  eUgiUllty.  At  what  precise  period 
witnesses  distinct  from  the  Jury  them- 
selves, and  who  had  no  voice  in  the 
verdict,  first  began  to  be  regularly  som- 
monsd,  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  flm 
trace  of  such  a  practice  occars  in  the 
23rd  year  of  Edward  III.,  and  it  had  pro- 
bably been  creeping  in  previously.  That 
it  was  perfectly  esUblished  by  the  mkldle 
of  the  15th  century,  we  have  clear  evi- 
dence fh>m  Kuitescue's  treatise  De  F^avdi- 
buM  Ugim  Anglia  (c.  26),  written  about 
that  period.  Personal  knowledge  of  a 
case  continued  to  be  allowed  In  a  Juror, 
who  was  even  required  to  act  opoo  it  i 
and  it  was  not  till  a  comparatively  re- 
cent period  that  the  complete  separatton 
of  the  fanctions  of  Juryman  and  witness 
was  establl«>bed. 

For  further  information  on  this  sub- 
ject see  Hallam's  MidMt  Agei,  vol.  U. 
ch.  vm.  pt.  i.  and  note  viii. ;  Forsyth's 
HitUny  qf  Trial  by  Jury-,  and  Stubbed 
CoMtitmHenai  Bist.  qf  anglamd,  L  MS. 


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Edward  I.    From  the  Tower. 

CHAPTER  TX. 
HOUSE  OP  PLANTAGENET— Cbn/tniierf. 

THE    BKIONS  OF   EDWARD    I.    ANb    EDWARD   H.      A. P.    1272-1327. 

§  1.  Accession  of  Edward  I.  Ciril  administration.  §  2.  Conquest  of 
Wales.  §  3.  Persecution  of  the  Jews.  §  4.  Disputed  succession  to 
the  Scottish  crown.  Award  of  Edward.  §  5.  War  with  France. 
§  6.  Conquest  of  Scotland.  §  7.  War  with  France.  Dissensions  of 
the  barons  and  confirmation  of  the  charters.  §  8.  Peace  with  France. 
Revolt  of  Scotland.  §  9.  Battle  of  Falkirk.  Death  of  Wallace. 
§  10.  Insurrection  of  Robert  Bruce.  §  11.  Edward's  last  expedition 
against  Scotland.  His  death  and  character.  §  12.  Accession  of 
Edward  II.  Weakness  of  the  king  and  discontent  of  the  barons. 
§  13.  Banishment  and  murder  of  Gaveston.  §  14.  War  with  Scotland. 
§  15.  Hugh  le  Despenser.  Civil  commotions.  Lancai»ter  executed. 
§  16.  Truce  with  Scotland.  Conspiracy  against  the  king.  He  i« 
dethroned  and  murdered. 

§  1.  Edward  I.,  h.  1239  ;  r.  1 272-1307  .—For  the  first  time  since 
the  Conquest  the  sovereign  authority  of  the  king  was  fully  recog- 
nized before  his  coronation.    As  soon  ab  Henry  was  laid  in  the 


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152  EDWARD  I.  Gha     cl 

tomb,  the  assemblal  nobles,  of  their  own  free  will,  advanced  to  the 
great  altar,  took  an  oath  of  fealty  to  Edward,  "though,"  says 
Matthew  of  Westminster,*  "men  were  ignorant  whether  he  was 
alive,  for  he  had  gone  to  distant  countries  beyond  the  sea,  warring 
against  the  enemies  of  (hrist"  (November  20,  1272).  They 
caused  the  "  king's  peace  "  to  be  proclaimed  through  England,  and 
henceforth  that  proclamation  marked  the  beginning  of  each  new 
reign.t  Edward  had  reached  Sicily  in  his  return  from  the  Holy 
Land,  when  he  received  intelligence  of  his  father's  death  ;  but,  as 
he  soon  learned  the  quiet  settlement  of  the  kingdom,  under 
Walter  Giffard,  archbishop  of  York,  kcei)er  of  the  great  seal,  Hoger 
Mortimer,  and  Robert  Burnel,  a  clerk  of  great  merit,  as  guardians  of 
the  realm,  he  was  in  no  hurry  to  take  possession  of  the  throne,  but 
spent  more  than  a  year  in  Italy  and  France  before  he  made  his 
appearance  in  England.  After  arranging  the  affairs  of  the  province 
of  Guienne,  and  settling  a  dispute  between  the  countess  of  Flanders 
and  his  subjects,  he  landed  at  Dover  (August  2,  1274),  and  was 
crowned  at  Westminster  (August  19)  by  Robert,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  In  a  parliament  which  he  summoned  at  Westminster, 
in  the  following  Ai)ril,  he  took  care  to  enquire  into  the  conduct  of  all 
his  magistrates  and  judges,  to  provide  them  with  sufficient  force  for 
the  execution  of  justice,  to  displace  such  as  were  either  n^ligent  or 
corrupt,  to  extirpate  all  bands  and  confederacies  of  robbers,  and  to 
repress  those  more  silent  robberies  which  were  committed  either 
by  the  power  of  the  nobles  or  under  the  countenance  of  public 
authority. 

Soon  after,  Edward  issued  commissions  to  enquire  into  all  en- 
croachments on  the  royal  demesne ;  the  value  of  escheats, 
forfeitures,  and  wardships ;  and  the  means  of  improving  every 
branch  of  the  revenue.  Jn  the  execution  of  their  oflBce  (1278), 
the  commissioners  questioned  titles  to  estates  which  had  been 
transmitted  from  father  to  son  for  several  generations.  When 
earl  Warrenne,  who  had  done  eminent  service  in  the  late  reign, 
was  required  to  show  his  titles,  he  produced  a  rusty  sword  **  See, 
my  lords,"  he  exclaimed,  "here  is  my  title  deed.  My  ances- 
tors came  over  with  William  the  Bastard,  and  conquered  their  lands 
with  the  sword,  and  with  the  sword  will  I  defend  them."  Though 
the  claim  was  unfounded— for  the  earl  was  descended  only  by  the 
female  line  from  an  illegitimate  half-brother  of  Henry  I.— it  ex- 
pressed the  feelings  of  the  old  feudatories.  The  kmg,  sensible  of 
the  danger  he  was  incurring,  after  a  time  desisted  from  making 

*  Rishanger  maken  the  New  Temple  |  which  was  dated  flpom  the  moment  ef  hl» 
tilt  scene  of  the  oath.  father's  death. 

t  TUl  the  aoceesioD  of  Edward  VI.,  [ 


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kJK  1272-1282. 


CONQUEST  OF  WALES. 


153 


further  enquiries  of  this  nature;  but  he  caused  a  strict  in- 
vestigation to  be  instituted  into  his  father's  grants  to  the  churoh, 
and  in  1279  he  passed  the  Statute  De  Rdigiosis  or  of  Mortmain 
(in  mortuu  manu),*  by  which  it  was  forbidden  to  bequeath  lands 
and  tenements  to  religious  corporations  without  the  king's  licence. 
§  2.  In  the  year  1283  was  completed  the  conquest  of  Wales,  one 
of  the  most  important  events  of  this  reign.  Llewelyn,  prince  of 
Wales,  had  been  deeply  engaged  with  the  party  of  De  Montfort,  and 
had  been  included  in  the  general  accommodation  made  with  the 
vanquished ;  but,  as  he  had  reason  to  dread  the  future  effects  of  re* 
sentment  and  jealousy  in  the  English  monarch,  he  maintained  a 
secret  correspondence  with  his  former  associates,  and  was  betrothed 
to  Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  who  was  sent  to  him 
firom  France,  but,  being  intercepted  in  her  passage  near  the  isles 
of  Scilly,  was  detained  in  the  court  of  England.  This  incident 
increased  the  mutual  jealousy  between  Edward  and  Llewelyn. 
Edward  sent  him  repeated  summons  to  perform  the  duty  of  a  vassal, 
and  in  1276  levied  an  army  to  reduce  him  to  obedience.  The  same 
intestine  dissensions  which  had  formerly  weakened  England  now 
prevailed  in  Wales,  and  divided  the  reigning  family.  David  and 
Boderic,  brothers  of  Llewelyn,  on  some  cause  of  discontent  had 
recourse  to  Edward,  and  seconded  with  all  their  interest,  which 
was  extensive,  his  attempts  to  subdue  their  native  country. 
Equally  vigorous  and  cautious,  Edward,  entering  by  the  north  with 
a  formidable  army,  pierced  into  the  heart  of  the  country;  and 
having  carefully  explored  every  road  before  him,  and  secured  every 
pass  behind  him,  approached  the  Welsh  army  in  its  last  retreat 
among  the  hills  of  Snowdon.  Destitute  of  resources,  cooped  up  in  a 
narrow  comer,  they,  as  well  as  their  cattle,  suffered  all  the  rigours 
of  famine ;  and  Llewelyn,  without  being  able  to  strike  a  blow  for 
his  independence,  was  at  last  obliged  to  submit  at  discretion,  and 
accept  the  terms  imposed  upon  him  by  the  victor  (1277).  He 
returned  with  Edward  to  England,  and  did  homage  to  the  king  at 
Westminster;  after  which  he  received  his  bride,  and  was  allowed 
to  return  to  Wales.  But  complaints  soon  arose  on  the  side  of  the 
vanquished.  Prince  David  made  peace  with  his  brother,  and  on 
Palm  Sunday,  1282,  stormed  Hawarden  castle  in  his  efforts  for 


*  As  the  members  of  religfons  or 
monastic  bodies  were  reckoned  dead  in 
Uw,  land  bolden  by  them  might  with 
great  propriety  be  said  to  be  held  in 
martud  manw  (Kerr's  BlacJaUmc^  i.  509). 
It  must  not  l>e  overlooked  that  the  act 
was  directed  not  no  mnch  afi^in«!t  the 
r  as  against  the  rtligioti  Crdiffoii), 


"bound."  that  is,  by  monastic  vows.  The 
encroachments  of  the  great  religions 
bouses  were  as  unfavourable  to  the  bishops 
and  clergy  as  to  the  crown.  The  identifl- 
caUon  of  these  bodies  with  the  church 
of  England  by  modem  historiaos  is  a 
perpetual  source  of  oooftisioB. 


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IM  EDWABD  t  Ohap.  ix. 

independenoe.  Tha  Welih  flew  to  anns ;  and  Edward,  probably 
not  displeased  with  the  ocoadon  of  making  hie  conquest  final  and 
absolute,  ajnembled  all  his  military  tenants,  and  advanced  into 
Wales  with  an* army  which  the  inhabitants  could  not  reasonably 
hope  to  resist.  The  situation  of  the  country  gave  the  Welsh  at  first 
some  advantage ;  but  Llewel3m  was  surprised  and  slain.  His  head 
was  carried  to  Liondon,  and,  in  derision  of  a  prophecy  that  he  should 
wear  a  crown  in  Westcheap,  it  was  borne  on  a  pole,  adorned  with  a 
diadem  of  silver  ivy-leaves,  and  fixed  upon  the  Tower  (1282).  David, 
who  succeeded  his  brother,  could  never  collect  an  army  sufficient 
to  face  the  English.  Chased  from  hill  to  hill  and  hunted  firom  one 
retreat  to  another,  he  was  obliged  to  conceal  himself  under  various 
disguises,  and  was  at  last  betrayed  to  the  enemy.  Edward  sent 
him  in  chains  to  Shrewsbury ;  and  brought  him  to  a  formal  trial 
before  the  peers  of  England,  who  ordered  him  to  be  hanged,  drawn, 
and  quartered  as  a  traitor  (1283).  The  Welsh  now  laid  down 
their  arms  ;  the  lords  who  had  joined  in  the  rebellion  were  deprived 
of  their  lands;  Anglesey,  Caernarvon,  and  Merionethshire,  with 
Flint,  Cardigan,  and  Caermarthenshire,  were  retained  by  the  crown. 
Into  these  new  districts  the  English  laws,  with  English  judges  and 
sheriffs,  were  introduced  by  the  Statute  of  Wales  (1284) ;  whilst 
in  the  rest  of  the  country  the  marchers  were  permitted  to  retain 
their  ancient  privileges  and  customs.  Many  strong  castles  were 
built,  and  English  people  settled  in  several  of  the  chief  towns.* 
This  important  conquest,  which  it  had  required  800  years  fully  to 
effect,  was  at  last,  through  the  abilities  of  Edward,  now  com- 
pleted. It  was  long  before  national  antipathies  were  extinguished. 
The  principality  was  annexed  to  the  crown  of  England;  and 
Edward's  second  surviving  son,  who  was  bom  at  Caernarvon 
(April  25,  1284),  was,  on  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  Alfonso 
in  August,  invested  with  that  dignity,  which  henceforth  gave  their 
title  to  the  eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  England. 

§  3.  The  settlement  of  Wales  appeared  so  complete  that  in  1286 
Edward  visited  Paris,  to  renew  his  homage  (June  5)  and  make 
peace  between  Alfonso,  king  of  Aragon,  and  Philip  the  Fair,  who 
had  lately  succeeded  his  father,  Philip  the  Hardy,  on  the  throne  of 
France.  He  had  received  powers  from  both  princes  to  settle  the 
terms,  and  he  succeeded  in  his  endeavours.  He  remained  abroad 
above  three  years ;  and  on  his  return  found  many  disorders  arising 
from  open  violence  and  the  corruption  of  justice.  To  remedy  these 
abuses,  he  summoned  a  parliament  (1290),  and  brought  the  judges  to 
trial,  when  all  of  them,  except  two,  who  were  ecclesiastics,  were  con- 

*  Among  these  towns  were  Brecknock,  Caermarthen,  Montgomery,  And 
.  which  the  marchers  were  obliged  to  surrender  to  the  crown. 


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AJk  198JH1290.      PERSECUTION  OF  THE  JEWS.  165 

Tioted  of  tlm  crime,  fined*  luul  deposed.  The  sune  year  vas  marked 
bj  the  banishment  of  the  Jews  from  England.  Throughout  Edward'i 
reign  the  Jews  had  experienced  both  his  anxiety  for  their  con- 
yersion  and  the  judicial  rigour  with  which  he  visited  their  real  or 
imputed  offences.  For  the  former  purpose  he  built  and  endowed 
a  hospital,  now  the  Rolls*  house  in  Chancery  Jane,  for  the  support 
of  his  expected  converts  and  their  instruction  in  Christianity. 
Of  his  rigour  the  following  are  some  examples: — Clipping  the 
coin  was  in  the  early  part  of  Edward's  reign  a  crime  of  frequent 
occurrence,  and  its  perpetration  was  facilitated  by  the  custom, 
sanctioned  by  the  laws,  of  cutting  the  silver  penny  into  halves 
and  quarters.  In  1278,  no  less  than  280  Jews  were  hanged  for 
this  crime  in  London  alone,  the  mere  possession  of  clipped  money 
being  deemed  sufficient  evidence  of  guilt.  Many  Christians, 
guilty  of  the  same  ofienoe,  were  only  heavily  fined.  About 
eight  years  afterwards  all  the  Jews  in  England,  including  women 
and  children,  were  thrown  into  prison  for  some  imputed  offence, 
and  detained  till  they  had  paid  a  fine  of  12,000Z.  At  last  in 
July,  1290,  the  whole  race  was  banished  the  kingdom,  to  the 
number  of  16,511.  This  severe  step  is  attributed  to  the  persuasion 
of  Eleanor,  the  king's  mother.  Their  lands  and  dwellings  were 
forfeited,  but  Edward  allowed  ihem  to  carry  abroad  their  money 
and  movables,  which  proved  a  temptation  to  the  sailors  and 
others  to  murder  many  of  them;  for  which,  however,  the  king 
inflicted  cajutal  punishment.  Jews  were  not  permitted  to  live  in 
England  till  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth. 

§  4.  We  turn  to  the  affairs  of  Scotland,  not  the  least  important 
in  this  reign.  Alexander  III.,  who  had  espoused  Margaret, 
the  sister  of  Edward,  died  in  1286,  without  leaving  any  male 
issue,  or  any  descendant,  except  a  granddaughter,  Margaret,  bom 
of  Eric,  king  of  Norway,  and  of  Margaret,  daughter  of  the  Scottish 
monarch.  This  princess,  commonly  called  The  Maid  of  Norway, 
had,  through  her  grandfather^s  care,  been  recognized  as  his  successor 
by  the  Scottish  estates ;  and  on  Alexander's  death  she  was 
acknowledged  queen  of  Scotland.  On  this  incident,  Edward  was 
led  to  build  mighty  projects  ;  and  having  lately,  by  force  of 
arms,  brought  Wales  into  subjection,  he  proposed,  by  the  marriage 
of  Margaret  with  his  eldest  son,  to  unite  the  whole  island  under 
one  monarchy.  The  estates  of  Scotland  assented  to  the  Eng- 
lish proposals ;  but  the  project,  so  happily  formed  and  so  amicably 
conducted,  failed  of  success  by  the  sudden  death  of  the  Norwegian 
princess,  who  expired  on  her  passage  to  Scotland  (129  •),  and  left  a 
very  diitmal  prospect  to  the  kingdom.  Numerous  competitors 
sprung  up;  but  three  only  had  any  real  claim  to  the  crown.   These 


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156 


IDWARD  L 


OtaAP.  a. 


were  the  deeoendaaito  of  the  three  daughters  of  David,  earl  of  Hunt- 
ingdon, and  brother  of  William  the  Lion,  king  of  Scotland,  who 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Henry  IL :  John  Balliol,  lord  of  Gralloway, 
grandson  of  Margaret,  the  eldest  daughter;  Robert  Bruce,  lord  of 
Annandale,  son  of  Isabel,  the  second  daughter;  and  Hastings, 
loid  of  Abergavenny,  grandson  of  Ada,  the  third  daughter.  Balliol 
and  Bruce  laid  claim  to  the  whole  kingdom ;  and  Hastings  main- 
tained that,  in  right  of  his  mother,  he  was  entitled  to  a  third  of  it. 
The  estates  of  Scotland,  threatened  with  a  civil  war,  agreed  to 
refer  the  dispute  to  Edward ;  and  he  used  the  present  favourable 
opportunity  for  reviving  the  clidm  of  the  English  kings  to  a 
feudal  superiority  over  Scotland.  He  caused  the  records  of  the 
monasteries  to  be  searched  for  precedents  of  homage  rendered  by 
Scottish  kings  to  English  sovereigns.  Backed  with  a  great  army, 
he  repaireil  to  Norham,  on  the  banks  of  the  Tweed,  and  invited  the 
Scottish  estates,  and  all  the  competitors,  to  attend  him  ''as 
soTtt^gn  lord  of  the  land  of  Scotland,"  and  have  their  claims 
determined  (1291).  Astonished  at  so  new  a  pretension,  the  Scots 
preserved  silence ;  but  were  desired  by  Edward  to  return  into  their 
own  country,  deliberate  upon  his  claim,  and  to  inform  him  of  their 
resolution.  For  this  purpose  he  appointed  a  plain  at  Upsettleton, 
on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Tweed. 

When  the  Scots  had  assembled  in  the  place  appointed,  though 
indignant  at  the  claim  thus  preferred,  and  the  situation  into  which 
they  were  betrayed,  they  found  it  impossible  for  them  to  make 
any  defence  for  their  ancient  liberty  and  independence.  After 
some  debate,  Edward's  claim  was  acknowledged  by  the  nine  com- 
petitors for  the  crown  (June  5),  and  the  next  day  the  royal 
castles  were  put  into  his  hands.  Shortly  after,  a  court,  consisting 
of  80  Scots,  and  24  Englishmen  as  their  assessors,  met  at  Berwick 
(August  2,  1292),  and  in  the  following  November  they  reported 
in  &vonr  of  Balliol  Edward  gave  sentence  accordingly,  and  on 
the  26th  December  he  received  the  homage  of  Balliol  for  the 
kingdom  of  Scotland. 

The  conduct  of  Edward,  however  other^dse  unexceptionable,  was 
irksome  to  his  royal  vassal.  Balliol  was  required  to  proceed  to 
London,  and  obliged  to  appear  at  the  bar  of  parliament.*  Though  a 
prince  of  a  soft  and  gentle  spirit,  he  returned  into  Scotland  highly 


*  Cliiefly  on  complaints  of  » «*  dental  of 
JQitke"  in  the  Scottish  oonrto.  This  wan 
■Mde  particnlarly  offensive  to  the  vassal 
Wng  to  some  cases,  as  to  the  snit  of  John 
I^  Mason,  a  Gascon,  who  claimed  a  debt 
contracted  by  Alexander  IT.,  but  which 
bio  executors  satisfied  the  Scottish  oonrt 


had  been  paid.  The  English  oonrt  an> 
ruled  this  decision,  and,  thongh  BalUol 
was  not  pretended  to  have  any  personal 
interest  in  the  matter,  he  was  onlered  to 
pay  the  money,  under  a  threat  of  losing 
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A.D.  1290-12»6.  WAR  WITH   FRANCE.  157 

provoked  at  this  usage,  and  determined  at  all  hazards  to  recover 
his  liberty.  The  war  which  soon  after  broke  out  between  France 
and  England  gave  him  a  favourable  opportunity  for  executing  his 
purpose. 

§  5.  In  an  accidental  encounter  between  the  crews  of  an  Enjglish 
and  a  Norman  vessel  in  a  Norman  port,  one  of  the  former  was 
killed.  A  series  of  reprisals  ensued  on  both  sides,  and  the  sea 
became  a  scene  of  piracy  between  both  nations.  At  length  a  fleet  of 
200  Norman  vessels  set  sail  to  the  south  for  wine.  In  their  passage 
they  captured  all  the  English  ships  which  they  met  with,  seized 
the  goods,  and  hanged  the  seamen.  The  inhabitants  of  the  English 
seaports,  informed  of  this  incident,  fitted  out  a  fleet  of  60  sail, 
stronger  and  better  manned  than  the  others,  and  awaited  the  enemy 
on  their  return.  After  an  obstinate  battle,  the  English  put  them 
to  the  rout,  and  sunk,  destroyed,  or  took  the  greater  part  of  them 
(1 293).  The  afl&dr  was  now  become  too  important  to  be  any  longer 
neglected  by  either  sovereign.  Philip  IV.  cited  the  king,  as  duke 
of  Guienne,  to  appear  in  his  court  at  Paris,  and  answer  for  these 
offences;  and  Edward,  finding  himself  in  immediate  danger  of 
war  with  the  Scots,  allowed  himself  to  be  deceived  by  an  artifice 
of  Philip,  who  proposed  that,  if  Edward  would  consent  to  put 
Guienne  into  his  hands,  he  should  consider  his  honour  was  fully 
satisfied,  would  restore  the  province  immediately,  and  be  content 
with  a  moderate  reparation  of  all  other  injuries.  But  no  sooner 
was  Philip  in  possession  of  Guienne  than  the  citation  was  renewed ; 
Edward  was  condemned  for  non-appearance,  and  Guienne,  by  a 
formal  sentence,  was  declared  to  be  forfeited  and  annexed  to  the 
crown  (1294).  Enraged  at  being  thus  overreached,  Edward  formed 
alliances  with  several  princes  on  the  continent,  sent  a  powerful 
army  into  GKuenne,  met  at  first  with  some  success,  but  was  ulti- 
mately defeated  in  every  quarter.  To  divide  the  English  forces, 
and  to  engage  Edward  in  dangerous  wars,  Philip  now  formed  an 
alliance  with  Balliol,  king  of  Scotland,  who  renounced  his  homage 
to  Edward.  This  was  the  commencement  of  that  strict  union 
which  during  so  many  centuries  was  maintained  by  mutual  interests 
and  necessities  between  the  French  and  Scottish  nations. 

§  6.  The  expenses  attending  these  frequent  wars  of  Edward,  and 
his  preparations  for  war,  joined  to  alterations  which  had  insensibly 
taken  place  in  the  general  state  of  affairs,  obliged  him  to  have 
constant  recourse  to  parliament  fur  sui)plies.  He  became  sensible 
that  the  most  expeditious  way  of  obtaining  them  was  to  assemble 
deputies  firom  the  boroughs,  and  to  lay  his  necessities  before  them. 
In  1295  writs  were  first  issued  to  the  bishops  and  clergy;  on  the 
Ist  October  to  the  barons ;  on  the  3rd  to  the  sheriffs,  stating  that  the 
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158 


EDWARD  I. 


Ohap.  IX. 


king  intended  to  hold  a  conference  or  parliament,  with  his  earls, 
barons,  and  nobles,  to  provide  against  the  dangers  of  the  realm. 
They  were  therefore  commanded  to  see  two  knights  elected  from 
every  shire,  and  two  burgesses  of  the  better  sort  from  every  borough 
and  city,  "  to  execute  whatever  should  be  ordained  in  the  premises 
by  common  consent."  *  As  a  representation  of  the  three  estates, 
this  parliament  of  Edward  I.  may  be  considered  as  the  model 
of  those  that  followed  it,  and  the  first  step  towards  limiting  the 
vaguer  sense  in  which  the  word  parliament  had  till  then  been 
employed. 

When  Kdward  received  intelligence  of  the  treaty  secretly  con- 
cluded between  John  and  Philip,  he  marched  into  Scotland  with 
a  numerous  army,  to  chastise  his  rebellious  vassal  (rJ96).  He 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Scots  near  Dunbar.  All  the 
southern  parts  of  the  country  were  instantly  subdued  by  the 
Kuglish;  and  the  feeble  and  timid  Balliol  hastened  to  make  a 
solenm  and  irrevocable  resignation  of  his  crown  to  Edward  (July  2). 
The  English  king  marched  to  Aberdeen  and  Elgin,  without 
meeting  an  enemy ;  and  having  brought  the  whole  kingdom  to  a 
seeming  state  of  tranquillity,  he  returned  to  the  south  with  his 
army,  removing  from  Scone  the  stone  on  which  the  Scotch  kings 
were  inaugurated,  and  to  which  popular  superstition  paid  the 
highest  veneration. t  Balliol  was  carried  prisoner  to  London,  and 
cummitted  to  the  Tower.  Three  years  after  he  was  restored  to 
liberty,  and  retired  to  France,  where  he  died  in  voluntary  exile 
(1314).  John  de  Warrenne,  earl  of  Surrey,  was  left  governor  of 
Scotland  (September  29). 

§  7.  An  attempt  which  Edward  made  about  the  same  time  for  the 
recovery  of  Guienne  was  not  equally  successful.  In  order  to  carry 
on  the  war,  the  king  stood  in  nee<l  of  large  sums  of  money,  which 
he  raised  by  arbitrary  exactions  both  on  the  clergy  and  laity. 
Pressed  by  his  necessities,  he  had  seized,  four  years  before,  the 
wool  of  the  merchants,  and  only  released  it  after  payment  of  four 
or  five  marks  the  sack.  He  had  aj>i>r()i)riated  the  treasure  found  in 
monasteries  and  cathedrals.  In  11197  he  had  put  the  clergy  out 
of  his  protection  for  refusing  a  new  demand.  After  a  violent 
struggle,  they  were  obliged  to  submit,  and  to  pay  a  fifth  part  of 


•  "  Ad  fadendnm  quod  tunc  de  com- 
muni  consilio  ordiimbitur  in  pnemissis." 
The  words  are  ambiguous ;  but  can 
scarcely  mean  anj-tbing  more  than  tbat 
these  new  representatives  of  the  com- 
mons were  to  take  measures  for  raising 
the  aids  required  in  their  wveral  counties 
aad  boroughs.     The  writs  contemplated 


no  more  than  this;  and  no  legislattve 
privilege  is  implied  in  them.  For  whilst 
the  writs  to  ihe  clergy  and  baronage 
contain  a  preamble,  ad  trcuitandum 
nobiscicm,  etc.,  no  such  clause  is  found  in 
the  writs  to  the  commons. 

+  Now  in  the  shrine  of  Edward,  the 
Confessor,  Westminster  Abbey. 


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159 


all  their  movables.  But  the  nobles  and  the  commons  were  more 
successful  in  their  resistance,  and  they  found  intrepid  leaders  in 
Humphrey  Bohun,earl  of  Hereford,  the  constable,  and  Roger  Bigod, 
earl  of  Norfolk,  the  marshal  of  England.  Edward,  intending  to 
attack  France  on  both  sides,  purposed  to  send  over  an  army  to 
Gmenne,  while  he  himself  should  in  person  make  an  impression 
on  the  side  of  Flanders.  These  forces  he  intended  to  place  under 
the  command  of  the  earls  of  Hereford  and  of  Norfolk.  But  they 
refused,  affirming  that  they  were  only  obliged  by  their  office  to 
attend  his  person  in  the  wars.  A  violent  altercation  ensued.  The 
king,  in  the  height  of  his  passion,  addressing  himself  to  the  earl  mar- 
shal, exclaimed.  Sir  Earl,  by  Ood,  you  shall  either  go  or  havg.  By 
Ood,  Sir  King,  replied  Norfolk,  /  imll  neither  go  nor  hang.  And 
he  immediately  departed  with  the  constable,  and  above  thirty 
other  considerable  barons. 

In  the  {Ace  of  such  an  opposition  the  king  laid  aside  the  project 
of  an  expedition  against  Guienne,  and  crossed  over  into  Flanders ; 
but  the  constable  and  marshal,  with  the  barons  of  their  party,  resolved 
to  take  advantage  of  his  absence,  and  obtain  an  explicit  assent  to 
their  demands.  Summoned  to  attend  the  parliament  at  London, 
they  came  with  a  great  body  of  troops,  but  refused  to  enter  the  city 
until  the  gates  should  be  put  into  their  custody  (October  10). 
They  required  that  the  two  charters  (the  Great  Charter  and  that 
of  the  Forests)  should  receive  a  solemn  confirmation ;  that  clauses 
should  be  added  to  secure  the  nation  against  certain  impositions  and 
taxes  without  consent  of  "  the  magnates  "  (parliament) ;  and  that 
they  themselves  and  their  adherents,  who  had  refused  to  go  to 
Gtiienne,  should  be  pardoned  for  the  offence,  and  Ikj  again  received 
into  fevour.  The  prince  of  Wales  and  his  council  assented  to  these 
terms,  and  the  charters  were  sent  over  to  the  king  at  Ghent  in 
Flanders,  to  be  confirmed  by  him  (Novemljer  ;",  1297).  Edward 
was  at  last  obliged,  after  many  struggles,  to  alTix  his  seal  to  the 
charters,  as  also  to  the  clauses  that  bereft  him  of  the  power  he  had 
hitherto  assumed  of  imposing  arbitrary  aids  and  tolls.  This  took 
place  in  the  26th  year  of  his  reign.  He  attempted  subsequently 
to  evade  these  engagements,  and  in  1305  secretly  applied  to  Rome, 
and  procured  from  that  mercenary  court  absolution  from  all  the 
oaths  and  engagements  which  he  had  taken  to  observe  both  the 
charters ;  but  he  soon  after  granted  a  new  confirmation.  Thus, 
the  Great  Chartei  was  finally  established.* 


*  As  to  what  was  meant  by  the  king 
and  hii  opponents,  the  nobles,  by  the  con- 
flnnation  of  the  Cbartera  (Magna  Carta 
and  De  rbre$ta\  there  ia  do  doubt  and  no 


difflcnlty.  But  it  ia  by  no  means  so  clear, 
as  is  sometimes  represented,  that  Edward 
absolntely  renounced  all  right  of  impos- 
ing taxation  without  the  oonaent  of  the 


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160 


EDWARD   I. 


Obap.  IX. 


In  March,  1298,  peace  was  concluded  between  France  and  Eng- 
land by  the  mediation  of  Boniface  MIL  1  hilip  agreed  to  restore 
Guienne ;  Edward  agreed  to  abandon  his  ally,  the  earl  of  Flanders. 
The  treaty  was  cemented  by  the  double  betrothal  of  king  Edward 
with  Margaret,  Philip's  sister,  and  of  the  young  prince  of  Wales 
with  Philip's  infant  daughter.  Edward  had  lost  his  devoted  wife, 
Eleanor,  at  Hareby,  near  Lincoln,  in  1290,  and  had  buried  her  at 
Westminster  with  extraordinary  honours.  His  second  marriage 
took  place  in  1299. 

§  8.  But  while  Edward  was  still  abroad,  Scotland  was  the  scene 
of  a  successful  insurrection.  William  Wallace,  of  EUerslie,  near 
Paisley,  descended  from  an  ancient  family  in  the  west  of  Scotland, 
finding  himself  obnoxious  to  the  government  for  murdering  the 
sheriff  of  Lanark,  had  fled  into  the  woods  and  collected  a  band  of 
outlaws.  Growing  strong  by  the  neglect  of  those  in  authority,  he 
resolved  to  strike  a  decisive  blow  against  the  English  government. 
With  this  view,  he  concerted  a  plan  for  attacking  Ormesby,  to 
whom  as  justiciary  the  government  had  been  deputed  by  John 
de  Warrenne.  Ormesby,  apprized  of  his  intentions,  fled  hastily  into 
England.  De  Warrenne,  having  collected  an  army  of  40,000  men 
in  the  north  of  England,  suddenly  entered  Scotland,  but  was 
defeated  by  Wallace  with  great  slaughter  at  Cambuskenneth,  near 
Stirling  (September  11, 1297).  Among  the  slain  was  Gressingham, 
the  English  treasurer,  whose  memory  was  so  extremely  odious  to 
the  Scots  that  they  flayed  his  dead  body,  and  made  saddles  and 
girths  of  his  skin.  Breaking  into  the  northern  frontiers  during 
the  winter  season,  Wallace  exercised  horrible  atrocities.  He  laid 
every  place  waste  with  fire  and  sword ;  and  after  extending  the 
fury  of  his  ravages  as  far  as  the  bishopric  of  Durham,  he  returned, 
laden  with  spoils,  into  his  own  country. 

§  9.  Edward  hastened  over  to  England,  and,  putting  himself  at 
the  head  of  an  army,  marched  to  the  Forth  without  experiencing 
any  opposition.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Scots  at 
Falkirk  (July  22,  1298).  Wallace  fled ;  the  Scottish  army  was 
broken,  and  chased  off  the  field  with  great  slaughter.  But  Scot- 
land was  not  yet  completely  subdued.  The  English  army,  after 
reducing  the  southern  provinces,  was  obliged  to  retire  for  want  of 


OAtioD,  or  Uiat  the  barons  erer  demanded 
M  much.  What  the  king  really  did  grant 
was.  (1)  Uiat  the  aids  levied  by  him  for 
his  wars  should  not  be  drawn  into  a  pre- 
opdent ;  and  (2)  that  he  would  take  no 
*vch  aids  henceforth,  except  by  consent 
of  the  nation,  saving  the  ancient  and 
Oitttomary  aids.    These  reservations  are 


fax  more  consonant  widi  the  splrH  of  the 
tiroes  and  the  gradual  development  of  the 
constitution  tlian  the  Latin  abstract  of 
the  chronicler,  which  is  not  foond  on  the 
Roll,  or  in  any  authorised  form.  (Sat 
Statutes  </  the  Realm,  i.  124, 
by  Stubbe,  Select  Charters,  m. 


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JLD.  1298-1806.  DEATH  OF  WALLACE.  161 

provisions,  and  left  the  northern  counties  in  the  hands  of  the  natives 
whose  nohles  formed  a  commission  of  regency  under  John  Comyn, 
lord  of  Badenoch.  In  1303  the  French  king  abandoned  the  Scots, 
and  Eklward,  again  entering  the  frontiers  of  Scotland,  appeared 
with  a  force  which  the  enemy  could  not  think  of  resisting  in  the 
open  field.  The  English  navy,  which  sailed  along  the  coast, 
secured  the  army  from  danger  of  famine ;  Edward's  vigilance 
preserved  it  from  surprises;  and  by  this  prudt^nt  disiK)sition  he 
marched  victorious  from  one  extremity  of  the  kingdom  to  the  other, 
ravaging  the  open  country,  reducing  the  castles,  and  receiving 
the  submissions  of  the  nobles,  and  even  that  of  the  regent,  Comyn 
(February,  1304).  Wallace,  now  a  fugitive,  was  captured  by  Sir 
John  Monteith,  governor  of  Dumbarton  castle,  and  given  up  to 
the  king.*  Edward  resolved  to  overawe  the  Scots  by  an  example 
of  severity.  Reordered  Wallace  to  be  carried  in  chains  to  London, 
to  bo  tried  and  executed  as  a  rebel  and  traitor,  and  his  head  to  be 
suspended  on  a  pole  over  London  Bridge  (Aujzust  23,  1 30")).  It  was 
not  long  before  a  new  and  more  fortunate  leader  presented  himself. 

§  10.  By  his  grandfather's  death  in  1295,  and  his  father's  in  1305, 
Robert  Bruce,  grandson  of  that  Robert  who  had  been  one  of  the 
competitors  for  the  crown,  had  succeeded  to  all  th«ir  rights.  The 
retirement  of  John  Balliol,  and  of  Edward,  his  eldest  son,  seemed 
to  open  a  full  career  to  his  genius  and  ambition.  Of  English 
lineage,  and  bom  at  Westminster  (1274),  Bruce  was  brought  up  in 
England  at  the  court  of  Edward  I.  Incurring  the  anger  of  the 
king  for  remonstrating  against  the  execution  of  Wallace,  Bruce 
suddenly  left  the  court  of  Edward  (1305).  Halting  at  Dumfries, 
where  the  Scottish  nobles  were  assembled,  he  met  Comyn,  the  son 
of  Balliol's  sister,  and  nearest  successor  to  the  Scottish  throne,  in 
the  cloisters  of  the  Grey  Friars.  Having  vainly  tried  to  win  over 
Comyn  to  his  cause,  Bruce  ran  him  through  the  body,  leaving  him 
for  dead.  Coming  forth  to  his  attendants,  who  observed  his  agita- 
tion, he  was  asked,  "What  tidings?"  "Bad,"  he  replied.  "I 
think  I  have  slain  Comyn ! "  "  Think  !  "  cried  James  Lindesay, 
and  returning  with  Kil{)atrick  into  the  vestry,  where  Comyn  lay, 
Lindesay  stabbed  him  to  the  heart  (February,  130H). 

§  11.  The  murder  of  Comyn  affixed  the  seal  to  the  confederacy 
of  the  Scottish  nobles:  no  resource  was  now  left  but  to  shake 
off  the  yoke  of  England,  or  perish  in  the  attempt.  Bruce  was 
solemnly  crowned  and  inaugurated,  in  the  abbey  of  Scone,  by  the 
bishop  of  St.  Andrews,  whom  Edward  had  made  warden  of  Scotland, 
and  who  had  zealously  embraced  the  Scottish  cause  (March  27, 
1306).  Not  discouraged  with  these  unexpected  difficulties,  Edward 
•  ForduD  xll.  8. 


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162  EDWARD  II.  Chap,  tic 

sent  Aymer  de  Valence,  earl  of  Pembroke,  with  a  considerable  force 
into  Scotland  to  check  the  progress  of  the  malcontents ;  and  that 
nobleman,  falling  upon  Bruce  at  Methven  in  Perthshire,  threw  his 
army  into  such  disorder  as  ended  in  a  total  defeat  (July  22). 
Obliged  to  yield  to  superior  fortune,  Bruce  took  shelter,  with  a  few 
followers,  in  the  Western  Isles.  Edward,  though  sick  to  death, 
assembled  a  great  army  against  the  Scots,  and  was  preparing  to 
enter  the  frontiers,  when  he  died  at  Burgh-on-the-Sands,  three 
miles  from  Carlisle  (July  7, 1307),  enjoining  with  his  last  breath 
his  son  and  successor  to  prosecute  the  enterprise,  and  never  to 
desist  till  he  had  finally  subdued  the  kingdom  of  Scotland.  He 
expired  in  the  69th  year  of  his  age,  and  35th  of  his  reign,  feared 
and  hated  by  his  neighbours,  but  revered  by  his  own  subjects. 

The  enterprises  of  this  prince,  and  the  projects  which  he  formed, 
were  more  advantageous  to  the  solid  interests  of  his  kingdom  than 
those  of  either  his  ancestors  or  his  successors.  However  arbitrary 
he  may  have  shown  himself  on  occasions,  he  was  politic  and 
warlike.  He  possessed  industry,  penetration,  courage,  vigilance, 
an<i  enterprise;  he  was  frugal  in  all  expenses  that  were  not 
necessary ;  he  knew  how  to  open  the  public  treasures  on  a  proper 
occasion;  he  ])uniH]ied  criminals  with  severity;  he  was  gracious 
and  affable  to  his  servants  and  courtiers ;  and  being  of  a  majestic 
figure,  expert  in  all  military  exercises,  and  in  the  main  well- 
proportioned  in  his  limbs,  notwithstanding  the  great  length  and 
the  small ness  of  his  legs,  which  earned  him  the  byname  of 
Lottgshanks,  he  was  as  well  qualified  to  captivate  the  populace 
by  his  exterior  appearance  as  to  gain  the  approbation  of  men  of 
sense  by  his  more  solid  virtues.  But  the  chief  advantage  which 
England  reaped,  and  still  continues  to  reap,  from  his  reign,  was 
the  correction,  extension,  amendment,  and  establishment  of  the 
laws.     For  this  he  is  justly  styled  the  English  Justinian. 

EDWARD  II. 
§  12.  Edward  II.,  6.  1284;  r.  1307-1327.— This  prince,  called 
Edward  of  Caernarvon,  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  was  23  years 
of  ago  when  he  was  proclaimed  at  Carlisle  on  the  day  after  his 
father's  death  (July  8,  1307).  Bruce,  though  his  army  had  been 
disixTsed,  remained  no  longer  inactive.  Before  the  death  of  the  late 
king,  he  had  sallied  from  his  retreat,  and,  collecting  his  followers, 
had  api)eared  in  the  field  and  obtained  at  Loudon  Hill  some  ad- 
vantage over  Aymer  de  Valence,  who  commanded  the  English 
forces.  Edward,  after  receiving  the  homage  of  the  Scots  at  Dumfries, 
returned  and  disbanded  Ins  arniv  C1311).  The  nobles  soon  perceived 
^at  the  authority  of  the  crown  had  fallen  into  feebler  hands;  and 


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A.D.  1307-1312.  CIBEER  OF  GAVESTON.  16.. 

Edward's  passion  for  favourites  gave  them  a  pretext  for  con  pltunt. 
Piers  Graveston  was  the  orphan  son  of  Sir  Arnold  de  Gaveston, 
a  Ghiscon  knight,  who  had  been  unjustly  put  to  death  in  the  English 
cause,  and  was  by  queen  Eleanor  placed  in  the  household  of  the 
prince  of  Wales.  He  soon  insinuated  himself  into  the  affections 
of  his  master  by  his  agreeable  behaviour.  Banished  by  Edward  I., 
he  was  now  recalled  by  the  young  king,  who,  not  content  with 
conferring  on  him  possessions  which  had  suflRced  as  an  appanage 
for  a  prince  of  the  blood,  daily  loaded  him  with  new  honours 
and  riches;  married  him  to  his  own  niece,  sister  of  the  earl  of 
Gloucester;  granted  him  the  earldom  of  Cornwall;  and  seemed  to 
enjoy  no  pleasure  in  his  royal  dignity  but  as  it  enabled  him  to 
exalt  to  the  highest  splendour  this  object  of  his  affections.  When 
he  went  to  France,  to  do  homage  for  the  duchy  of  Guienne  and 
espouse  the  princess  Isabella,  to  whom  he  had  long  been  affianced, 
Edward  left  Gkkveston  guardian  of  the  realm  (December  26, 
1307). 

§  13.  It  woidd  be  useless  to  detail  all  the  events  which  at  last 
drew  down  his  tragical  fate  upon  the  favourite.  Thonjas,  earl  of 
Lancaster,  oousin-german  to  the  king,  and  first  prince  of  the  blood, 
headed  a  confederacy  of  the  nobles  against  Gaveston,  and  in  a 
parliament  held  at  Westminster,  required  the  king  to  banish  him 
(1308).  Edward,  however,  convert^  even  this  circumstance  into 
a  mark  of  favour  by  making  Gaveston  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and 
shortly  after  contrived  to  procure  his  recall  (1309).  In  1311, 
the  barons,  besides  extorting  some  measures  of  reform,  obliged 
the  king  to  assent  to  certain  ordinances  made  in  |>arliament  for 
the  removal  of  evil  counsellors  (October  10).  Piers  Gaveston  him- 
self was  for  ever  banished  the  king's  dominions,  umler  pain  of  ex- 
communication, if  he  ventured  to  return.  These  ordinances  were 
drawn  up  by  twenty-one  bisho^^  and  barons,  who  were  called  "  Lords 
Ordainers."  But  Edward,  removing  to  York,  freed  himself  from 
the  immediate  terror  of  the  barons*  power,  invited  back  Gaveston, 
who  had  retired  into  Flanders,  and  declaring  his  banishment  to  be 
illegal,  and,  contrary  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  kingdom, 
openly  reinstated  him  in  his  former  credit  and  authority  (January 
18, 1312).  Highly  provoked  at  this  conduct,  the  earl  of  Lancaster, 
Guy,  earl  of  Warwick,  Humphrey  Bohuu,  earl  of  Hereford,  Aynier 
de  Valence,  earl  of  Pembroke,  and  others,  renewed  with  double  zeal 
their  former  confederacies  against  the  king.  Lancaster  suddenly 
raised  an  array  and  marched  to  York,  but  found  the  king  already 
removed  to  Newcastle.  He  hastened  thither  in  pursuit  of  him ; 
and  Edward  had  jnst  time  to  escaj^  to  Tynemouth,  where  he 
embarked,  and  sailed  with  Gkiveston  to  Scarborough.     He  left  his 


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164  EDWARD  IL  Ohap.  xz. 

favourite  in  thftt  fortress ;  but  Gaveston,  sensible  of  tbe  bad  con- 
dition of  his  garrison,  was  obliged  to  capitulate,  and  surrendered 
himself  a  prisoner  on  condition  that  his  life  should  be  spared.  The 
condition  was  violated,  and  Graveston  was  executed  on  Blacklow 
Hill,  near  Warwick,  in  the  presence  of  Lancaster  and  other  nobles 
(June  19,  1312). 

§  14.  When  the  terror  of  the  English  power  was  thus  abated  by 
the  unpopularity  of  the  king,  even  the  least  sanguine  of  the  Scots 
joined  in  efforts  for  recovering  their  independence;  and  by  1813 
the  whole  kingdom  acknowledged  the  authority  of  Robert  Bruce, 
who  invested  the  last  English  fortress  at  Stirling.  Roused  by  the 
danger,  Edward  assembled  a  large  army  of  men ;  but  some  of  the 
nobles  refused  to  serve,  and  others  treacherously  fled  from  the  field. 
The  army  collected  by  Bruce  was  posted  at  Bannockbum,  about 
two  miles  from  Stirling,  and  gained  a  great  and  decisive  victory, 
thus  securing  the  independence  of  Scotland,  and  fixing  Bruce  on 
the  throne  of  that  kingdom  (June  24,  1314).  Edward  himself^ 
betrayed  by  Aymer  de  Valence  and  others  of  the  nobles,  narrowly 
escajted  by  taking  shelter  in  Dunbar,  whose  gates  were  oj^iened  to 
him  by  the  earl  of  March,  and  thence  he  fled  to  Berwick. 

§  15.  Thomas,  earl  of  Lancaster,  who  was  suspected  of  holding 
treasonable  correspondence  with  the  Scots,  now  took  advantage  of  the 
king's  humiliation ;  and  in  a  parliament  held  at  York  (September  9, 
1314),  Edward  was  compelled  to  dismiss  his  chancellor,  treasurer, 
and  other  oflicers,  whose  places  were  immediately  filled  by  the  earl's 
nominees.  Hugh  le  Despenser,  the  elder,  and  Walter  Langton  were 
removed  from  the  council,  and  the  king  was  reduced  to  an  allowance 
of  £10  a  day.  Lancaster  did  not  fail  to  use  these  advantages  to  the 
prejudice  of  his  unfortunate  relative.  In  1316  he  entirely  wrested 
the  reins  from  Edward's  hands,  by  procuring  himself  to  be  appointed 
president  of  the  council,  without  whose  consent  nothing  should 
be  done.  But  the  power  thus  gained  he  failed  to  exercise  either 
with  ability  or  with  moderation.  The  son  of  Hugh  le  Despenser 
had  succeeded  Gtaveston  in  the  king's  affections.  The  father  was 
a  nobleman  venerable  from  his  years,  respected  for  his  wisdom, 
valour,  and  integrity,  and  well  fitted,  by  his  talents  and  experience, 
to  have  supplied  the  defects  both  of  the  king  and  of  his  favourite. 
But  no  sooner  was  Edward's  attachment  declared  for  yoimg 
Spenser  than  Lancaster  and  most  of  the  great  barons  made  him 
the  object  of  their  animosity,  and  formed  plans  for  his  ruin.  They 
entered  London  with  their  troops  (1321);  and  giving  in  to  the 
parliament,  which  was  then  sitting,  a  charge  against  the  Spensers, 
they  procured  a  sentence  of  forfeiture  and  per|>etual  exile  against 
these  ministers.     In  the  following  year  Edward  hastened  with  his 


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AJ>.  1812-1825.        TRUCE  WITH  SCOTLAND.  165 

army  to  the  marches  of  Wales,  the  chief  seat  of  the  power  of  his 
enemies,  whom  he  foimd  totally  unprepared  for  resistance.  Lan- 
caster, to  prevent  the  total  ruin  of  his  party,  summoned  together 
his  vassals  and  retainers;  declared  his  alliance  with  Scotland, 
which  had  long  been  suspected ;  and,  being  joined  by  the  earl  of 
Hereford,  advanced  with  all  his  forces  against  the  king.  Dis- 
appointed in  this  design,  he  fled  with  his  army  to  the  north,  in 
expectation  of  being  joined  by  his  Scottish  allies;  was  pursued 
by  the  king ;  and,  with  a  diminished  army,  marched  to  Borough- 
bridge,  where  he  was  defeated  and  captured.  Lancaster,  as  guilty 
of  open  rebellion,  was  condemned  by  a  military  court,  and  led  to 
execution.  He  was  clothed  in  a  mean  attire,  placed  on  a  lean 
jade  without  a  bridle,  conducted  to  an  eminence  near  Pontefract, 
one  of  his  own  castles,  and  there  beheaded  (1322). 

§  16.  After  one  more  fruitless  attempt  against  Scotland,  Edward 
retreated  with  dishonour — for  he  had  traitors  among  his  officers — 
and  found  it  necessary  to  terminate  hostilities  with  that  kingdom 
by  a  truce  of  thirteen  years  (1323).  This  truce  was  the  more 
seasonable  for  England,  because  the  nation  was  at  that  juncture 
threatened  with  hostilities  from  France.  Charles  the  Fa'r  had 
some  grounds  of  complaint  against  the  king's  ministers  in  Guienne: 
and  queen  Isabella,  who  had  obtained  permission  to  go  over  to 
Paris  and  endeavour  to  adjust  the  difference  with  her  brother,  pro- 
posed that  Edward  should  resign  the  dominion  of  Guienne  to  his 
eldest  son,  now  thirteen  years  of  age;  that  the  prince  should 
come  to  Paris,  and  do  the  homage  which  every  vassal  owed  to  his 
superior  lord.  Spenser  was  charmed  with  the  contrivance.  Young 
Edward  was  sent  to  Paris :  and  the  danger  covered  by  this  fatal 
snare  was  never  perceived  or  suspected  by  any  of  the  English  council 
(September  12,  13.5). 

The  queen,  on  her  arrival  in  France,  had  found  there  a  great 
number  of  English  fugitives,  the  remains  of  the  Lancastrian  faction ; 
and  their  common  hatred  of  Spenser  soon  begat  a  secret  friendship 
and  correspondence  between  them  and  Isabella.  Among  the  rest 
was  Roger  Mortimer,  lord  of  Wigraore,  a  potent  baron  in  the  Welsh 
marches,  who  was  easily  admitted  to  her  court.  Though  he  was 
married,  the  graces  of  his  person  and  address  advanced  him  quickly 
in  Isabella's  affections.  He  became  her  confidant  and  counsellcft-, 
and  engaged  her  to  sacrifice  at  last  to  her  passion  all  the  sentiments 
of  honour  and  of  fidelity  to  her  husband.  Mortimer  lived  in  the 
most  declared  intimacy  with  her;  a  correspondence  was  secretly 
carried  on  with  the  malcontent  party  in  England ;  and  when  Edward, 
informed  of  those  akrming  circumstances,  required  her  speedily  to 
return  with  the  prince,  she  publicly  replied  that  she  would  never  set 
9* 


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166  EDWARD  n.  Chap,  n, 

foot  in  the  kingdom  till  the  Spensers  were  for  ever  removed  from  his 
presence  and  councils — a  declaration  which  procured  her  great  pojm- 
larity  in  England,  and  threw  a  decent  veil  over  all  her  treasonable 
designs.  She  affianced  young  Edward  to  Philippa,  daughter  of  the 
count  of  Holland  and  Hainault ;  and  having,  by  the  assistance  of  this 
prince,  enlisted  in  her  service  nearly  3000  men,  she  set  sail  from  the 
harbour  of  Dort,  and  landed  safely  and  without  opposition  on  the 
const  of  Suffolk  (September  24, 132(i).  She  was  joined  by  Edward's 
half-brothers,  the  earls  of  Kent  and  Norfolk,  and  many  of  the 
nobility.  Edward,  deserted  by  his  subjects,  repaired  to  the  west ; 
but  being  disappointed  in  his  expectations  of  loyalty  in  those 
parts,  he  passed  over  to  Wales,  where,  he  flattered  himself,  his 
name  was  still  popular,  and  the  natives  less  infected  with  the 
general  contagion.  The  elder  Spenser,  created  earl  of  Winchester, 
was  letl  governor  of  the  castle  of  Bristol ;  but  the  garrison  mutinied 
against  him,  and  he  was  delivered  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies 
and  executed.  The  king  took  shipping  for  Ireland;  but  being 
driven  back  by  contrary  winds,  he  endeavoured  to  conceal 
himself  in  Wales.  He  was  soon  discovered,  was  put  under  the 
custody  of  the  earl  of  Lancaster,  and  was  confined  in  the  castle 
of  Kenil worth.  The  younger  Spenser  also  fell  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemies,  and  was  hanged  after  a  hasty  trial.  The  queen  then 
summoned  u  parliament  at  Westminster  in  the  king's  name 
(January  7,  1327).  A  charge  was  drawn  up  against  the  king,  for 
whom  no  voice  was  raised.  His  deixjsition  was  voted :  the  young 
Edward,  already  declared  regent  by  his  party,  was  placed  on  the 
throne :  and  a  deputation  was  sent  to  his  father  at  Kenilworth,  to 
require  his  resignation,  which  menaces  and  terror  soon  extorted 
from  him  (January  20).  The  tmfortunate  monarch,  hurried  from 
place  to  place,  was  at  length  transferred  to  Berkeley  castle,  and 
the  impatient  Mortimer  secretly  sent  orders  to  his  keepers  to 
despatcli  him.  It  was  believed  that  these  ruffians  threw  him  on  a 
bed,  held  him  down  violently  with  a  table  which  they  flung  over 
him,  thruKt  into  his  intestines  a  red-hot  iron,  which  they  inserted 
through  a  horn ;  and  though  all  outward  marks  of  violence  upon  his 
]Himm  were  prevented  by  this  expedient,  the  horrid  deed  was 
discovered  to  all  the  guards  and  attendants  by  the  screams  with 
>^ich  the  agonizing  king  filled  the  castle  while  his  bowels  wero 
consuming  (Scpten)bor  21).  Thus  miserably  perished,  in  the  44th 
year  of  his  age,  Eilward  II.,  than  whom  it  is  not  easy  to  imagine 
a  prince  less  fitted  for  governing  the  fierce  and  turbulept.  borong 
subjected  to  his  authority. 


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Nobto  of  Edward  m. 

ObV.  :  KDWARD  .  DBI  .  GRA  .  EBX  .  ANGL*  Z  FRAMC'  .  D  .  JSTtfQ.     The  Uog  BtaDdiSg 

In  &  ship  (type  supposed  to  relate  to  the  naval  victory  gained  by  him  over  Uie  FrenoE 
fleet  off  Sluya,  a.d.  1340).  Rev. :  ihc  :  TRAiraiBKS  :  pbr  :  mDrw  :  illorvm  :  ibat  •f . 
Croas  flenry,  with  a  fleur-de-lis  at  each  pohit,  and  a  lion  paseant  under  a  crown  in 
each  quarter. 

CHAPTER  X. 
HOUSE   OF   PLANTAGENET— Ooii«iii«ei 

EDWARD  III.  AND  RICHARD  II.      A.D.  1327-1399. 

§  1.  Accession  of  Edward  TIL  War  with  Scotland.  §  2.  Fall  of  Mortimer. 
§  3.  King's  administration.  War  with  Scotland.  Battle  of  Halidon 
Hill.  §  4.  Edward's  claim  to  the  crown  of  France.  §  5.  War  with 
France.  §  6.  Domestic  disturbances.  Affairs  of  Brittany.  §  7.  Re- 
newal of  the  French  war.  Battle  of  Crecy.  §  8.  Captivity  of  the 
king  of  Scots.  Calais  taken.  §  9.  Institution  of  the  Garter.  War 
in  Guienne  and  battle  of  Poitiers.  §  10.  Captivity  of  king  John. 
Invasion  of  France  and  peace  of  Bt-etigny*  §  11*  The  Black  Prince  in 
Castile.  Rupture  with  France.  §  12.  Death  of  the  prince  of  Wales. 
Death  and  character  of  the  king.  §  13.  Miscellaneous  transactions  of 
this  reign.  §  14.  Accession  of  Richard  II.  Insurrection.  §  Ih, 
Discontents  of  the  nobility.  Expulsion  or  execution  of  the  king's 
ministers.  §  16.  Counter-revolution.  Ascendency  of  the  duke  of 
Lancaster.  Cabals  and  murder  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester.  §  17. 
Death  of  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster.  Revolt  of  his  son  Henry. 
Deposition,  death,  and  character  of  the  king.     §  18.  The  WicklifBtes. 

1.  Edward  III.,  b,  1312;  r.  1327-1377.— After  the  late  king's 
deposition  a  council  of  regency  was  appointed  by  parliament,  and 
Henry,  earl  of  Lancaster,  became  guardian  and  protector  of  the  king's 
person,  who,  at  the  age  of  14,  ascended  the  throne  with  the  title 
of  Edward  111.*  The  real  power,  however,  was  in  the  hands  of 
Isabella  and  Mortimer. 

ITie  .'cots  seized  the  opportunity  oflfered  by  the  unsettled  state 
of  the  English  governmeut  to  make  incursions  into  the  northern 
counties.     The  young  king,  who  had  put  himself  at  the  head  of 

*  HiB  reign  is  dated  from  the  25th  of  January,  1327.    He  was  crowned  Jaouaiy  29^ 


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16b  EBWABD  in  Chap.  x. 

an  anny  in  order  to  repress  them,  narrowly  escaped  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Douglas,  having  surveyed  exactly  the 
ffltuation  of  the  English  camp,  entered  it  secretly  in  the  night- 
time, with  a  body  of  200  determined  soldiers,  and  advanced  to  the 
royal  tent,  with  the  view  of  killing  or  carrying  oflf  the  king  in  the 
midst  of  his  army.  But  some  of  Edward's  attendants,  awaking  in 
that  critical  moment,  resisted ;  his  chaplain  and  chamberlain  sacri- 
ficed their  lives  to  his  safety;  and  the  king  himself,  after  a  valorous 
defence,  escaped  in  the  dark.  Douglas,  having  lost  the  greater  part 
of  his  followers,  was  glad  to  make  a  hasty  retreat.  Soon  after, 
the  Scottish  army  decamped  in  the  dead  of  night;  and  having 
thus  got  the  start  of  the  English,  returned  without  further  loss 
into  their  own  country.  This  inglorious  campaign  was  followed 
by  a  disgraceful  peace.  As  the  claim  of  sovereignty  by  England, 
more  than  any  other  cause,  had  tended  to  inflame  the  animosities 
between  the  two  nations,  Mortimer,  besides  stipulating  for  a  mar- 
riage between  Joan,  sister  of  Edward,  and  David,  the  son  and 
heir  of  Robert  Bruce,  consented  to  resign  absolutely  all  claim  of 
supremacy  over  Scotland,  and  to  acknowledge  Robert  as  an  inde- 
pendent sovereign.  The  regalia  were  restored;  many  Scottish 
prisoners  were  released,  the  Scots  agreeing  to  pay  the  sum  of 
mO,000  marks  in  three  years.  This  treaty  was  ratified  by  parlia- 
ment (May  4,  1328). 

§  2.  But  the  fall  of  Mortimer  was  now  approaching.  Having 
persuaded  the  earl  of  Kent  that  his  brother,  king  Edward,  was  still 
alive  and  detained  in  some  secret  prison  in  England,  he  induced 
the  unsuspicious  earl  to  enter  into  a  conspiracy  for  his  restoration, 
and  then  caused  him  to  be  condemned  on  the  charge  by  parliament, 
and  executed  (March  21,  1330).  The  earl  of  Lancaster  was  greatly 
alarmed,  and  feeling  that  he  must  himself  be  the  next  victim,  he 
did  his  best  to  turn  the  young  king  against  Mortimer.  But  Mortimer 
blindly  persisted  in  his  high-handed  dealings;  he  was  bent  on 
sweeping  from  his  path  all  who  st(x>d  in  the  way  of  his  ambition. 
He  had,  in  1328,  been  created  earl  of  March,  and  he  aflfected  a  state 
and  dignity  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  royal  power.  He 
became  formidable  to  every  one;  and  all  jmrties,  forgetting  past 
animosities,  agreed  in  detesting  him.  It  was  impossible  that 
this  could  long  escape  the  observation  of  a  prince  endowed  with 
so  much  spirit  and  judgment  as  young  Edward.  He  communi- 
cated to  several  nobles  his  intentions  of  humbling  Mortimer;  and 
the  castle  of  Nottingham  was  chosen  for  the  scene  of  their 
enterprise.  The  queen-do wapjer  and  Mortimer  lodged  in  that  for- 
tress ;  the  king  also  was  admitted,  though  with  a  few  only  of  his 
attendants ;  and  as  the  castle  was  strictly  guarded,  the  gates  locked 


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A.D.  1827-1382.  DEATH  OF  MORTIMEB.  169 

every  evening,  and  the  keys  carried  to  the  queen,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  communicate  the  design  to  Sir  William  Eland,  the  governor, 
who  zealously  took  part  in  it.  By  his  direction  the  king's  associates 
were  admitted  through  a  subterranean  passage,  which  had  formerly 
been  contrived  for  a  secret  outlet  from  the  castle,  but  was  now 
buried  in  rubbish.  Mortimer,  without  having  it  in  his  power  to 
make  resistance,  was  suddenly  seized  in  an  apartment  adjoining 
to  the  queen's  (October  19).  In  a  parliament  summoned  at  West- 
minster, Mortimer  was  arraigned  on  certain  charges,  assumed  to 
be  notorious;  was  condemned  unheard,  and  hanged  on  a  gibbet 
at  Tyburn  (November  29, 1330).  The  queen  was  confined  to  her 
own  house  at  Castle  Rising;  and  though  the  king  paid  her  a 
visit  of  ceremony  once  or  twice  a  year,  she  was  never  reinstated 
in  any  credit  or  authority.    She  died  in  1367. 

§  3.  Edward,  having  now  taken  the  reins  of  government  into 
his  own  hands,  applied  himself  with  industry  and  judgment  to 
redress  all  those  grievances  which  had  proceeded  either  from  want 
of  an  authority  in  the  crown,  or  from  the  late  abuses  of  it.  During 
the  convulsions  of  the  last  reign,  murder  and  theft  had  multiplied 
enormously,  and  malefactors  were  openly  protected  by  the  great 
barons,  who  made  use  of  them  against  their  enemies.  Gkkngs  of 
robbecs  had  become  so  numerous  a^  to  require  the  king's  own 
presence  to  disperse  them ;  and  in  executing  this  salutary  ofiBce 
he  exerted  both  courage  and  industry.  For  the  next  three  or  four 
years  his  attention  was  engaged  with  the  affairs  of  Scotland. 
Robert  Bruce,  who  had  recovered  the  independence  of  his  coimtry, 
died  (November  24,  1331)  soon  after  the  last  treaty  of  peace  with 
England,  leaving  David,  his  son,  a  young  child,  under  the  guardian- 
ship i»f  Randolph,  earl  of  Moray,  the  companion  of  all  his  victories. 
Great  discontent  had  been  excited  among  many  of  the  English 
nobility  by  Bruce's  non-performance  of  that  article  of  the  treaty 
by  which  they  were  to  be  restored  to  their  estates  in  Scotland. 
Uader  the  influence  of  these  feelings  they  resolved  on  setting  up 
Edward,  the  son  of  John  Balliol,  then  residing  in  Normandy,  as 
a  pretender  to  the  Scottish  crown.  Edward  secretly  encouraged 
Balliol,  and  countenanced  the  nobles  who  were  disposed  to  join 
in  the  attempt.  The  arms  of  Balliol  were  attended  with  sur- 
prising success;  he  was  crowned  at  Scone  (1332);  and  David, 
his  competitor,  was  sent  over  to  France  with  his  betrothed  wife, 
Joan,  sister  to  Edward.  But  Ralliol's  imprudence,  or  his  neces- 
sities, making  him  dismiss  the  greater  part  of  his  English  followers, 
he  was  attacked  on  a  sudden  near  Annan  by  the  Scots,  enraged  at 
his  ceding  the  town  of  Berwick  to  Edward  (November  23, 1332),  was 
put  to  the  rout,  and  chased  into  England  in  a  miserable  condition. 


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170  EDWARD  III.  Chap.  x. 

Thus  he  lost  his  kingdom  in  a  few  months  by  a  revolution  as 
sudden  as  that  by  which  he  had  acquired  it  (December  12,  1332). 

While  Balliol  enjoyed  his  short-lived  and  precarious  royalty,  he 
had  offered  to  acknowledge  Edward's  claim  of  sovereignty,  and  to 
espouse  the  princess  Joan,  if  the  pope's  consent  could  be  obtained 
for  dissolving  her  former  marriage,  which  was  not  yet  consummated. 
Edward  willingly  accepted  the  offer,  and  prepared  to  reinstate  him 
in  possession  of  the  crown,  for  which  the  inroads  of  the  Scots  into 
the  northern  counties  after  the  battle  of  Annan  seemed  to  offer  a 
reasonable  pretext  At  the  head  of  a  powerful  army  he  advanced 
to  lay  siege  to  Berwick.  Douglas  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Halidon 
Hill,  a  little  north  of  that  city.  Berwick  was  surrendered  (1333). 
Balliol  was  acknowledged  king  by  a  parliament  held  at  Edinburgh 
(1334).  The  superiority  of  England  was  again  recognized,  and 
many  of  the  Scottish  nobility  swore  fealty  to  Edward.  To  com- 
plete the  misfortunes  of  that  nation,  Berwick,  Dunbar,  Roxburgh, 
Edinburgh,  and  all  the  south-east  counties  of  Scotland  were  ceded 
by  the  new  king  and  declared  to  be  for  ever  annexed  to  the  English 
monarchy.  But  the  Scots  were  still  far  from  being  subdued.  In 
1335,  and  again  in  the  following  year,  Edward  was  obliged  to 
proceed  thither  with  an  army;  and  as  a  war  was  now  likely  to 
break  out  between  France  and  England,  the  Scots  had  reason 
to  expect  a  great  diversion  of  that  force  which  had  so  long  oppressed 
and  overwhelmed  them.  Edward  Balliol  fled  to  England,  and 
spent  most  of  his  nominal  eight  years'  reign  at  Edward's  court 
David  II.  was  recalled  from  exile  in  1341,  though  still  to  a  pre- 
carious throne. 

§  4.  Upon  the  death  of  Charles  IV.  in  13?8  without  male  issue, 
Philip  of  Valois,  the  cousin  of  Charles,  succeeded  as  Philip  VI.,  for 
by  the  Salic  law  all  females  were  excluded  from  the  crown.  Edward 
III.  claimed  it  as  next  male  heir  to  Charles ;  for,  though  Isabella 
was,  on  account  of  her  sex,  incapable  of  reigning,  he  maintained 
that  a  right  to  the  crown  could  be  transmitted  through  her  to 
her  male  offspring.  This  point  had  never  yet  been  determined  by 
the  Salic  law.  He  had  acquiesced  at  first  in  the  succession  of 
Philip,  and  had  twice  done  homage  in  general  terms  for  the  pro- 
vince of  Guienne  (1329,  1331).  It  was  not  until  1337  that  he 
renewed  his  claim,  irritated  by  the  aid  afforded  by  Philip  to  the 
Scots. 

§  ^'  Before  preparing  for  invasion,  Edward  resolved  to  strengthen 
himself  by  various  continental  alliances.  He  assumed  the  title  of 
king  of  Prance  (October  7,  1337),  and  crossing  over  to  Planders, 
where  he  had  obtained  the  adhesion  of  Jacob  van  Artevelde, 
the  leader  of  the  popular  party  among  the  Flemings  (1338),  he 


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A.».  1832-1840.    NAVAL  VICTORTf  AT  SLlTTS. 


171 


invaded  France  in  the  following  year,  but  was  obliged  to  retreat 
without  effecting  anything,  owing  to  the  apathy  of  his  allies. 
He  was,  however,  a  prince  of  too  much  spirit  to  be  daunted  by 
the  first  di  l^culties  of  an  enterprise,  and  was  anxious  to  retrieve 
his  honour  by  more  successful  efforts.  Philip,  apprized  by  the 
preparations  which  were  making  both  in  England  and  the  Liow 
Countries  that  he  must  expect  another  invasion,  fitted  out  a  great 
fleet  of  400  vessels,  manned  with  40,000  men,  and  stationed  them 
off  Sluys,  with  a  view  of  intercepting  the  king  in  his  passage  to 
the  continent.  The  English  navy  was  much  inferior  in  number, 
consisting  only  of  240  sail ;  but,  either  by  the  superior  abilities  of 
Edward  or  the  greater  dexterity  of  his  seamen,  they  gained  the 
wind  of  the  enemy,  and  had  the  sun  on  their  backs,  and  with 
these  advantages  the  action  began.  It  lasted  nine  hours,  and 
ended  in  favour  of  Edward.  230  French  ships  were  taken ;  30,000 
Frenchmen  were  killed,  with  two  of  their  admirals.  On  the  side 
of  the  English,  two  ships  only  were  sunk  and  4000  men  slain 
(June  24,  1340).  Elated  with  his  success,  Edward  advanced  to  the 
frontiers  of  France  at  the  head  of  100,000  men,  consisting  chiefly 
of  foreigners.  He  laid  siege  to  Toumay,  but  after  a  few  weeks 
agreed  to  a  truce,  as  his  money  was  exhausted,  ^nd  he  suddenly 
returned  to  England. 

§  6.  It  required  all  his  genius  and  energy  to  extricate  himself 
from  his  multiplied  embarrassments.  His  claims  on  France  and 
Scotland  had  engaged  him  in  an  implacable  war  with  these  two 
kingdoms :  he  had  lost  most  of  his  foreign  alliances  by  the  irregu- 
larity of  his  payments:  he  was  deeply  involved  in  debts,  and, 
except  his  naval  victory,  none  of  his  military  operations  had  been 
attended  with  glory.  The  animosity  between  him  and  the  clergy, 
especially  John  Stratford,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  whom,  as 
chancellor,*  the  charge  of  collecting  the  taxes  had  been  chiefly  in- 
trusted, was  open  and  declared.  The  leople  were  discontented; 
and,  what  was  more  dangerous,  the  nobles,  taking  advantage  of  the 
king's  present  necessities,  were  determined  to  retrench  his  power, 
and,  by  encroaching  on  the  ancient  prerogatives  of  the  crown,  to 
acquire  a  greater  amount  of  independence  and  authority.  In  1340 
IMU-liament  framed  an  act  to  confirm  the  Great  Charter  anew,  and 
oblige  all  the  chief  officers  of  the  law  and  of  the  state  to  swear  to 
the  regular  observance  of  it.  They  petitioned  that  no  peer  should 
be  punished  but  by  the  award  of  his  peers  in  parliament ;  that  the 


*  He  and  bis  brother  Robert,  bishop  of 
Cbicbester,  held  the  ofBce  of  cbincellor, 
alternately,  for  more  than  ten  years. 
Bobett,  fiiiling  to  famish  such  liberal 


snppUea  as  Edward  required  in  his  wars, 
was  suddenly  displaced,  December,  1340, 
and  was  snooeeded  by  sir  Robert  Bonrchler, 
the  first  layman  who  held  that  pott 


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172  EDWARD  in.  Ohap.  ^ 

chief  officers  of  state  should  be  appointed  by  the  king  in  parlitc 
ment,  and  should  answer  before  parliament  to  any  accusation 
brought  against  them.  In  return  for  these  important  concessions, 
the  conimons  offered  the  king  a  grant  of  30,000  sacks  of  wooL 
His  wants  were  so  urgent,  so  clamorous  the  demands  of  his  foreign 
allies,  that  Edward  was  obliged  to  accept  the  supply  on  these 
coiiditions,  with  one  important  modification — that  the  choice  of 
his  ministers  should  rest  only  with  himself,  "  he  taking  therein  the 
assent  of  his  council."  He  ratified  this  statute  in  full  parliament ; 
but  he  subsequently  issued  an  edict  to  abrogate  and  annul  it,  and 
two  years  after  it  was  formally  repealed. 

A  disputed  claim  to  the  succession  of  Brittany  on  the  death  of 
duke  John  III.  open'^i  the  way  to  fresh  attempts  upon  France. 
The  dukedom  was  claimed  by  the  count  de  Montfort,  John's 
brother  by  a  second  marriage,  and  by  Charles  de  Blois,  nephew 
of  the  French  king,  who  had  married  John's  niece.  Montfort 
offered  to  do  homage  to  Edwad  as  king  of  France 'for  the  duchy 
of  Brittany,  and  proposed  a  strict  alliance  in  support  of  their 
mutual  pretensions.  Edward  saw  immediately  the  advantages 
attending  this  treaty:  Montfort,  an  active  and  valiant  prince, 
closely  united  to  him  by  interest,  seemed  likely  to  be  far  more 
serviceable  than  his  allies  on  the  side  of  Germany  and  the  Low 
Countries.  Montfort,  however,  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies ; 
was  conducted  as  a  prisoner  to  Paris;  but  Joan  of  Flanders, 
his  countess,  after  she  had  put  Brittany  in  a  good  posture  of 
defence,  shut  herself  up  in  Hennebon  till  she  was  relieved  by  the 
succours  which  Edward  sent  her  under  the  command  of  sir  Walter 
Manny,  one  of  his  ablest  and  bravest  captains  (1342). 

§  7.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  Edward  undertook  her 
defence  in  person  ;  and  as  the  last  truce  with  France  had  expired, 
the  war,  in  which  the  English  and  French  had  hitherto  embarked 
as  allies  to  the  competitors  for  Brittany,  was  now  conducted  in 
the  name  and  under  the  standard  of  the  two  monarchs.  This 
war,  like  the  preceding,  was  carried  on  without  any  important 
advantages  on  either  side  till  1346,  when  the  English  gained  the 
first  of  the  two  great  victories  which  have  shed  such  a  lustre  upon 
Edward's  reign.  The  king  had  intended  to  sail  to  Guienne,  which 
was  threatened  by  a  formidable  French  army,  and  embarked  at 
Southampton,  on  board  a  fleet  of  nearly  1000  sail  of  all  dimen- 
sions, carrying  with  him,  besides  all  the  chief  nobility  of  England, 
his  eldest  son,  Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  now  16  years  of  age. 
The  winds  long  proved  contrary;  and  the  king,  in  desjair  of  arriv- 
ing in  time  in  Guienne,  at  last  ordered  his  f^eet  to  sail  to  Normandyi 
and  safely  disembarked  his  army  at  La  Hogue  (July,  1346). 


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AJ).  1840-1846.  BATTLE  OF   CKECY.  178 

This  army,  which,  during  the  ooorse  of  the  ensuing  campaign, 
was  crowned  with  the  most  splendid  success,  consisted  of  4000 
men-at-arms,  10,000  archers,  12,000  Welsh  infantry,  and  6000 
Irish  After  laying  waste  Normandy  and  advancing  almost  to 
the  gates  of  Paris,  Edward  retreated  towards  Flanders,  pursued 
by  the  French  king.  He  had  crossed  the  river  Somme  below 
Abboville,  when  he  was  overtaken  by  the  French  ahny,  consisting 
of  100,000  men.  He  took  up  his  position  near  the  village  of 
Grect,  about  15  miles  east  of  Abbeville,  and  determined  there 
to  await  the  enemy.  On  the  morning  of  August  26th,  he  drew  up 
hid  army  in  three  lines  on  a  gentle  ascent ;  the  first  was  commanded 
by  the  prince  of  Wales,  with  whom  were  the  earls  of  Warwick 
and  Oxford ;  the  earls  of  Arundel  and  Northampton  commanded 
the  second ;  and  the  kmg  himself  took  his  station  on  a  hill  with 
the  third.  In  the  front  of  each  division  stood  the  archers,  arranged 
in  the  form  of  a  portcullis.  Having  gained  a  day's  respite, 
Edward  had  taken  the  precaution  to  throw  up  trenches  on  his 
flanks,  in  order  to  secure  himself  from  the  numerous  bodies  of 
the  French,  who  might  assail  him  from  that  quarter;  and  he 
placed  all  his  baggage  behind  him  in  a  wood,  which  was  also 
secured  by  an  intrenchment.  Besides  the  resources  which  he  found 
in  his  own  genius  and  presence  of  mind,  he  is  said  to  have  employed 
a  new  invention  against  the  enemy.  He  placed  in  the  front  some 
pieces  of  artillery.  Artillery  was  at  this  time  known  in  France  as 
well  as  in  England ;  but  Philip,  in  his  hurry  to  overtake  the  enemy, 
had  probably  left  his  cannon  behind  him,  which  he  regarded  as  a 
useless  encumbrance.  After  a  long  day's  march  from  Abbeville,  the 
French  army,  imperfectly  formed  into  three  lines,  arrived,  already 
fatigued  and  disordered,  in  presence  of  the  enemy.  The  first  line, 
consisting  of  16,000  Genoese  crossbow  men,  was  commanded  by 
Anthony  Doria  and  Charles  Orimaldi ;  the  second  was  led  by  the 
count  of  Alen9on,  brother  to  the  king ;  Philip  himself  was  at  the 
head  of  the  third.  John  of  Luxembourg,  king  of  Bohemia,  and  his 
son,  the  king  of  the  Romans,  were  also  present,  with  all  the  nobility 
and  great  vassals  of  the  crown  of  France.  Numerous  as  was 
the  army,  the  prudence  of  one  man  coimterbalanced  all  this  force 
and  splendour. 

A  heavy  storm,  accompanied  with  incessant  thunder  and 
lightning,  had  further  discomforted  the  French  and  wetted  the 
strings  of  the  Genoese  bowmen.  At  ^ve  the  weather  cleared  and 
the  Genoese  commenced  the  attack.  Steady  and  immovable,  the 
English  received  their  fire ;  then,  after  a  brief  interval,  they  drew 
their  bows  from  their  cases,  and  poured  in  such  a  shower  of  arrows 
that  the  Genoese  fell  back  in  disorder.    The  second  line,  under 


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174  EDWARD  IIL  Geaf.  Z. 

the  count  of  Alengon,  now  advanced  to  the  attack,  supported 
by  numerous  cavalry ;  but  as  they  approached  through  the  narrow 
lanes  flanked  by  the  English  archers,  many  fell  and  the  rest  were 
thrown  into  confusion.  As  the  prince  of  Wales  was  now  hard 
pressed  by  superior  numbers,  the  second  division  advanced  to  his 
support.  When  the  king  was  entreated  by  those  about  him  to 
bring  up  his  reserves  to  his  son's  assistance,  "  No,"  said  he ;  "  let 
the  boy  win  his  spurs,  and  gain  the  glory  of  the  day  I "  Inspired 
with  this  proof  of  the  king's  confidence,  the  English  fought  with 
renewed  courage.  After  a  stout  resistance  the  French  cavalry 
gave  way :  the  count  of  Alen<^n  was  slain :  the  Welsh  and  Irish 
infantry  rushed  into  the  throng,  and  with  their  long  knives  out 
the  throats  of  all  who  had  Mien.  No  quarter  was  given  that  day 
by  the  victors.  The  king  of  France  advanced  in  vain  with  the 
rear  to  sustain  the  line  commanded  by  his  brother.  His  horse  was 
killed  under  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to  quit  the  field  of  battle. 
The  whole  French  army  took  to  flight,  was  followed  and  put  to 
the  sword,  without  mercy,  till  darkness  put  an  end  to  the  pursuit 
On  his  rotum  to  the  camp,  Edward,  embracing  the  prince  of  Wales, 
exclaimed,  "  Sweet  son !  (Jod  give  you  good  perseverance :  you  are 
my  son;  for  most  loyally  have  you  acquitted  yourself  this  day,  and 
you  are  worthy  of  a  crown."  From  this  time  the  young  prince 
became  the  terror  of  the  French,  by  whom  he  was  called  the  Black 
Prince,  from  the  colour  of  the  armour  which  he  wore  on  that  day 
(August  26, 1346). 

The  dead  found  on  the  field  included,  on  the  French  side,  11 
princes,  80  bannerets,  1200  knights,  1400  gentlemen,  4000  men-at- 
arms,  besides  about  30,000  of  inferior  rank.  Among  the  slain  was 
the  old  and  blind  king  of  Bohemia.  Resolved  to  hazard  his 
person  and  set  an  example  to  others,  he  ordered  the  reins  of  his 
bridle  to  be  tied  on  each  side  to  two  gentlemen  of  his  train ;  and 
his  dead  body,  and  those  of  his  attendants,  were  afterwards  found 
among  the  slain,  with  their  horses  standing  by  them  in  that 
situation.  It  is  said  that  the  crest  of  the  king  of  Bohemia  was 
three  ostrich  feathers,  and  his  motto  Ich  ditriy  **I  serve,"  which  the 
prince  of  Wales  and  his  successors  adopted  in  memorial  of  this 
great  victory.*  The  loss  sustained  by  the  English  was  very 
slight.  But,  notwithstanding  his  success,  the  king  was  compelled 
by  his  necessities  to  limit  his  ambition  for  the  present  to  the  con- 
quest of  Calais;  to  which,  after  an  interval  of  a  few  days  employed 
in  interring  the  slain,  he  now  turned  his  attention. 

{  8.  While  Edward  was  engaged  in  this  siege,  which  employed 

•  Ther«  is,  however,  gR«ft  donU  re-  I  the  essay  by  sir  H.  NioolM  In  tlit 
Electing  the  truth  of  this  tndttloD.    See  |  Archtttiogia,  yoU  zxxil. 


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AD.  1846-1847.  SIEGE  OF  CALAIS.  175 

him  exactly  eleven  months,  other  events  occurred  to  the  honou: 
of  the  English  arms.  The  earl  of  Lancaster,  who  commanded 
the  English  forces  in  Guienne,  carried  his  incursions  to  the  banks 
of  the  Yienne,  and  devastated  all  the  southern  provinces  of  France. 
The  Scots,  under  the  command  of  their  king,  David  Bruce,  entered 
Northumberland,  but  were  completely  defeated  by  Henry  Percy, 
at  Neville's  Cross,  near  Durham  (October  1 7, 1346) :  the  king  him- 
self was  taken  prisoner,  with  many  of  the  nobility.  David  Bruce 
was  detained  in  captivity  till  1357,  when  he  was  liberated  for  a 
ransom  of  100,000  marks. 

The  town  of  Calais  was  defended  with  remarkable  vigilance, 
constancy,  and  bravery  by  the  townsmen,  during  a  siege  of  unusual 
length;  and  Philip  had  in  vain  attempted  to  relieve  it.  At 
length,  after  enduring  all  the  extremities  of  famine,  John  de 
Vienne,  the  governor,  siurendered  unconditionally  (August  3, 1347). 
The  story  runs  that  Edward  had  at  first  resolved  to  put  all  the 
garrison  to  death ;  but  that  at  last  he  only  insisted  that  six  of  the 
most  considerable  citizens  should  be  sent  to  hiro,  to  be  disposed  of 
as  he  thought  proper ;  that  they  should  come  to  his  camp,  carrying 
the  keys  of  the  city  in  their  hands,  bareheaded  and  barefooted, 
with  ropes  about  their  necks ;  and  on  these  conditions  he  promised 
to  spare  the  lives  of  the  remainder.  When  this  intelligence  was 
conveyed  to  Calais,  the  inhabitants  were  struck  with  consternation. 
Whilst  they  found  themselves  incapable  of  coming  to  any  resolution 
in  so  cruel  and  distressful  a  situation,  at  last  one  of  the  principal 
citizens,  called  Eustace  de  St.  Rerre,  stepped  forth  and  declared 
himself  willing  to  suffer  death  for  the  safety  of  his  friends 
and  companions ;  another,  animated  by  his  example,  made  a  like 
generous  offer ;  a  third  and  a  fourth  presented  themselves  to  the 
same  fate ;  and  the  whole  number  was  soon  completed.  These  six 
heroic  burgesses  appeared  before  Edward  in  the  guise  of  male£eu^rs, 
laid  at  his  feet  the  keys  of  their  city,  and  were  ordered  to  be  led  out 
to  execution.  But  the  entreaties  of  his  queen  saved  Edward's 
memory  from  this  infamy:  she  threw  herself  on  her  knees  before 
him,  and,  with  tears  in  her  eyes,  begged  the  lives  of  these  citizens. 
Having  obtained  her  request,  she  carried  them  into  her  tent, 
ordered  a  repast  to  be  set  before  them,  and,  after  making  them 
a  present  of  money  and  clothes,  dismissed  tiiem  in  safety.  The 
king,  after  taking  possession  of  Calais,  removed  the  inhabitants  to 
make  way  for  English  settlers ;  a  policy  which  probably  preserved 
so  long  to  his  successors  the  possession  of  that  important  fortress. 
He  made  it  the  staple  of  wool,  leather,  tin,  and  lead;  the  four 
chief,  if  not  the  sole,  commodities  of  the  kingdom  for  which  ther« 
was  at  that  time  any  considerable  demand  in  foreign  market& 


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176  EDWARD   IIL  Chap.  x. 

Through  the  mediation  of  the  pope's  l^ates  Edward  concluded 
a  truce  with  France ;  but,  even  during  this  cessation  of  arms,  an 
attempt  was  made  to  deprive  him  of  Calais  (1349).  Being  in- 
formed of  the  plot,  he  proceeded  to  Calais  with  1000  men ;  and, 
when  the  French  presented  thenjsolvcs  to  take  possession  of  the 
town  at  the  time  appointed,  Edward  sallied  forth  to  opi)ose  them. 
On  this  occasion  he  fivught  hand  to  hand  with  a  French  knight, 
named  Ribaumont.  Twice  he  was  struck  to  the  ground,  but  con- 
triyed  at  last  to  make  his  assailant  prisoner.  The  French  officers 
who  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  English  were  admitted  to  sup 
with  the  prince  of  Wales  and  the  English  nobility.  After  supper 
the  king  entered  the  aitartmcnt,  and  conversed  familiarly  with 
his  prisoners.  On  Ribaumont  he  openly  bestowed  the  highest 
encomiums,  admitting  that  he  himself  had  never  been  in  greater 
danger.  In  token  of  his  valour  he  presented  Ribaumont  with  a 
chaplet  of  pearls  which  he  wore  about  his  own  head  (January, 
1349). 

§  9.  About  the  same  time  the  king  is  said  to  have  instituted 
the  order  of  the  Qurter  (1349).  Its  true  origin  is  lost  in  obscurity. 
According  to  the  ixipuiar  account,  the  countess  of  Salisbury  dropped 
her  garter  at  a  court-ball,  when  the  king  picked  it  up ;  and  ob- 
serving some  of  the  courtiers  to  smile,  he  exclaimed,  Honi  soit 
qui  mal  y  pense,  **  Evil  be  to  him  that  evil  thinks ;"  and  gave 
these  words  as  the  motto  of  the  order. 

A  grievous  calamity,  called  the  Black  Death,  more  than  the 
pacific  disposition  of  the  two  princes,  served  to  maintain  and  pro- 
long the  truce  Ixdween  France  and  England.  It  invaded  England 
as  well  as  the  rest  of  Europe ;  and  is  computed  to  have  swept  away 
nearly  a  third  of  the  inhabitants  in  every  country  attacked  by  it 
(1349).  Above  50,000  souls  are  said  to  have  perished  by  it  in 
London  alone.  Public  business  was  interrupted;  war  was  dis- 
continued until  1355;  the  legal  and  judicial  work  ceased  for 
two  years,  and  the  population,  especially  among  the  lower 
orders,  was  greatly  diminished.  To  augment  the  evils  of  the  time, 
cattle  and  sheep  were  attacked  by  it,  and  the  resources  of  the 
country  were  severely  impaired.  This  malady  first  appeared  in  the 
north  of  Asia,  spread  over  all  that  country,  and  made  its  progress 
from  one  end  of  Europe  to  the  other,  depopulating  every  state 
through  which  it  passed.  As  labourers  decreased  in  England,  the 
survivors  endeavoured  by  combination  to  obtain  higher  wages. 
The  attempt  was  resented  by  parliament,  and  an  act  was  passed, 
called  the  Statute  of  Labourers  (23  Edw.  III.  c.  1),  which  ordered 
them  to  work  at  their  accustomed  wages.  As  they  were  little 
inclined  to  do  this,  another  statute  was  passed  a  few  years  after, 


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iiD.  1549-1366.  BATTLE  OF  POITIEKS.  177 

making  them  liable  to  severe  punishments  if  any  wilfully  remained 
idle^  or  quitted  their  usual  place  of  abode. 

The  truce  between  the  two  kingdoms  expired  in  1355.  John 
the  Good  had  succeeded  to  the  French  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  Philip  of  Valois,  in  1350 ;  and  France  was  distracted  by  the 
factions  excited  by  Charles  the  Bad,  king  of  Navarre.  John  had 
succeeded  in  seizing  and  imprisoning  that  prince;  but  the  cause 
of  Charles  was  maintained  by  his  brother  Philip,  and  Geoffrey 
d'flarcourt,  who  had  recourse  to  the  protection  of  England.  Well 
pleased  that  the  fctctions  in  France  had  at  length  gained  him 
partisans  in  that  kingdom,  which  his  pretensions  to  the  crown 
had  never  been  able  to  secure,  Edward  purposed  to  attack  his 
enemy  both  on  the  side  of  Guienne,  under  the  command  of  the 
prince  of  Wales,  and  on  that  of  Calais,  in  his  own  person.  Young 
Edward  arrived  in  the  Garonne  with  his  army,  overran  Languedoc, 
advanced  even  as  far  as  Narbonne,  laying  every  place  waste  around 
him.  After  an  incursion  of  six  weeks,  he  returned  with  a  vast 
booty  and  many  prisoners  to  Guienne,  where  he  took  up  his  winter 
quarters.  His  father's  incursion  from  Calais  was  of  the  same 
nature,  and  attended  with  the  same  results.  After  plundering 
and  ravaging  the  open  country,  he  retired  to  Calais,  and  thence 
to  England,  in  order  to  defend  his  kingdom  against  a  threatened 
invasion  of  the  Scots,  who,  taking  advantage  of  the  king's  absence, 
had  surprised  Berwick.  But  on  the  approach  of  Edward  they 
abandoned  that  place,  which  was  not  tenable  while  the  castle  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  English ;  and,  retiring  northwards,  gave  the 
enemy  full  liberty  of  burning  and  destroying  the  whole  country 
from  Berwick  to  Edinburgh. 

In  the  following  year  (1356)  the  prince  of  Wales,  encouraged  by 
the  success  of  the  preceding  campaign,  took  the  field  from  Bordeaux 
with  an  army  of  12,000  men,  of  which  not  a  third  were  English ; 
and  with  this  small  body  he  ventured  to  penetrate  into  the  heart 
of  France.  His  intentions  were  to  march  into  Normandy,  and  to 
join  his  forces  with  those  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster  and  the  partisans 
of  the  king  of  NavaiTe ;  but,  finding  all  the  bridges  on  the  Loire 
broken  down,  and  every  pass  carefully  guarded,  he  was  obliged  to 
think  of  making  his  retreat  into  Guienne.  The  king  of  France, 
provoked  at  this  insult,  and  entertaining  hopes  of  punishing  the 
young  prince  for  his  temerity,  collected  an  army  of  60,000  men, 
and  advanced  by  hasty  marches  to  intercept  his  enemy.  They 
came  within  sight  at  Maupertuis,  near  Poitiers;  and  Edward, 
sensible  that  his  retreat  had  now  become  impracticable,  prepared 
for  battle  with  all  the  courage  of  a  young  hero,  and  with  all  the 
prudence  of  tha  oldest  and  most  experienced  commander.     His 


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178  EDWARD  m.  Chap.  x. 

urmy  was  now  reduced  to  8000  men.  At  the  instance  of  the 
cardinal  of  Perigord,  John  lost  a  day  in  negociation ;  and  thus  the 
pdnce  of  Wales  had  leisure  during  the  night  to  strengthen,  by 
new  intrenchments,  the  post  he  had  before  so  judiciously  chosen. 
He  contrived  an  ambush  of  300  men-at-arms  and  as  many  archers^ 
whom  he  ordered  to  make  a  circuit,  that  they  might  &11  on  the 
flank  or  rear  of  the  French  army  during  the  engagement.  The  van 
of  his  army  was  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Warwick,  the  rear  by 
the  earls  of  Salisbury  and  Suffolk,  the  main  body  by  the  prince 
himself.  The  king  of  France  also  arranged  his  forces  in  three 
divisions.  The  English  position  was  surrounded  by  hedges,  and 
was  only  accessible  by  a  single  road,  flanked  on  each  side  by 
English  archers.  As  the  enemy  advanced  they  were  shot  dowD 
with  impunity,  and  the  passage  was  choked  by  their  dead.  Dis- 
couraged by  the  unequal  combat,  and  diminished  in  number,  they 
arrived  at  the  end  of  the  lane,  and  were  met  on  the  open  ground 
by  the  prince  of  Wales  himself,  at  the  head  of  a  chosen  body, 
ready  for  their  reception.  Discomfited  and  overthrown,  and  re- 
coiling upon  their  own  men,  the  whole  army  was  thrown  into 
disorder.  In  that  critical  moment  the  men  placed  in  ambush 
appeared  and  attacked  the  dauphin's  line  in  flank.  The  duke  of 
Orleans  and  several  other  French  commanders  fled  with  their 
divisions.  Ring  John  made  the  utmost  efforts  lo  retrieve  by  his 
valour  what  his  imprudence  had  betrayed,  till,  spent  wth  fatigue 
and  overwhelmed  by  numbers,  he  and  his  son  yielded  themselves 
prisoners.  Young  Edward  received  the  captive  king  with  every 
mark  of  regard  and  sympathy;  administered  comfort  to  him 
amidst  his  misfortunes;  paid  him  the  tribute  of  praise  due  to  hia 
valour ;  and  ascribed  his  own  victory  merely  to  the  blind  chance 
of  war,  or  to  a  superior  Providence  which  controls  all  the  efforts 
of  human  force  and  prudence.  The  behaviour  of  John  showed  him 
not  unworthy  of  this  courteous  treatment;  his  present  abject  fortune 
never  made  him  forget  for  a  moment  that  he  was  a  king.  More 
touched  by  Edward's  generosity  than  by  his  own  calamities,  he 
confessed  that,  notwithstanding  his  defeat  and  captivity,  hia 
honour  was  still  unimpaired ;  and  that,  if  he  yielded  the  victory, 
it  was  at  least  gained  by  a  prince  of  consummate  valour  and 
humanity.  Edward  ordered  a  repast  to  be  prepared  in  his  tent  for 
the  prisoner,  and  he  himself  served  at  the  royal  captive's  table,  as  if 
he  had  been  one  of  his  retinue.  He  stood  at  the  king's  back  during 
the  meal ;  constantly  refused  to  take  a  place  at  table ;  and  declared 
that,  being  a  subject,  he  was  too  well  acquainted  with  the  distance 
between  his  own  rank  and  that  of  royalty  to  assume  such  freedom* 
The  battle  of  Poitiers  was  fought  September  19, 1366. 


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lA  186e-18(iO.         TREATY  OF  BBETIONT.  179 

The  prince  of  Wales  conducted  his  prisoner  to  Bordeaux  ;  and, 
not  being  provided  with  forces  numerous  enough  to  enable  him  to 
push  his  present  advantages  further,  he  concluded  a  truce  for  two 
years  with  France,  and  returned  with  his  royal  prisoner  to  England. 
On  entering  London  (May  24, 1357;,  he  was  met  by  a  great  con- 
course of  people  of  all  ranks  and  stations.  The  prisoner  was  clad 
in  royal  apparel,  and  mounted  on  a  white  steed,  distinguished  by 
its  size  and  beauty  and  by  the  richness  of  its  furniture.  The 
conqueror,  in  meaner  attire,  rode  by  his  side  on  a  black  palfrey. 
In  this  situation,  more  glorious  than  all  the  insolent  parade  of  a 
Roman  triumph,  he  passed  through  the  streets  of  London,  and' 
jnesented  the  king  of  France  to  his  father,  who  advanced  to  meet 
him,  and  received  him  with  as  much  courtesy  as  if  he  had  been 
a  neighbouring  potentate  that  had  voluntarily  come  to  pay  him  a 
friendly  visit. 

§  10.  During  the  captivity  of  John,  France  was  thrown  into  the 
greatest  confusion  by  domestic  factions  and  disorders.  Edward 
employed  himself  during  a  conjuncture  so  inviting  chiefly  in  nego- 
ciations  with  his  prisoner ;  and  John  had  the  weakness  to  sign  terms 
of  peace,  by  which  he  agreed  to  restore  all  the  provinces  formerly 
possessed  by  Henry  XL  and  his  two  sons,  and  to  annex  them  for 
ever  to  England,  without  any  obligation  of  homage  or  fealty  on  the 
part  of  the  English  monarch.  But  the  dauphin  and  the  states  of 
France  rejected  a  treaty  so  dishonourable  and  pernicious  to  the 
kingdom ;  and  Edward,  on  the  expiration  of  the  truce,  having  now, 
by  subsidies  and  frugality,  collected  sufficient  treasure,  prepared 
for  a  new  invasion  of  France  (1359).  It  is  unnecessary  to  follow 
the  ravages  of  the  English  during  this  invasion,  in  which  many  of 
the  French  provinces  were  laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword,  and  the 
people  suffered  incredible  miseries.  At  length  Charles,  the  dauphin, 
agreed  to  the  terms  of  a  peace,  which  was  concluded  at  Bretigny 
near  Chartrcs,  on  the  following  conditions :— It  was  stipulated  that 
John  should  be  restored  to  his  liberty,  and  should  pay  for  his 
ransom  three  millions  of  crowns  of  gold  (about  1,500,000  pounds 
of  our  present  money)  in  successive  instalments;  that  Edward 
should  for  ever  renounce  ail  claim  to  the  crown  of  France,  and 
to  the  provinces  of  Normandy,  Maine,  Touraine,  and  Anjou, 
possessed  by  his  ancestors ;  and  should  receive  in  exchange  the 
full  sovereignty  of  the  duchy  of  Aquitaine,  including,  besides 
Guionne  and  Gascony,  the  provinces  of  Poitou,  Saintonge,  TAgenois, 
P^rigord,  the  Limousin,  Quercy,  Rouergue,  TAngoumois,  and  other 
districts  in  that  quarter,  and  also  Calais,  Guisnes,  Montreuil,  and 
the  county  of  Ponthieu,  on  the  other  side  of  France ;  that  France 
•hould  renounce  all  title  to  feudal  jurisdiction,  homage,  or  appeal 


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180  EDWARD  m.  Chap,  x 

on  their  behalf;  that  the  king  of  Navarre  should  be  restored  to 
all  his  honours  and  possessions;  that  Edward  should  renounce 
his  confederacy  with  the  Flemings,  and  John  his  connections  with 
the  Scots ;  that  the  disputes  concerning  the  succession  of  Brittany 
between  the  family  of  Blois  and  Montfort  should  be  decided  by 
arbiters  appointed  by  the  two  kings ;  and  that  forty  hostages,  to  be 
agreed  on,  should  be  sent  to  England  as  security  for  the  execution 
of  all  these  conditions  (May  8,  1360).  In  consequence  of  this 
arrangement  the  king  of  France  was  brought  over  to  Calais,  whither 
Edward  also  soon  after  repaired ;  and  there  both  princes  solemnly 
•  ratified  the  treaty.  John  was  sent  to  Boulogne ;  the  king  accom- 
panied him  a  mile  on  his  journey,  and  the  two  monarchs  parted 
with  many  professions  of  mutual  amity.  As  he  was  unable  to 
fulfil  the  terms  of  his  release,  John  returned  to  England  (January  4» 
1364).  He  soon  after  sickened  and  died  in  the  palace  of  the 
Savoy,  where  he  had  resided  during  his  captivity.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded on  the  throne  by  his  son  Charles  V.,  a  prince  educated  in 
the  school  of  adversity,  and  well  qualified,  by  his  consummate 
prudence  and  experience,  to  repair  the  losses  which  France  had 
sustained  from  the  errors  of  his  two  predecessors. 

§  11.  In  1367  the  Black  Prince  marched  into  Castile,  in  order  to 
restore  Peter,  sumamed  the  Cruel,  who  had  been  driven  from  the 
throne  of  that  country  by  his  natural  brother,  Henry,  count  of 
Transtamare,  with  the  assistance  of  the  French.  Henry  was  defeated 
by  the  English  prince  at  Navarrete,  and  was  chased  oflf  the  field, 
with  the  loss  of  above  20,000  men.  Peter,  who  well  merited  the 
infamous  epithet  which  he  bore,  proposed  to  murder  all  his  prisoners 
in  cold  blood,  but  was  restrained  from  this  barbarity  by  the  remon- 
strances of  the  prince  of  Wales.  All  Castile  now  submitted  to  the 
victor ;  Peter  was  restored  to  the  throne ;  and  Edward  finished  this 
perilous  enterprise  with  his  usual  glory.  But  the  barbarities  exer- 
cised by  Peter  over  his  helpless  subjects,  whom  he  now  regarded 
as  vanquished  rebels,  revived  all  the  animosity  of  the  Castilians 
against  him.  On  the  return  of  Henry  of  Transtamare,  with  rein- 
forcements levied  in  France,  the  tyrant  was  again  dethroned  and 
was  taken  prisoner.  His  brother,  in  resentment  of  his  cruelties, 
slew  him  with  his  own  hand;  and  was  placed  on  the  throne  of 
Castile,  which  he  transmitted  to  his  posterity.  The  duke  of  Lan- 
caster, John  of  Ghtunt,  who  espoused  in  second  marriage  the  eldest 
daughter  of  Peter,  inherited  only  the  empty  title  of  sovereignty, 
and,  by  claiming  the  succession,  increased  the  animosity  of  the  new 
king  of  Castile  against  England. 

But  the  prejudice  which  the  affairs  of  prince  Edward  received 
from  this  splendid  though  imprudent  expedition  ended  not  with  it. 


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I.D.  186(H1876.  DEATH  OF  THE  BLACK  PRINCE  181 

He  had  inTolved  himself  so  much  in  debt  by  his  preparations  and 
the  pay  of  his  troops,  that  he  found  it  necessary,  on  his  return,  to 
impose  a  new  tax  on  liis  French  subjects.  This  incident  revived 
the  animosity  of  the  Gascons,  who  were  encouraged  to  carry  their 
complunts  to  Charles,  as  to  their  lord  paramount,  against  these 
oppressions  of  the  English  government.  Charles,  in  open  breach  of 
the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  sent  to  the  prince  of  Wales  a  summons  to 
appear  in  ids  court  at  Paris,  and  there  to  justify  his  conduct  towards 
his  vassals.  The  prince  replied  that  he  would  come  to  Paris,  but  it 
should  be  at  the  head  of  C0,000  men.  War  between  the  French 
and  English  broke  out  afresh ;  and  Edward,  by  advice  of  parlia- 
ment, resumed  the  title  of  king  of  France  (1369).  The  French 
invaded  the  southern  provinces ;  atid  by  means  of  their  good  con- 
duct, the  favourable  disposition  of  the  people,  and  the  ardour  of 
the  French  nobility,  made  every  day  considerable  progress.  The 
state  of  the  prince  of  Wales's  health  did  not  permit  him  to  mount 
on  horseback,  or  exert  his  usual  activity ;  and  when  he  was  obliged 
by  his  increasing  infirmities  to  throw  up  the  command  and  return 
to  his  native  country,  the  affairs  of  the  English  in  the  south  of 
France  seemed  to  be  menaced  with  total  ruin.  Shortly  before  his 
departure  the  prince  perpetrated  an  act  of  cruelty  which  is  a  foul 
blot  upon  his  fair  name.  Having  retaken  the  town  of  Limoges, 
which  had  revolted  from  him,  he  oidered  the  inhabitants  to  be 
butchered  in  cold  blood  (1370).  This  was  h's  last  conquest ;  for 
sickness  forced  him  to  return  home.  After  his  departure  the  king 
endeavoured  to  send  succours  into  Gktscony ;  but  all  his  attempts, 
both  by  sea  and  land,  proved  unsuccessful.  He  was  at  last  obliged, 
from  the  necessity  of  his  affairs,  to  conclude  a  truce  with  the  enemy 
(1374),  after  most  of  his  ancient  possessions  in  France  had  been 
ravished  from  him,  except  Bordeaux  and  Bayonne,  and  all  his 
conquests  except  Calais. 

§  12.  The  decline  of  the  king's  life  was  thus  exposed  to  many 
mortifications,  and  corrresponded  not  to  the  splendid  scenes  which 
had  filled  the  beginning  and  the  middle  of  it.  This  prince,  who 
during  the  vigour  of  his  age  had  been  chiefly  occupied  in  the 
pursuits  of  war  and  ambition,  being  now  a  widower,  attached  him- 
self to  one  Alice  Perrers,  who  acquired  a  great  ascendancy  over 
him.  Her  influence  caused  such  general  disgust,  that,  in  order 
to  satisfy  the  parliament,  he  was  obliged  to  remove  her  from 
court  In  its  measures  for  redress,  this  parliament,  called  The 
Good,  was  supported  by  the  Black  Prince,  in  opposition  to  his 
brother,  John  of  Oaunt,  whose  influence  was  distasteful  to  t)  e 
commons.  The  prince  of  Wales  died  soon  after  of  a  lingering 
ilhiess,  in  the  46ih  year  of  his  age  (Jime  8,  1376).  His  valour 
10 


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182  EDWARD  m.  Obap.  X 

and  military  talenti  fonned  the  smallMt  part  of  his  m^t  BUb 
generosity,  affabiltty,  and  moderation  gained  him  the  affectiona 
of  all  men;  and  he  ¥ras  qualified  to  throw  a  lustre,  not  only 
on  the  nide  age  in  which  he  lived,  but  on  the  most  shining  period 
of  ancient  or  modem  history.  He  was  buried  in  the  cathedral 
of  Canterbury,  where  his  tomb  is  still  shown.  The  king  survived 
him  about  a  year,  and  expired  in  the  65th  year  of  his  age  and  the 
5l8t  of  his  reign  (June  21, 1377),  and  was  buried  at  Westminster. 
The  ascendancy  which  the  English  then  began  to  acquire  over 
France,  their  rival  and  supposed  national  enemy,  made  them  cast 
their  eyes  on  this  period  with  great  complacency.  But  the  domestic 
government  of  this  prince  is  really  more  admirable  than  his  foreign 
victories ;  and  England  enjoyed,  by  the  prudence  and  vigour  of  his 
administration,  a  longer  interval  of  domestic  peace  and  tranquillity 
than  she  had  been  blest  with  in  any  former  period,  or  tl^n  she 
experienced  for  many  ages  after.  Edward  gained  the  affections  of  the 
great,  yet  curbed  their  licentiousness :  he  made  ihem  feel  his  power 
without  their  daring  or  even  being  inclined  to  murmur  at  it.  His 
afifable  and  obliging  behaviour,  his  munificence  and  generosity, 
made  them  submit  with  pleasure  to  his  dominion.  His  valour  and 
conduct  made  them  successful  in  most  of  their  enterprises ;  and 
their  unquiet  spirits,  directed  against  a  public  enemy,  had  no 
leisure  to  breed  domestic  disturbances.  This  was  the  chief  benefit 
which  resulted  from  Edward's  victories  and  conquests. 

§  13.  Conquerors,  though  often  the  bane  of  human  kind,  proved 
in  those  times  the  most  indulgent  of  sovereigns.  They  stood 
most  in  need  of  supplies  from  their  people;  and,  not  being  able 
to  compel  them  by  force  to  submit  to  the  exactions  required,  they 
were  obliged  to  make  compensation  by  equitable  laws  and  popular 
concessions.  So  was  it  with  Edward  III.  He  took  no  steps  of 
any  moment  without  consulting  his  parliament  and  obtaining  their 
approbation,  which  he  afterwards  pleaded  as  a  reason  for  their 
supporting  his  measures.  Parliament,  therefore,  rose  into  greater 
consideration  during  his  reign,  and  acquired  mor"  re^ar  authority, 
than  in  any  former  time.* 

One  of  the  most  popular  laws  enacted  by  any  prince  was  the 
Statute  of  Treasons,  which  limited  the  cases  of  high  treason,  before 
vague  and  uncertain,  to  three  principal  heads,  namely,  conspiring 
the  death  of  the  king,  levying  war  against  him,  and  adhering  to 
his  enemies  (25  Edward  III.  st.  5,  c.  2,  1351). 

The  magnificent  castle  of  Windsor  was  rebuilt  by  Edward  HI., 
and  his  method  of  conducting  the  work  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of 
the  condition  of  the  people  in  that  age.  Instead  of  engaging  work- 
*  8te  Notes  and  mustratiooB  to  du|».  xiL :  On  the  Pu-lUir.ent. 


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W7. 


STITUTB  OF  PROVISOBS. 


18S 


men  by  contracts  and  wages,  he  assessed  every  county  in  England 
to  send  him  a  certain  number  of  masons,  tilers,  and  carpenters,  as 
if  he  had  been  raising  an  army. 

It  is  easy  to  imagine  that  a  prince  of  so  much  sense  and  spirit  as 
Edward  would  be  no  slave  to  the  court  of  Rome.  Though  the 
tribute  granted  by  John  was  paid  during  some  years  of  Edward's 
minority,  it  was  afterwards  withheld ;  and  when  the  pope,  in  1366, 
threatened  to  cite  him  to  the  court  of  Rome  for  default  of  payment, 
he  laid  the  matter  before  his  parliament.  That  assembly  unani- 
mously  declared  that  king  John  could  not,  without  consent  of  the 
nation,  subject  his  kingdom  to  a  foreign  power ;  and  that  they  were 
therefore  determined  to  support  their  sovereign  against  this  unjust 
pretension.*  During  this  reign  the  Statute  of  Provisors  was 
enacted,t  rendering  it  penal  to  procure  any  presentations  to  benefices 
from  the  court  of  Rome,  and  securing  the  rights  of  the  patrons, 
which  had  been  extremely  encroached  on  by  the  pope.  By  a  sub- 
sequent statute,  every  person  was  outlawed  who  carried  any  cause 
by  appeal  to  the  court  of  Rome.^ 

Edward  III.  may  be  called  the  father  of  English  commerce.  He 
encouraged  Flemish  weavers  to  settle  in  his  kingdom,  and  protected 
them  'against  the  violence  of  the  English  weavers.  Wool  was  the 
chief  article  of  export  and  source  of  revenue.  The  merchants  carried 
on  an  extensive  trade  with  the  Baltic.  The  use  of  the  French 
language  in  pleadings  was  abolished  in  this  reign.  The  first  docu- 
ment in  English  dates  as  far  back  as  1258. 

Edward  had  seven  sons  and  five  daughters  by  his  qne^n  Philippa 
of  Hainault  His  sons  were :  1.  Edward,  the  Black  Prince,  who 
married  Joan,  daushter  of  his  great-uncle  the  earl  of  Kent,  who 
was  beheaded  in  the  beginning  of  this  reign.  She  was  first  married 
to  Sir  Thomas  Holland,  by  whom  she  had  children.  By  the  prince 
of  Wales  she  had  a  son  Richard,  who  survived  his  father.  2. 
William  of  Hatfield,  who  died  young.  3.  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence, 
who  left  one  daughter,  Philippa,  married  to  Edmund  Mortimer, 
earl  of  March.  4.  John  of  Gaunt,  so  called  from  being  bom  at 
Ghent,  duke  of  Lancaster,  and  father  of  Henry  IV.  5.  Edmimd, 
duke  of  York.  6.  William  of  Windsor,  who  died  young.  7.  Thomas, 
duke  of  Gloucester. 

RICHARD  n. 

S  14.  Richard  II.,  5.  1366;  r.  1377-1899.— As  Richard  TI.,  son 
of  the  Black  Prince,  upon  whom  the  crown  devolved  by  the  death 


*  This  WM  D0(  tbe  nal  reMoo.  The 
feribnte  bad  been  paid  hy  Henry  IIL  and 
Vdward  1  ;  bot  when  tbe  papacy  was 
tnnaferred  to  Avignon  In  1309,  tbe  tribute 


was  withheld,  as  the  pope  bad  now  become 
a  mere  instrument  in  the  hands  or  Fraaoe. 

t  25  Edward  IH.,  St.  6,  1351. 

t  27  Edward  III.,  c  1. 1363. 


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184  RICHARD  II.  Chap.  z. 

of  Mb  grandflBitlier,  was  bom  at  Bordeaux  in  1366,  and  was  now 
only  1 1  years  of  age,  the  House  of  Commons,  who  were  now  ban- 
ning to  take  a  greater  share  in  public  affairs,  petitioned  the  king 
and  lords,  to  elect  a  council  of  eight  to  assist  *'  the  king's  other 
state  officers''  in  the  afiairs  of  the  realm  (October  13).  Richard 
was  crowned  at  Westminster  July  16. 

The  first  three  or  four  years  of  Richard's  reign  passed  without 
anything  memorable,  except  some  fruitless  expeditions  against 
Prance,  which  increased  the  unpopularity  of  John  of  Gaunt.  The 
expenses  of  these  armaments,  and  the  usual  want  of  economy  attend- 
ing a  minority,  exhausted  the  English  treasury,  and  obliged  the  par- 
liament, besides  making  some  alterations  in  the  councils,  to  impose 
a  new  tax  of  three  groats,  or  twelve  pence,  on  every  person,  male  and 
female,  above  fifteen  years  of  age ;  and  though  they  ordained  that, 
in  levying  the  tax,  "  the  richer  should  aid  the  poorer  sort,"  the 
injustice  of  taxing  all  alike  provoked  resistance  (1380).  The  first 
disorder  commenced  among  the  bondmen  of  Essex,  and  Kent  soon 
followed  the  example.  The  tax-gatherers  came  to  the  house  of  a 
tiler  in  Dartford,  and  demanded  payment  f<jr  liis  daughter,  whom 
her  mother  asserted  to  be  below  the  age  assigned  by  the  statute. 
When  one  of  these  fellows  laid  hold  of  the  maid  in  a  scandalous 
manner,  her  father,  hearing  her  cries,  rushed  in  from  his  work,  and 
knocked  out  the  ruffian's  brains  with  his  hammer.  The  bystanders 
applauded  the  action,  and  exclaimed  that  it  was  full  trme  for  the 
people  to  take  vengance  on  their  tyrants,  and  to  vindicate  their 
native  liberty.  They  immediately  flew  to  arms:  the  whole 
neighbourhood  joined  them :  the  flame  spread  in  an  instant  over 
l^e  surroimding  district ;  and,  faster  than  the  news  could  fly,  the 
people  rose  in  Kent,  Hertford,  Surrey,  Sussex,  Siiifolk,  Norfolk, 
Cambridge  and  Somersetshires.  The  disorder  soon  grew  beyond 
control.  Under  leaders  who  assumed  such  names  as  Wat  Tyler, 
Jack  Straw,  Jack  Carter,  and  Jack  Miller,  they  committed  every- 
where the  most  outrageous  violence  on  such  of  the  gentry  or  nobility 
as  had  the  misfortune  to  fall  into  their  hands. 

The  insurgents,  amounting  to  100,000  men,  assembled  on  Black- 
heath  (June  12,  1381),  under  their  leaders  Tyler  and  Straw,  and 
were  addressed  by  an  itinerant  priest,  John  Ball,  whom  they  had 
released  from  Maidstone  gaol.     Ball  took  for  his  text  a  rude 

couplet — 

**  Wbaane  Adam  d&lfe  and  Ev6  span. 
Who  WM  thanne  a  gentU  man  ? " 

The  rioters  broke  into  the  city,  and  burned  the  Savoy,  the  palace 
of  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  was  then  in  Scotland ;  cut  off  the 
heads  of  the  gentlemen  who  fell  into  their  hands,  and  pillaged  the 


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A.D.  1877-1381.      REBELLION  OV  WAT  TTLER.  186 

merchants'  warehouses.  Another  body  quartered  themselves  at 
Mile  End ;  and,  as  they  insisted  on  laying  their  grievances  before 
the  king,  Richard,  who  was  then  in  the  Tower,  consented  to  hear 
their  demands.  They  required  a  general  pardon,  the  abolition  of 
bondage,  freedom  of  comme:ce  in  market  towns  without  toll  or 
impost,  and  a  fixed  rent  on  lands,  instead  of  the  services  due  by 
villeinage.  These  requests  were  complied  with;  charters  to  that 
purpose  were^  granted  them,  and  they  immediately  dispersed  and 
returned  to  their  several  homes. 

During  the  king's  absence  another  body  of  the  rebels,  breaking 
into  the  Tower,  had  murdered  Simon  Sudbury,  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  and  chancellor,  Sir  Robert  Hales,  the  treasm^r, 
and  other  persons  of  distinction,  and  continued  their  ravages  in 
the  city.  The  next  morning,  as  tiie  king  was  passing  along  Smith- 
field,  very  slenderly  guarded,  he  was  met  by  Wat  Tyler,  at  the 
head  of  his  followers,  and  entered  into  a  conference  with  him. 
Tyler,  having  ordered  his  companions  to  retire  until  he  gave  the 
signal  for  an  attack,  drew  near  the  royal  retinue.  He  behaved 
himself  with  so  much  insolence  that  Sir  William  Walworth,  then 
mayor  of  London,  thinking  the  king  was  in  danger,  drew  his 
rword  and  struck  the  rebel  a  violent  blow,  which  brought  him  to 
the  ground,  where  he  was  instantly  despatched  by  the  king's  atten- 
dants. Seeing  their  leader  fall,  the  mutineers  prepared  themselves 
for  revenge;  and  the  whole  company,  with  the  king  himself, 
would  undoubtedly  have  perished  on  the  spot,  had  it  not  been  for 
an  extraordinary  presence  of  mind  which  Richard  discovered  on  the 
occasion.  Putting  spurs  to  his  horse,  he  rode  into  the  very  midst 
of  the  enraged  multitude ;  and  accosting  them  with  an  affable  and 
intrepid  countenance,  as  they  bent  their  bows,  **  What,  my 
friends,"  he  exclaimed,  "would  you  shoot  yoiur  king?  Are  ye 
angry  that  ye  have  lost  your  leader?  Follow  me;  I  am  your 
king:  I  will  be  your  leader."  Overawed  by  his  presence,  the 
populace  implicitly  obeyed,  and  were  led  by  him  into  the  fields,  to 
prevent  any  disorder  which  might  have  arisen  by  their  continuing 
in  the  city.  Being  joined  there  by  Sir  Robert  KnoUys,  and  a  body 
of  veteran  soldiers,  who  had  been  secretly  drawn  together,  Richard 
strictly  prohibited  that  officer  from  falling  on  the  rioters  and  com- 
mitting an  indiscriminate  slaughter,  and  then  peaceably  dismissed 
them  with  the  same  charters  which  had  been  granted  to  their 
fellows.  Soon  after  the  nobility  and  gentry,  in  obedience  to  the 
royal  summons,  flocked  to  London  with  their  adherents  and  re- 
tainers, and  Richard  took  the  field  at  the  head  of  an  army  40,000 
strong.  The  rebels  had  no  alternative  but  to  submit  Many  were 
executed  by  the  judges  on  circuit,  and  among  them  John  BalL 


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186 


RICHARD  IL 


Chap. 


The  charters  of  enfranchisement  and  pardon  were  revoked  by 
parliament.  But  it  afterwards  passed  an  act  of  general  pardon, 
refusing^  however,  the  king's  proposal  to  enfranchise  the  serfis.* 

§  15.  A  youth  of  sixteen  (for  that  was  the  king's  age),  who 
had  discovered  so  much  courage  and  address,  raised  great  expecta- 
tions. But  with  advancing  years  these  hopes  vanished,  and  his 
want  of  judgment  appeared  in  all  his  enterprises.  In  1385  he 
undertook  a  fruitless  expedition  against  the  Scots ;  advanced  as  far 
as  the  Forth  and  burned  Edinburgh,  ravaging  all  the  towns  and 
villages  in  his  way.  But  provisions  failing  hijn,  or  suspicious  of  the 
designs  of  his  uncle,  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  he  returned  to  England* 

The  subjection  in  which  Richard  was  held  by  his  uncles,  and 
more  particularly  by  Thomas  of  Woodstock,  duke  of  Gloucester, 
was  extremely  disagreeable  to  the  king,  and  he  attempted  to  shake 
oflf  the  yoke.  Robert  de  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford,  a  young  man  of 
noble  family,  of  an  agreeable  figure,  but  of  dissolute  manners,  had 
acquired  great  inBuence  over  him.  This  partiality  on  the  king's 
part  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  princes  of  the  blood  and  of  the 
chief  nobility ;  and  the  usual  complaints  against  the  insolence  of 
favourites  were  loudly  echoed  and  greedily  received  in  every  part  of 
the  kingdom.  Their  first  attempts  were  directed  against  the  king's 
ministers ;  and  Michael  de  la  Pole,  the  chancellor,  a  man  of  low 
descent,  lately  created  earl  of  Suffolk,  was,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
duke  of  Gloucester,  impeached  and  condenmed  by  the  parliament  on 
questionable  charges  of  corruption  (1386).  Gloucester  and  his 
associates  next  attacked  the  king  himself,  and  framed  a  commission, 
ratified  by  parliament,  by  which  a  council  of  regency  was  formed 
with  Gloucester  at  the  head,  thus  virtually  depriving  lihe  king 
of  all  authority.  In  the  following  year,  Richard,  having  obtained 
from  five  of  the  judges,  whom  he  met  at  Nottingham,  a  declaration 
that  the  commission  was  derogatory  to  the  royal  prerogative, 
attempted  to  recover  his  power ;  but  Gloucester  and  his  adherents 
took  up  arms,  defeated  the  forces  of  the  king,  and  executed  or 
banished  his  adherents.  Robert  de  Vere,  whom  the  king  had  created 
duke  of  Ireland,  fled  into  the  Low  Countries,  where  he  died  in  exile 
a  few  years  after  (1387). 

§  16.  In  little  more  than  a  twelvemonth,  however,  Richard,  now 
in  his  twenty-third  year,  declared  in  council  that,  as  he  had  now  at- 


*  Tbe  causes  and  motives  of  this  in- 
anrrection,  which  spread  dismay  through 
•11  ranks  of  society,  hare  never  been 
precisely  ascertained.  It  is  probable 
that  they  varied  according  to  place  and 
drcmnstances.  Originating,  perhaps,  in  a 
deaixBfor  emancipaUon  and  social  equality, 


MB  the  passions  of  the  insargents  rose 
with  sucoesa,  nothing  less  than  the  sab- 
version  of  the  laws  and  of  the  whole  fobric 
of  society  would  have  couteuted  tbetn. 
It  is  the  only  instance  in  our  hlsUffy  of  a 
war  of  class  against  class. 


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AJK  188lr-1897.       ABREST  OF  OLOUCESTKR  187 

tidned  the  full  age  which  entitled  him  to  govern  by  his  own  authority, 
he  was  resolved  to  exercise  his  right  of  sovereignty  (1389).  Gloucester 
and  some  others  were  removed  from  the  council ;  and  no  oppo- 
siticm  was  made  to  these  changes.  Soon  after  the  duke  of  Lancaster, 
who  had  returned  from  Spain,  having  resigned  his  pretensions  to 
the  crown  of  CastUe  for  a  large  sum  of  money,  efifected  a  recon- 
ciliation between  Gloucester  and  the  king. 

The  wars,  meanwhile,  which  Richard,  had  inherited  with  his 
crown,  were  conducted  with  little  vigour,  by  reason  of  the  weak- 
ness of  all  parties.  The  French  war  was  scarcely  heard  of;  the 
tranquillity  of  the  northern  borders  was  only  interrupted  by  one 
inroad  of  the  Scots,  which  proceeded  more  from  a  rivalry  between 
the  two  martial  femilies  of  Percy  and  Douglas  than  from  any 
national  quarrel.  A  fierce  battle  or  skirmish,  celebrated  in  the 
ballad  of  "Chevy  Chase,"  was  fought  at  Otterboume  (August  19, 
1388X  in  which  young  Percy,  sumamed  HoUpuVy  from  his  im- 
petuous valour,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  Douglas  was  slain.  Insur- 
rections among  the  Irish  obliged  the  king  to  make  an  expedition 
into  that  country,  which  he  reduced  to  obedience  (1394) ;  and  he  re- 
covered, in  some  degree,  by  this  enterprise,  his  character  for  courage. 
At  last  the  English  and  French  courts  began  to  think  in  earnest 
of  a  lasting  peace,  but  found  it  so  difficult  to  adjust  their  opposite 
pretensions,  that  they  were  content  to  establish  a  truce  of  twenty- 
five  years.  To  render  the  amity  between  the  two  crowns  more 
durable,  Richard,  who  had  lost  his  first  consort,  Anne  of  Bohemia, 
was  married  to  Isabella,  the  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  a  child  of 
eight  years  old  (1396).  Meanwhile  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  taking 
advantage  of  this  incident,  and  appealing  to  the  national  antipathy 
against  France,  resumed  his  plots  and  cabals.  The  king,  seeing  that 
either  his  own  or  his  uncle's  ruin  was  inevitable,  caused  Gloucester, 
then  living  at  Pleshy,  to  be  suddenly  arrested.  He  was  hurried  on 
board  a  ship  lying  in  the  river,  and  conveyed  to  Calais.  The  earls 
of  Arundel  and  Warwick  were  seized  at  the  same  time.  Thus 
suddenly  deprived  of  their  leaders,  the  malcontents  were  overawed ; 
and  the  concurrence  of  the  dukes  of  Lancaster  and  York  in  those 
measures  deprived  them  of  all  possibility  of  resistance.  A  parlia- 
ment was  summoned;  charges  were  preferred  against  Gloucester 
and  his  associates ;  the  commission  which  usurped  the  royal  au- 
thority was  annulled,  and  it  was  declared  treasonable  to  attempt, 
in  any  future  period,  the  revival  of  any  similar  body  (1397).  Th* 
commons  then  preferred  an  impeachment  against  lliomas,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  brother  to  the  earl  of  Arundel,  and  accused 
him  for  his  concurrence  in  procuring  the  illegal  commission,  and 
In  attainting  the  king's  ministers.     The  primate  pleaded  guilty. 


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188  ^  RICHABD  n.  Obap.  x. 

was  banished  the  kingdom,  and  his  temporalities  were  sequestered. 
His  brother  was  condemned  and  executed  (September  21).  The  life 
of  the  earl  of  Warwick  was  spared  for  his  submissive  behaviour, 
but  he  was  doomed  to  perpetual  banishment  in  the  Isle  of  Man. 
A  warrant  was  next  issued  to  bring  over  the  duke  of  Gloucester 
from  Calais,  to  take  his  trial;  but  the  earl  marshal  returned  for 
answer  that  the  duke  had  died.  In  the  subsequent  reign  attesta- 
tions were  produced  in  parliament  that  he  had  been  suffocated  by  his 
keepers.  But  these  proceedings  in  Henry's  reign  may  have  been 
nothing  more  than  an  unworthy  attempt  to  blacken  the  memory 
of  Hichard.  Gloucester  left  a  written  i^knowledgment  of  his  guilt ; 
and  his  acts  when  in  power  give  him  little  claim  to  compassion. 

§  1 '.  In  1398  Henry,  duke  of  Hereford,  son  and  heir  of  the 
duke  of  Lancaster,  had  accused  Thomas  Mowbray,  duke  of  Norfolk, 
of  slandering  the  king.  On  Norfolk's  denial,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  dispute  should  be  settled  by  wager  of  battle.  The  parties  met 
at  Coventiy,  but  the  combat  was  suspended  by  Richard.  To 
preserve  the  peace  of  the  realm,  he  banished  Hereford  for  ten 
years  and  Norfolk  for  life.  Next  year  Lancaster  died,  and  Richard 
seized  his  estates.  Hereford  had  acquired,  by -his  conduct  and 
abilities,  the  esteem  of  the  people;  he  was  connected  with  the 
principal  nobility  by  blood,  alliance,  or  friendship;  and  as  the 
injury  done  him  by  the  king  might  in  its  consequences  affect  them 
all,  he  easily  brought  them,  by  a  sense  of  common  interest,  to 
take  part  in  his  resentment.  Embarking  from  Brittany  with  a 
retinue  of  sixty  persons,  among  whom  were  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  and  the  young  earl  of  Arundel,  nephew  to  that  prelate, 
he  landed  at  Ravenspur  in  Yorkshire  (July  4, 1309).  He  was  im- 
mediately joined  by  the  earls  of  Northumberland  and  Westmoreland, 
two  of  the  most  potent  nobles  in  England.  The  malcontents  in  all 
quarters  flew  to  arms:  London  discovered  the  strongest  symptoms 
of  its  disposition  to  mutiny:  and  Henry's  army,  increasing  on 
every  day's  march,  soon  amounted  to  the  number  of  60,000  com- 
batants. Richard  was  at  this  time  absent  in  Ireland,  to  avenge 
the  death  of  the  lord  lieutenant,  Roger  Mortimer,  earl  of  March, 
his  cousin.  His  uncle,  the  duke  of  York,  whom  he  had  left  guardian 
of  the  realm,  assembled  an  army  of  40,000  men,  but  found  them 
entirely  destitute  of  zeal  and  attachment  to  the  royal  cause,  and 
soon  after  openly  joined  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  was  now 
entirely  master  of  the  kingdom.  Receiving  intelligence  of  this  in- 
vasion and  insurrection,  Richard  hastened  from  Ireland  and  landed 
at  Milford  Haven;  but  being  deserted  by  his  troops,  was  taken 
prisoner  and  carried  first  to  Flint  castle  and  afterwards  to  London 
(September  1).    The  duke  of  Lancaster  now  extended  his  designs 


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AJ).  1897-18W.  HIS  DEPOSITION.  189 

to  the  crown  itself.  He  first  extorted  a  resignation  from  Richard 
(September  29);  but  as  he  knew  that  this  deed  would  plainly 
appear  the  result  of  force  and  fear,  he  resolved,  notwithstanding 
the  danger  of  the  precedent,  to  have  him  solemnly  deposed  in 
parliament  for  tyranny  and  misconduct.  A  charge,  consisting  of  33 
articles,  was  accordingly  drawn  up  against  Richard  and  presented 
to  parliament.  He  was  accused  of  infringing  the  constitution, 
alienating  the  crown  estates,  levying  excessive  purveyance,  extort-  . 
ing  loans,  granting  protections  from  lawsuits,  &c.  The  charge  was 
not  canvassed,  nor  examined,  nor  disputed  in  either  house,  and 
appears  to  have  been  received  at  once  with  almost  universal  appro- 
bation. Richard  was  deposed  by  the  suffrages  of  both  houses  (Sep- 
tember 30) ;  and,  the  throne  being  now  vacant,  the  duke  of  Lancaster 
stepped  forth,  and  having  crossed  himself  on  the  forehead  and  on 
the  breast,  and  called  upon  the  name  of  Christ,  he  pronounced 
these  words : — "  In  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost, 
I,  Henry  of  Lancaster,  challenge  this  realm  of  England,  and  the 
crown,  with  all  the  members  and  appurtenances ;  als  (as)  I  that 
am  descended  by  right  line  of  the  blood,  coming  fro  the  good 
lord  king  Henry  III.;  and  through  that  right  that  God  of  His 
grace  hath  sent  me,  with  help  of  kin  and  of  my  friends,  to  recover 
it;  the  which  realm  was  in  point  to  be  undone  by  default  of 
governance  and  undoing  of  the  good  laws." 

In  order  to  understand  this  speech,  it  must  be  observed  that  a 
story  was  circulated  among  the  Lancastrians,  that  Edmund  Crouch- 
back,  earl  of  Lancaster,  son  of  Henry  III.,  was  really  the  elder 
brother  of  Edward  I. ;  but  that,  by  reason  of  the  deformity  of  his 
person,  he  had  been  postponed  in  the  succession,  and  his  younger 
brother  imposed  on  the  nation  in  his  stead.  As  the  present  duke 
of  Lancaster  inherited  from  Edmund  by  his  mother,  this  genealogy 
made  him  the  true  heir  of  the  monarchy.*  It  is  therefore  in- 
sinuated in  Henry's  speech,  but  was  too  gross  an  absurdity  to  be 

*  He  WM  dfetceoded  from  Henry  III.  both  by  father  and  mother. 
Henry  III. 


Edward  I.  king.  Edmnnd«  earl  of  Lancaster. 

Edward  11.  king.  Henry,  carl  of  Jjaocaster. 

Edward  111.  king.  Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster. 

John  of  Oaunt.  =     Blanche,  duchess  of  Lancaster. 


Henry  IV. 
The  rigbtftel  heir  to  the  crown,  on  the  deposition  of  Richard,  was  Edmund  Mort{mor» 
earl  of  If  arch,  then  a  child  of  seven  years  old,  son  of  Roger  Mortimer,  who  bad  latelj 
been  killed  in  Ireland,  and  great-grandson  of  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence.    See  Qene^' 
logical  Tabic  H. 

10* 


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190  RICHABD  IL  Chap.  z. 

openly  avowed  either  by  him  or  by  the  pftrliament.  The  case  is 
the  same  with  regard  to  his  right  of  conquest :  he  was  a  subject 
who  rebelleii  against  his  sovereign  ;  he  entered  the  kingdom  with  a 
retinue  of  no  more  than  sixty  persons ;  he  could  not  therefore  be 
the  conqueror  of  England ;  and  this  right  is  accordingly  insinuated, 
not  avowed.  But  no  objection  was  taken  to  his  claims,  and  by 
the  voice  of  lords  and  commons  he  was  placed  on  the  throne  (Sep- 
tember 30).*  Six  days  after,  Henry  called  together,  without  any 
new  election,  the  same  members ;  and  this  assembly  he  denominated 
a  new  parliament.  They  were  employed  in  the  usual  task  of 
reversing  every  deed  of  the  opposite  party.  On  the  motion  of  the 
earl  of  Northumberland,  the  House  of  Peers  resolved  unanimously 
that  Richard  should  be  imprisoned  under  a  secure  guard  in  some 
secret  place,  and  should  be  deprived  of  all  commerce  with  his  friends 
or  partisans.  It  was  easy  to  foresee  that  he  would  not  long  remain 
alive  in  the  hands  of  his  enemies  The  manner  of  his  death  is 
unknown,  for  the  common  account  that  he  was  murdered  at  Ponte- 
fract  by  sir  Piers  Exton  rests  on  no  sufficient  evidence.  A  corpse 
said  to  be  his,  but  so  muffled  as  not  to  be  recognized,  was  exhibited 
at  St.  Paul's  in  March,  1400,  and  buried  at  King's  Langley,  but 
removed  by  Henry  V.  to  Westminster.  Richard  left  no  posterity. 
His  government  was  arbitrary,  especially  during  the  latter  years 
of  his  reign.  He  had,  however,  succeeded  to  a  kingdom  greatly 
disorganized  by  the  wars  of  his  grandfather.  As  a  child  he  had 
to  rule  over  nobles  demoralized  by  long  periods  of  military  licence, 
and  he  lost  the  support  of  the  clergy  from  his  indifference  to 
L  llardy.  The  charges  against  him  must  be  received  with  caution, 
for  a  parliament  surrounded  by  a  victorious  army  can  never  be 
r^arded  as  a  just  or  independent  tribimal,  or  its  judgments  of 
any  value  in  determining  the  verdict  of  history. 

§  18.  In  this  and  the  previous  reign  John  Wicklipfb,  a  secular 
priest  educated  at  Oxford,  began  his  attack  on  the  papal  claims 
and  the  friars  who  supported  them.  He  made  many  disciples 
among  men  of  all  ranks  and  stations.  Denying  the  supremacy  of 
the  popes,  he  held  that  kings  were  their  superiors,  and  that  it  was 
lawful  to  appeal  firom  a  spiritual  to  a  secular  tribunal.  His  cardinal 
principle,  that  dominion  is  founded  in  grace,  was  taken  up  by  his 
followers,  the  Lollards,  and  carried  by  them  to  practical  conclusions 
which  Wicklifife  himself  perhaps  never  anticipated.  His  greatest 
service  to  the  Reformation  was  his  translation  of  the  Bible.  He 
was  patronized  by  John  of  Gaunt,  who  made  no  scruple,  as  well  as 
lord  Peicy,  the  marshal,  to  appear  openly  in  court  with  him,  when 

*  This  icene  was  acted  in  the  new  ball  of  the  palace  of  Weatmiiuter,  the 
*•  Weetminater  HaU."  whidi  Richard  had  Just  rebuilU 


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OSAP.  X. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


191 


he  was  cited  before  the  tribunal  of  the  bishop  of  London  (1377). 
Wickliffe  died  of  a  palsy,  December  31,  1384,  at  his  rectory  at 
Lutterworth,  in  the  county  of  Leicester.  Gboffrbt  Chauoeb, 
who  flourished  at  this  period,  may  be  regarded  as  the  father  of 
English  poetry. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


A.   DEATH  OF  RICHARD  H. 

ICnj  contemporary  English  aathori- 
Uet  agree  that  Richard  died  of  starvation, 
after  a  few  months'  imprisonment.  The 
French  chroniclers  assert  that  he  was 
violently  murdered.  On  the  other  hand, 
three  or  four  Scotch  writers,  of  whom  the 
principal  are  Winton  and  Bower,  assert 
that  he  escaped  firom  PontefhuA  to  the 
Western  Isles  of  Scotland ;  that  he  was 
there  recognised  and  carried  to  the  court 
of  Robert  Hi. ;  and  that  he  lived  under 
that  monarch  and  the  regent  Albany  till 
141t,  when  he  died  at  Stirling. 

The  truth  of  the  Scotch  aoooont  has 
been  maintained  at  great  length  by  Mr. 
Tytler  (//u«.  qf  Scotland,  vol.  Hi.  App.). 
who  has  been  followed  hj  Mr.  Williams 
(Frefioe  to  the  Chrvnique  de  la  Traitan 
et  Jfort  de  Jtichart  II.,  published  by  the 
English  Historical  Society,  1846)  and  a  few 
others.  That  a  person  pretending  to  be 
Richard  was  maintained  in  Scotland  is 
snffldently  clear;  but  an  examination 
of  the  evidence  has  &iled  to  oonvinoe 
OS  that  he  was  the  deposed  fiigllsh 
DfOnaroh. 

B.    STATUTE  OF  PR^MUNIRE. 

This  statute,  passed  16  Ric  IL  o.  5 
(▲.D.  1393),  was  enacted  to  check  the 
exorbitant  power  claimed  and  exercised 
by  the  pope  in  England.  It  was  so 
called  fh>m  the  words  of  the  writ  used 
for  the  citation  of  a  party  who  had 
brolusn  the  statute :  Prmmimire  faeiat 
A,  B.,  ** Cause  A.  B.  to  be  forewarned "  that 
he  appear  before  us  to  answer  the  oon- 
VnapL  with  which  he  stiiiids  charged. 
Henoethe  wordpnrmMnire  denominated. 


In  common  speech,  not  only  the  writ,  but 
also  the  olTenoe  of  maintaining  the  ptpal 
power.  **The  original  meaning,"  says 
Blackstone,  **  of  the  offence  which  we  call 
immimire.  Is  introducing  a  foreign  power 
into  this  land,  and  creating  an  imperium 
in  itnperio,  by  paying  that  obedience  to 
pi^Mil  process  which  eomtUutionaUjf  be- 
longed to  the  king  alone,  long  before  the 
Reformation  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII." 
Though  the  statute  of  16  Ric.  II.  c.  6,  Is 
usually  called  the  Statute  of  Pnemunire, 
several  others  of  a  similar  kind  had  beea 
enacted  in  preceding  reigns.  The  25 
Edw.  III.  was  the  first  statute  made 
against  papal  proviiiont,  the  name  ap- 
plied to  a  previous  nomination  to  certain 
benefices,  of  which  the  pope  claimed  the 
patronage,  by  a  kind  of  anticipation, 
before  they  became  actually  void,  though 
afterwards  indiscriminately  applied  to 
any  kind  of  patronage  exerted  or  usurped 
by  the  pope.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
more  stringent  laws  were  enacted  against 
papal  provisions.  By  16  Ric.  II.,  c.  5, 
**  whoever  procures  at  Rome,  or  elsewhere, 
any  translations,  processes,  excommunica- 
tions, bulls,  instruments,  or  other  things, 
which  touch  the  king,  against  him,  his 
crown,  and  realm,  and  all  persons  aiding 
and  assisting  therein,  shall  be  put  out  of 
the  king's  protection,  their  lands  and  goods 
forfeited  to  the  king's  use.  and  they  shall 
be  attached  by  their  bodies  to  answer  to 
the  king  and  his  council :  or  process  of 
pramunire  faeia$  shall  be  made  out 
against  them,  as  in  any  other  cases  of 
pruvLsoTM."  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
the  penalties  of  pneaumtre  were  extended 
still  Airther  against  the  autherity  of  the 
pope. 


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Henrj  IV.  and  his  qaeen,  Joan  of  Navarre.    From' their  monnment  at  GantortKuy. 

CHAPTER  XL 
THE  HOUSE  OF  LANCASTEB. 

HENRY  IV.,  HENRY  V.,  HENRY  VI.   A.D.  1399-1461. 

f  1.  Accession  of  Henry  IV.  Insurrections.  Persecution  of  the  Lollards. 
&  2.  Rebellions  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland.  Battle  of  Shrewsbury. 
I  3.  Foreign  transactions.  Captivity  of  prince  James  of  Scotland. 
Death  and  character  of  the  king.  §  4.  Accession  of  Henry  V.  His 
reformation.  §  5.  Proceedings  against  the  Lollards.  Sir  John  Old- 
•astle.  §  6.  Invasion  of  France.  Battle  of  Agincourt.  §  7.  New 
invasion  of  France.  Conquest  of  Normandy.  Treaty  of  Troyes  and 
marriage  of  Henry  with  Katharine  of  France.  §  8.  Further  conqaasts 
of  Henry  V.  His  death  and  character.  §  9.  Henry  VI.  Settlement 
of  the  government.  French  affairs.  §  10.  Siege  of  Orleans.  Joan  of 
Arc.  §  11.  Charles  VII.  crowned  at  Rheims.  Henry  VI.  crowned  at 
Paris.  §  12.  Capture,  trial,  and  execution  of  the  Maid  of  Orleans.  §  13. 
Treaty  of  Arras.  Death  of  Bedford.  §  14.  Marriage  of  Henry  VL 
Death  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester.  The  English  expelled  from  France. 
{  15.  Claim  of  the  duke  of  York  to  the  crown.  His  powerful  connec- 
tions. §  16.  Unpopularity  of  the  government.  Suffolk  accused  and 
executed.  §  17.  Insurrection  of  Jack  Cade.  Disaffection  of  the  com- 
mons. Rising  of  the  duke  of  York.  §  18  The  duke  of  York  protector. 
First  battle  of  St.  Albans.  §  19.  Civil  war.  Decision  of  the  House  of 
Peers.  Battle  of  Wakefield  and  death  of  the  duke  of  York.  §  20. 
Second  battle  of  St.  Albans.  Edward  IV.  saluted  king  by  the  citixenS 
of  London. 

§  1.  Hknry  IV.,  b.  1366 ;  r.  1399-1413.--Thi8  monarch  was  bom 
at  Bolingbroke  in  Lincolnshire,  y^  1366,  and  was  of  the  same  age 


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A.D.  1399-1402.       IMSUB&fiCTION    IK   WAL£S. 


193 


as  his  deposed  oouflin.  He  was  declared  king,  as  we  hare  already 
seen,  September  30, 1399.  The  rightful  hdr  to  the  crown,  Edmund 
Mortimer,  earl  of  March,  was  a  child  of  only  seven  years  old,  and 
was  detained  by  Henry  in  honourable  custody  at  Windsor  castle. 

Henry  was  hardly  seated  upon  the  throne  before  several  nobles 
favourable  to  Richard's  cause  formed  a  conspiracy  for  seizing  the 
king's  person.  The  plot  was  betrayed  to  the  king  by  the  earl  of 
Rutland,  the  elder  son  of  the  duke  of  York  (January  4, 1400),  and 
the  conspirators  perished  either  in  the  field  or  on  the  scaffold. 
This  unsuccessful  attempt  hastened  the  death  of  Richard,  who 
was  shortly  afterwards  murdered,  as  narrated  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

Henry,  finding  himself  possessed  of  the  throne  by  so  precarious  a 
title,  resolved,  by  every  expedient,  to  pay  court  to  the  clergy.  Till 
now  there  were  uo  penal  laws  against  heresy ;  but  ho  engaged  the 
parliament  to  pass  a  law  that,  when  any  heretic  who  relapsed,  or 
refused  to  abjure  his  opinions,  was  delivered  over  to  the  secular  arm 
by  the  bishop  or  his  conmiissaries,  he  should  be  committed  to  the 
flames  by  the  civil  magistrates.  This  weapon  did  not  long  remain 
unemployed ;  and  William  Sautr^,  a  secular  priest  in  London,  was 
bnmed  for  his  erroneous  opinions  (1401). 

The  revolution  in  England  proved  likewise  the  occasion  of  an 
insurrection  in  Wales.  Owen  Glendower  (properly  Olyndwr\  who 
was  descended  from  the  ancient  princes  of  that  country,*  and 
part  of  whose  estates  had  been  seized  by  lord  Grey  of  Ruthyn, 
recovered  possession  by  the  sword.  He  ravaged  the  English 
marches,  captured  Radnor,  and  beheaded  the  garrison.  In  an 
engagement  with  the  English  forces  he  took  prisoner  sir  Edmund 
Mortimer^  uncle  of  the  earl  of  March,  the  true  heir  to  the  crown. 
The  English  were  defeated  with  great  loss,  and  their  bodies  brutally 
mutilated  by  the  Welsh  women.  As  Henry  dreaded  and  hated  all 
the  family  of  March,  he  allowed  Mortimer  to  remain  in  captivity ; 
and  though  that  nobleman  was  nearly  allied  to  the  Percys,  to 
whose  assistance  he  himself  had  owed  his  crown,  he  refused  per- 
mission to  the  earl  of  Northimiberland  to  treat  with  Glendower 
for  his  ransom.  To  this  disgust  another  was  soon  added.  The 
Percys,  in  repulsing  an  inroad  of  the  Scots,  in  1 402,  at  Homildon 
Hill,  captured  earl  Douglas  and  several  others  of  the  Scotch  nobility. 
Henry  sent  Northumberland  orders  not  to  ransom  his  prisoners, 


*  He  was  on  his  father's  side  desoeDded 
from  Orifnth  ap  Madoc,  the  last  Welsh 
owner  of  the  castle  of  Dinaa  Bran,  and  by 
his  mother  was  the  sixth  in  descent  from 
Llewelyn.  He  had  a  large  estate  In 
Merionethshire,  and    married    Margaret, 


the  daughter  of  sir  David  Hanmer»  a 
Judge  of  the  King's  Bench  in  the  time  of 
Richard  II.  He  was  in  attendance  on 
Richard  when  captured  at  Flint,  and 
being  thus  compromised,  the  neighbouring 
marchers  attempted  to  seize  his  lands. 


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194  HEKBY  IV.  Ghap.  xj. 

which  that  noUonan  vegaided  as  his  right  by  the  laws  of  war. 
The  king  intended  to  detain  them,  that  he  might  be  able,  by 
their  means,  to  make  an  advantageous  peace  with  Scotland.  The 
Percys  were  fieurther  discontented  by  the  withholding  from  them 
of  lu^e  sums  due  to  them  as  warders  of  the  marches. 

§  2.  The  factious  disposition  of  the  earl  of  Worcester,  yoimger 
brother  of  Northumberland,  and  the  impatient  spirit  of  his  son 
Harry  Percy,  sumamed  Hotspur ,  inflamed  the  discontents  of  that 
nobleman.  Tempted  by  revenge,  and  the  precarious  title  of  Henry, 
to  overturn  that  throne  he  had  so  greatly  contributed  to  establish, 
he  entered  into  a  correspondenoe  with  Glendower.  He  gave  Douglas 
his  liberty,  and  made  an  alliance  with  him;  roused  up  all  his 
partisans  to  arms;  and  such  was  the  authority  at  that  time  of  the 
feudal  lords,  that  the  same  men,  whom  a  few  years  before  he  had 
conducted  against  Richard,  now  followed  his  standard  in  opposition 
to  Henry.  When  war  was  ready  to  break  out,  Northumberland 
was  seized  with  a  sudden  illness  at  Berwick;  and  young  Percy, 
taking  the  command  of  the  troops,  about  12,000  in  number, 
marched  towards  Shrewsbury,  in  order  to  join  his  forces  with  those 
of  Glendower.  The  king,  however,  who  had  an  army  of  about  the 
same  force  on  foot,  attacked  him  before  the  junction  could  be 
effected  (July  23,  1403).  No  battle  was  ever  more  hotly  contested. 
Henry  exposed  his  person  in  the  thickest  of  the  fight ;  his  gallant 
son,  afterwards  so  renowned  for  his  military  achievements,  here 
performed  his  noviciate  in  arms,  and  even  when  he  had  received  a 
wound  in  the  fiwse,  he  could  not  be  induced  to  quit  the  field.  Percy 
fell  by  an  unknown  hand,  and  the  royalists  prevailed.  The  loss 
was  great  on  both  sides.  The  earls  of  Worcester  and  Douglas 
were  taken  prisoners.  The  former  was  beheaded  at  Shrewsbury 
(July  25);  the  latter  was  treated  with  the  courtesy  due  to  his 
rank  and  merit.  The  earl  of  Northumberland  was  condemned 
to  imprisonment,  but  a  few  months  after  obtained  a  full  pardon, 
and  his  attainder  was  reversed. 

Two  years  afterwards  Northimiberland  again  rose  in  rebellion, 
was  joined  by  Thomas  Mowbray,  earl  of  Nottingham,  and  Richard 
Scrope,  archbishop  of  York.  The  archbishop  and  Nottingham 
were  entrapped  into  a  conference  by  Ralph  Neville,  earl  of  West- 
moreland, were  seized,  condemned,  and  executed.  This  was  the 
first  instance  in  EngUsh  history  in  which  an  archbishop  perished 
by  the  hands  of  the  executioner  (1405).  Northumberland  escaped 
into  Scotland;  but  in  1408,  having  entered  the  northern  counties 
in  hopes  of  raising  the  people,  he  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
Bramham  Moor  by  sir  Thomas  Bokeby,  sherifif  of  Yorkshire.  The 
only  domestic  enemy  now  remaining;  was  Glendower,  over  whom 


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JLtK   1403-1^3.  HIS  DEATH.  195 

the  prince  of  Wales  obtained  some  advantages;  but  the  Welsh 
leader  continued  the  struggle  for  some  years  after  Henry's  death. 

§  3.  The  remaining  transactions  of  this  reign  are  not  of  much 
interest.  In  1405  fortune  gave  Henry  an  advantage  over  that 
neighbour  who,  by  his  situation,  was  most  able  to  disturb  his 
government.  Robert  III.,  king  of  Scots,  was  a  prince  of.  slender 
capacity ;  and  Scotland,  at  that  time,  was  little  fitted  for  enduring 
sovereigns  of  that  character.  The  duke  of  Albany,  his  brother, 
governor  of  Scotland,  on  whom  Robert  relied  with  imsuspecting 
confidence,  secretly  aspired  to  the  throne.  As  David,  duke  of 
Rothsay,  was  a  dissolute  prince,  Albany  had. him  thrown  into 
prison  at  Falkland,  in  Fife,  where  he  perished  by  hunger.  James 
alone,  the  younger  brother  of  David,  now  stood  between  the  duke's 
ambition  and  the  throne;  and  Robert,  sensible  of  his  son's  danger, 
embarked  him  on  board  ship,  with  a  view  of  sending  him  to  France, 
and  intrusting  him  to  the  protection  of  that  friendly  power.  Un- 
fortunately, the  vessel  was  taken  by  the  English;  James,  a  boy 
about  nine  years  of  age,  was  carried  to  London ;  and  though  there 
was  at  that  time  a  truce  between  the  two  kingdoms,  Henry  refused 
to  restore  the  young  prince  to  his  liberty.  Worn  out  by  this  lasi 
misfortime,  Robert  soon  after  died,  leaving  the  government  in  the 
hands  of  Albany  (1406).  But  though  Henry,  by  detaining  Jame^ 
in  the  English  court,  had  shown  himself  deficient  in  generosity,  ho 
made  amends  by  giving  that  prince  an  excellent  education,  which 
afterwards  qualified  him,  when  he  mounted  the  throne,  to  reform, 
in  some  measure,  the  barbarous  manners  of  his  native  country. 

Throughout  this  reign  an  unfriendly  feeling  prevailed  between 
England  and  France ;  but  the  civil  disturbances  in  both  nations 
prevented  it  from  breaking  out  into  serious  hostilities.  The  caust^ 
of  the  mm*dered  Richard  was  warmly  espoused  by  the  French  court, 
but  their  zeal  evaporated  in  menaces.  Soon  after  his  accession | 
Henry,  at  the  demand  of  Charles,  had  restored  Isabella,  the  widow 
of  the  late  king,  but  had  retained  her  dowry  on  the  pretence  oi 
setting  it  off  against  the  unpaid  ransom  of  the  French  king  John. 

The  king's  health  declined  some  months  before  his  death.  He 
was  subject  to  fits,  which  bereaved  him,  for  the  time,  of  his  senses ; 
and,  though  he  was  yet  in  the  flower  of  his  age,  his  end  was  visibly 
approaching.  He  expired  at  Westmitister  (March  20,  1413),  in 
the  46th  year  of  his  age,  and  the  13th  of  his  reign.  The  great 
popularity  which  Henry  enjoyed  before  he  attained  the  crown,  and 
by  which  he  had  been  so  much  aided  in  the  acquisition  of  it, 
was  entirely  lost  before  the  end  of  his  reign ;  and  he  governed  his 
people  more  by  terror  than  by  affection,  more  by  his  own  policy  than 
by  their  sense  of  duty  or  allegiance.    His  prudence  and  vigilance 


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196  HKNBT  V.  Chap,  tl 

in  maintaming  his  power  were  admirable ;  his  courage,  both  military 
and  political,  without  blemish ;  and  he  possessed  many  qualities 
wliich  fitted  him  for  his  high  station,  and  rendered  his  usurpation 
rather  salutary  than  otherwise  to  his  people.  The  augmentaticm 
of  the  power  of  the  commons  during  this  reign  was  chiefly  shown 
by  the  punishment  which  they  awarded  to  sheritls  for  making 
false  returns,  by  the  increased  freedom  of  debate,  and  by  the  control 
which  they  exercised  over  the  supplies, 

Henry  was  twice  married:  by  his  first  wife,  Mary  de  Bohun, 
daughter  and  co-heir  of  the  earl  of  Hereford,  he  had  four  sons, 
Henry,  his  successor  in  the  throne,  Thomas  duke  of  Clarence, 
John  duke  of  Bedford,  and  Humphrey  duke  of  Gloucester;  two 
daughters,  Blanche  and  Philippa,  the  former  married  to  the  duke 
of  Bavaria,  the  latter  to  the  king  of  Denmark.  His  second  wife, 
Joan,  whom  he  married  after  he  was  king,  and  who  was  daughter 
of  the  king  of  Nayarre,  and  widow  of  the  duke  of  Brittany,  brought 
him  no  issue. 

HENRY  V. 

§  4.  Hbnbt  v.,  6.  1388 ;  t .  1413-1422,  was  bom  at  Monmouth, 
August  9.  His  father,  naturally  exposed  to  many  jealousies,  had 
entertained  suspicions  with  regard  to  the  fidelity  of  his  eldest  son ; 
and,  during  the  latter  yesLra  of  his  life,  he  had  excluded  the  prince 
from  all  share  of  public  business.  He  was  even  displeased  to  see 
him  at  the  head  of  armies,  where  his  martial  talents,  though  useful 
to  the  support  of  government,  acquired  liim  a  renown  which  his 
father  thought  might  prove  dangerous  to  his  own  authority.  Shut 
out  from  more  serious  occupations,  the  active  spirit  of  young  Henry 
found  employment,  during  his  father's  life,  in  pleasure  and  amuse^ 
ment  away  from  the  court.  Though  the  stories  told  of  his  riots  and 
excesses  are  doubtless  exaggerated,  he  inherited  his  father's  love  of 
popularity  and  courted  the  good  opinions  of  those  beneath  himu 
On  one  occasion  it  is  said  that  a  riotous  companion  of  the  prince's 
had  l)een  indicted  before  Gascoigne,  the  chief  justice,  for  felony,  and 
Henry  was  not  ashamed  to  appear  at  the  bar  with  the  criminal, 
and  afi'ord  him  countenance  and  protection.  He  demanded  the 
liberation  of  the  prisoner,  and  would  have  proceeded  to  violence. 
But  Gascoigne,  mindl'ul  of  the  character  which  he  then  bore,  and 
the  majesty  of  the  laws  which  he  sustained,  ordered  the  prince  to 
be  carried  to  prison.  The  spectators  were  agreeably  disappointed 
when  they  saw  the  heir  of  the  crown  submit  peaceably  to  the 
sentence,  make  reparation  for  his  error,  and  check  his  impetuous 
uature  in  the  midst  of  its  extravagant  cateer.  The  memory  of  tbia 
incident,  and  of  others  of  a  like  nattire,  rendered  the  prospect  of 


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A.D   1413-1418.  THE  LOLLAKDS.  197 

the  future  reign  nowise  disagreeable  to  the  nation,  and  increased 
the  joy  which  the  death  of  so  unpopular  a  prince  as  the  late  king 
naturally  occasioned.  At  his  accession  he  dismissed  his  former 
companions,  and  retained  in  office  the  wise  ministers  of  his  father, 
with  the  exception  of  the  archbishop,  Thomas  Arundel,  and  the 
chief  justice.* 

§  6.  One  party  only  in  the  nation  seemed  likely  to  trouble  him. 
The  Lollards  were  every  day  increasing,  and  the  attitude  now 
assumed  by  them  appeared  dangerous  to  the  church,  and  formidable 
to  the  civU  authority.  The  head  of  this  sect  was  sir  John  Oldcastle 
(lord  Cobham  by  marriage),  a  nobleman  who  had  distinguished 
himself  on  many  occasions,  and  acquired  the  esteem  both  of  the 
late  and  of  the  present  king.  Presuming  on  his  supposed  influenoe 
with  the  king,  the  Lollards  fixed  seditious  papers  on  the  doors  of 
the  London  churches,  intimating  that  100,000  men  were  ready  to 
rise  and  espouse  their  principles.  Roused  by  the  danger,  the  clergy 
assembled  in  convocation,  and  called  upon  the  archbishop  to  take 
proceedings  against  Oldcastle  for  heresy.  After  Henry  had  vainly 
endeavoured  to  induce  Oldcastle  to  submit,  he  was  brought  before 
the  primate,  was  condemned  for  heresy,  and  delivered  to  the  secular 
arm  (1413).  Before  the  day  appointed  for  his  execution,  he  con- 
trived to  escape  from  the  Tower,  and  assembled  his  followers  in 
St  Giles's  Fields,  with  the  design  of  seizing  the  king.  They  were 
defeated  by  Henry's  vigilance ;  many  of  the  Lollards  were  seized, 
and  some  executed  (1414).  Cobham,  who  saved  himself  by  flight, 
was  not  brought  to  justice  till  four  years  after,  when,  in  execution 
of  the  double  sentence  pronounced  against  him,  he  was  hanged  in 
chains  as  a  traitor  and  burnt  as  a  heretic  (1418). 

§  6.  The  disorders  into  which  France  was  plunged  through  the 
lunacy  of  its  monarch,  Charles  VI.,  and  the  consei^uent  struggle 
for  the  regency  between  his  brother  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  his 
cousin  the  duke  of  Burgundy,t  had  resulted  in  open  warfare 
Impelled  by  the  vigour  of  youth  and  the  ardour  of  ambition,  Henry 

*  Sir  Willidin  Hankford  was  appointed  in  his  place  un  March  29,  1413,  only  nin» 
days  after  Henry's  accession, 
t  The  CbUowing  genealogical  table  shows  the  relationship  of  these  princes :— . 
JOHN  II.  king  of  France. 
(Taken  prisoner  by  Edward  III.) 

CHARLES  v.  Philip,  duke  of  Bargandr. 
I d.  1404. 


CHARLES  VI.  Lonls,  dake  of  Orleans,  John,  duke  of  Burgundy, 

I  kUled  1407.  killed  1410. 

CHARLES  VII.         Charles,  duke  of  Orleans,  Philip  the  Oood, 

taken  at  Aginconzt.  duke  of  Burgundy. 


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198  HENRY  V.  Chap,  xl 

deteimined  to  carry  war  into  that  distracted  kingdom  (April,  1415), 
but  was  detained  for  a  while  by  a  conspiracy  to  place  the  earl  of 
March  upon  the  throne.  ITie  chief  conspirators,  Richard  earl  of 
Cambridge,  younger  son  of  the  late  duke  of  York,*  Henry  lord 
Scrope,  and  sir  Thomas  Grey,  were  arrested,  summarily  condemned, 
and  executed  in  August.  The  earl  of  March,  who  had  revealed  the 
plot,  was  taken  into  fa\  our.  Trusting  to  the  assistance  of  the  duke  of 
Burgundy,  who  had  been  secretly  soliciting  the  alliance  of  England, 
Henry  put  to  sea,  and  landed  near  Harfleur,  at  the  head  of  an  army 
of  6000  men  at  arms  and  24,000  foot,  mostly  archers.  Harfleur 
was  obliged  to  capitulate  after  a  siege  of  five  weeks  (September 
22) ;  but  his  troops  were  so  wasted  by  fatigue  and  dysentery  that 
Henry  was  advised  to  return  to  England.  He  dismissed  his  trans- 
ports, and  determined  on  marching  by  land  to  Calais,  although  a 
French  army  of  14,000  men  at  arms  and  40,000  foot  was  by  this 
time  assembled  in  Normandy.  Not  to  discourage  his  troops,  now 
reduced  to  6000,  by  the  appearance  of  flight,  or  expose  them  to 
the  hazards  which  naturally  attend  precipitate  marches,  he  made 
slow  and  deliberate  journeys  till  he  reached  the  Somme,  and,  after 
encountering  many  difficulties  and  hardships,  was  dexterous  or 
fortunate  enough  to  surprise  a  passage  near  St.  Quentin,  which 
had  not  been  sufficiently  guarded,  and  thus  transport  his  army 
in  safety.  He  then  bent  his  march  northwards  to  Calais,  exposed 
to  great  and  imminent  danger  from  the  enemy,  who  had  also  passed 
the  Somme,  and  threw  themselves  in  his  way,  intending  to  inter- 
cept his  retreat.  Passing  the  small  river  of  Temois,  at  Blangi, 
he  was  surprised  to  observe  from  the  heights  the  whole  French  army 
drawn  up  in  the  plains  of  Agincourt,  and  so  jwsted  that  it  was 
impossible  for  him  to  decline  an  engagement.  The  enemy  was 
four  times  more  numerous  than  the  English ;  was  headed  by  the 
dauphin  and  all  the  princes  of  the  blood;  and  was  plentifully 
supplied  with  provisions.  Henry's  situation  was  exactly  similar 
to  that  of  Edward  at  Cr^y,  and  that  of  the  Black  Prince  at 
Poitiers,  and  he  observed  the  same  manrruvres.  Seeing  the 
French  army  cooped  up  between  two  w(khIs,  where  their  narrow 
front  and  crowded  masses  neutralized  the  advantage  of  numbers, 
Henry  patiently  expected  the  attack  of  the  enemy  (October  25, 
1415).  The  French  archers  on  horseback  and  their  men  at 
arms,  crowded  in  their  ranks,  advanced  upon  the  English  archers, 
who  had  fixed  palisadoes  in  their  front  to  break  the  charge  of 
the  enemy,  and  safely  plied  them  from  behind  that  defence 
with  a  shower  of  arrows  which  nothing  could  resist.  The 
clay  soil,   moistened  by  rain   which  had   lately  fallen,  proved 

•  Edmnnd  Langley,  son  of  Edward  III.,  died  In  1402 


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AJX  1415-1419.       CONQUEST  OF  NOKMANDY.  199 

another  obstacle  to  the  force  of  the  French  cavalry :  the  wounded 
men  and  horses  discomposed  their  ranks :  the  narrow  compass  in 
which  they  were  pent  up  hindered  them  from  recovering  any  order: 
the  whole  army  was  a  scene  of  confusion,  terror,  and  dismay. 
Perceiving  his  advantage,  Henry  led  an  impetuous  charge  of  his 
men  at  arms,  and  ordered  the  archers  to  advance  and  gall  the 
enemy's  flanks.  These  falling  on  the  foe,  who,  in  their  present 
posture,  were  incapable  either  of  flight  or  of  defence,  hewed 
them  in  pieces  without  resistance,  and  covered  the  field  with  the 
killed,  wounded,  dismounted,  and  overthrown.  No  battle  was  ever 
more  fatal  to  France  for  the  number  of  princes  and  nobility  slain 
or  taken  prisoners.  Among  the  latter  were  the  dukes  of  Orleans 
and  Bourbon.  The  killed  are  computed,  on  the  whole,  to  have 
amounted  to  10,000  men;  and  Henry  was  master  of  14,000 
prisoners.  The  loss  of  the  English  was  very  small,  being  only 
about  1600,  including,  however,  the  dake  of  York  and  the  earl  of 
Suflblk.  Henry,  not  being  in  a  condition  to  pursue  his  victory, 
carried  his  prisoners  to  Calais,  and  thence  to  England,  and  con- 
.  eluded  a  truce  with  the  enemy. 

§  7.  During  this  brief  interruption  of  hostilities,  France  was  ex- 
posed to  all  the  furies  of  civil  war;  and  the  several  parties  became 
every  day  more  exasperated  against  each  other.  In  consequence 
of  the  capture  of  the  duke  of  Orleans  at  Agincourt,  the  count  of 
Armagnac,  his  father-in-law,  became  the  head  of  his  party  (hence 
called  the  Armagnacs),  and  was  created  constable  of  France.  The 
duke  of  Burgundy,  who  had  aspired  to  this  dignity,  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  English,  promising  to  do  homage  to  Henry. 
His  power  was  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  Isabella,  the 
queen,  who  had  formerly  been  his  enemy,  but  had  now  quarrelled 
with  the  Armagnacs.  The  dauphin  sided  with  the  latter;  and 
open  war  broke  out  between  the  two  factions.  Whilst  the 
country  was  ill  prepared  to  resist  a  foreign  enemy,  Henry  lauded 
again  at  Toucques  on  the  Seine,  with  25,000  men  (August  1, 1417), 
and  met  with  no  considerable  opposition  from  any  quarter.  He 
made  himself  master  of  Caen ;  Bayeux  and  Falaise  submitted  to 
him;  and  having  subdued  all  lower  Normandy,  and  received  a 
reinforcement  of  15,000  men  from  England,  he  formed  the  siege  of 
Rouen,  which  he  took  after  an  obstinate  defence  (January  19, 
1419).  Henry  still  continued  to  negociate  and  had  almost  arranged 
advantageous  terms,  when  John,  duke  of  Burgundy,  secretly  made 
a  treaty  with  the  dauphin.  The  two  princes  agreed  to  share  the 
royal  authority  during  king  Charles's  lifetime,  and  to  unite  their 
arms  in  order  to  expel  foreign  enemies.  This  alliance  seemed 
at  first  to  cut  ofif  from  Henry  all  hopes  of  further  success,  but 


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200  HENRT   V.  Chap,  xl 

the  treacherous  assassination  of  the  duke  of  Burgnndy  soon  after- 
wards (1419)  by  the  partisans  of  the  dauphin  opened  the  way  to 
a  new  and  favourable  arrangement.  Philip,  count  of  Charolois, 
now  duke  of  Burgundy,  thought  himself  bound  by  every  tie  of 
honour  and  of  duty  to  revenge  the  murder  of  his  father,  and  to 
prosecute  the  assassins  to  the  utmost  extremity.  In  December 
a  league  was  concluded  at  Arras  between  him  and  Henry,  by 
which  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  without  stipulating  anything  for 
himself  except  the  prosecution  of  his  father's  murderers  and  the 
marriage  of  Henry's  brother,  the  duke  of  Bedford,  with  his  sister, 
was  willing  to  sacrifice  the  kingdom  to  Henry's  ambition.  He 
agreed  to  every  demand  made  by  that  monarch.  To  finish  this 
astonishing  treaty,  which  was  to  transfer  the  crown  of  France  to 
a  stranger,  Henry  went  to  Troyes,  accompanied  by  his  brothers, 
the  dukes  of  Clarence  and  Gloucester ;  and  was  there  met  by  the 
duke  of  Burgundy  (14'J0).  The  imbecility  into  which  Charles  had 
fallen  made  him  incapable  of  seeing  anything  but  through  the 
eyes  of  those  who  attended  him ;  as  they  on  their  part  saw  every- 
thing through  the  medium  of  their  passions.  A  treaty,  already 
concerted  among  the  parties,  was  immediately  drawn,  signed,  and 
ratified  (May  21).  By  the  principal  articles  Henry  was  to 
espouse  the  princess  Katharine,  daughter  of  the  king;  Charles, 
during  his  lifetime,  was  to  enjoy  the  title  and  dignity  of  king  of 
France;  and  Henry  was  to  be  regent,  and  to  succeed  to  the  throne 
on  the  death  of  Charles,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  dauphin.  In  a  few 
days  after,  Henry  espoused  the  princess  Katharine,  but  next  day 
led  his  army  again  into  the  field.  Sens,  Montereau,  and  Melun 
yielded  to  his  arms.  In  December  he  made  his  triiunphal  entry 
into  Paris.  He  there  assembled  the  estates  of  France,  and  procured 
from  them  a  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  Troyes.  But  soon  after,  the 
necessity  of  providing  supplies,  both  of  men  and  money,  obliged 
him  to  return  to  England  (1421).  He  appointed  his  uncle,  Thomas 
Beaufort,  duke  of  Exeter,*  as  regent  during  his  absence  (June  10). 
§  8.  After  the  coronation  of  Katharine,  Henry,  raising  fresh  forces, 
returned  to  Paris  in  May,  with  24,000  archers  and  4000  horsemen, 
and  was  received  with  great  joy.  Ihiring  his  absence  a  body  tf 
7000  Scots,  fearing  to  see  France  fall  into  the  power  of  their  ancient 
enemy,  had  proceeded  to  the  assistance  of  the  dauphin,  and  hai 
defeated  and  killed  the  duke  of  Clarence  at  Tea  ige.  But  the 
presence  of  Henry  soon  restored  all.  The  dauphin  was  chased 
beyond  the  Loire,  and  almost  totally  abandone<l  the  northern 
provinces ;  he  was  even  pursued  into  the  south  by  the  united  arms 
of  the  English  and  Burgundians,  and  threatened  with  total  destruc* 
*  For  the  Bcanfort  £unily,  we  the  Genealogical  Tables. 


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AJ).  1419-1422.  HIS  DEATH.  201 

don.  To  crown  Henry's  good  fortune,  his  queen  was  delivered  of 
a  son,  who  was  called  by  his  father's  name,  and  whose  birth  was 
Celebrated  by  rejoicings  no  less  pompous  at  Paris  than  at  London. 
But  his  glory  was  suddenly  extinguished  with  his  life.  He  ¥ras 
attacked  by  pleurisy,  and,  finding  himself  unable  to  rejoin  his 
army,  was  carried  to  Vincennes,  near  Paris,  where  he  expired, 
exclaiming  in  the  midst  of  his  suffering,  ''My  portion  is  with  the 
Lordi  Jesus."  He  died  August  31,  1422,  in  the  35th  year  of  his 
age  and  the  10th  of  his  reign.  He  left  the  regency  of  France  to  his 
next  siu^iving  brother,  John,  duke  of  Bedford ;  that  of  England 
to  Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester ;  and  the  care  of  his  son's  person 
to  the  earl  of  Warwick.  He  was  biuried  in  the  Confessor's  chapel, 
at  Westminster. 

This  prince  possessed  many  eminent  virtues;  and  if  we  give 
indulgence  to  ambition  in  a  monarch,  or  rank  it,  as  the  vulgar 
are  inclined  to  do,  among  his  virtues,  they  were  unstained  by 
any  considerable  blemish.  His  abilities  appeared  equally  in  the 
cabinet  and  in  the  field.  The  boldness  of  his  enterprises  was 
no  less  remarkable  than  his  personal  valour  in  conducting  them. 
He  had  the  talent  of  attaching  his  friends  by  afiability,  and 
of  gaining  his  enemies  by  address  and  clemency.  He  was  an 
accomplished  musician,  and  fond  of  the  learning  in  which  he  had 
been  trained  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  under  his  uncle,  bishop 
Beaufort.  His  stature  was  somewhat  above  the  middle  size,  his 
countenance  beautiful,  his  limbs  slender,  but  full  of  vigour. 

Katharine  of  France,  Henry's  widow,  married  soon  after  his  death 
a  Welsh  gentleman,  Owen  Tudor,  said  to  be  descended  from  the 
ancient  princes  of  that  country.  She  bore  him  two  sons,  Edmund 
and  Jasper,  of  whom  the  eldest  was  created  earl  of  Richmond,  and 
was  &ther  of  Henry  YII. ;  and  the  second  was  earl  of  Pembroke. 

HENRY  VI. 

§  9.  Henbt  VI.,  h,  1421 ;  r.  1422-1461,  was  bom  at  Windsor, 
December  6,  and  was  scarcely  nine  months  old  when  he  succeeded 
bis  father.  The  duke  of  Gloucester  claimed  the  regency  under  the 
will  of  the  late  king,  but  his  claim  was  resisted  by  the  Great 
Council ;  and  when  parliament  assembled,  the  lords,  setting  aside 
the  late  king's  will,  appointed  Gloucester  protector,  with  limited 
a  ithority,  and  entrusted  the  substantial  powers  of  government  to  a 
committee  of  lords  and  commons.  The  regency  of  France  fell  to 
the  duke  of  Bedford,  with  the  consent  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy 
The  person  and  education  of  the  infant  prince  was  committed  to 
Henry  Beaufort,  bishop  of  Winchester,  his  great-uncle,  the  legiti- 
mated son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster. 


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202  HENRY  VI.  Chap,  xl 

The  interest  of  the  early  part  of  this  rdgn  centres  in  the  affidni 
of  France.  Charles  YI.  expired  about  two  months  after  the  death 
of  his  son-in-law  Henry.  His  son,  Charles  VII.,  a  young  prince  of 
a  popular  character,  and  rightful  heir  to  the  throne,  asserted  his 
claim  against  his  infant  competitor,  but,  in  the  face  of  such  over- 
whelming power  as  the  English  then  possessed,  such  pretensions 
appeared  ridiculous.  Bedford,  a  skilful  politician,  as  well  as  a 
good  general,  strengthened  himself  by  forming  an  aUiance  with  the 
duke  of  Brittany,  who  had  received  some  disgusts  from  the  French 
court.  To  avert  the  hostility  of  the  Scots,  many  of  whom  were 
serving  under  Charles  VII.,  Hedford  persuaded  the  English  council 
to  form  an  alliance  with  James,  their  prisoner,  to  release  him 
from  his  long  captivity,  and  connect  him  with  England  by 
marrying  him  to  a  daughter  of  John  Beaufort,  earl  of  Somerset, 
cousin  of  the  young  king.  The  treaty  was  concluded ;  a  ransom 
of  40,00}/.  was  stipulated;  and  the  king  of  Scots  was  restored  to 
the  throne  of  his  ancestors  (1424). 

§  10.  The  great  victory  gained  by  the  duke  of  Bedford  over 
the  French  and  Scots  at  Vemeuil  opened  Maine  to  the  English 
(August  16, 1427).  The  affairs  of  Charles  grew  more  desperate  than 
ever ;  and  in  1428  Bedford  determined  to  penetrate  into  the  south 
of  France,  which  remained  in  obedience  to  Charles  VII.  With 
this  view  he  invested  Orleans,  which  commanded  the  passage  of 
the  Loire,  the  key  of  the  southern  provinces.  The  command  of  the 
besieging  forces  was  intrusted  to  the  earl  of  Salisbury,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  generals  of  the  age.  Upon  his  death  by  a 
cannon-ball,  the  siege  was  continued  by  William  de  la  Pole,  earl  of 
Suffolk,  and  had  lasted  several  months,  when  relief  appeared  from 
an  unexpected  quarter. 

In  the  village  of  Domremi,  near  Vaucouleurs,  on  the  borders  of 
Lorraine,  there  lived  a  peasant  girl,  seventeen  years  of  age,  called 
Jeanne  or  Jeannette  d'Arc  (in  English,  Joan  of  Arc),  the  daughter  of 
a  poor  cottager.  Unable  to  read  or  write,  she  had  seen  visions  in 
her  youth,  and  heard  angelic  voices.  Persuaded  that  she  had  a 
mission  from  Heaven  to  expel  the  invaders  of  her  country,  she  went 
to  Vaucouleurs,  procured  admission  to  Baudricourt,  the  governor,  and 
informed  him  that  she  had  an  order  from  her  Lord  to  deliver  Orleans. 
Baudricourt  paid  little  regard  to  her  entreaties;  but  on  her  frequent 
returns  and  repeated  importunities,  he  consented  to  send  her  to 
the  French  court,  which  at  that  time  resided  at  Chinon.  Pressed 
as  a  soldier,  she  started  on  her  journey  of  250  miles  through  a 
country  infested  by  the  English.  Admitted  into  the  king's  presence, 
it  is  pretended  that  she  distinguished  him  at  once  from  all  his 
courtiers,  though  they  were  dressed  more  n^^-^ificently  than  him- 


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A.i>.  14a4r-1439.  THE  MAID  OF   ORLEANS.  203 

self.  She  told  him  she  had  boon  sent  by  QoA  to  assist  him,  and 
conduct  him  to  Rheims,  to  be  there  crowned  and  anointed.  On  his 
expressing  doubts  of  her  mission,  she  revealed  to  him  a  secret 
known  only  to  himself;  and  she  demanded,  as  the  instrument  of  her 
future  victories,  a  particular  sword,  which  was  kept  in  the  church  of 
St.  Katharine  of  Fierbois,  which  she  minutely  described,  though 
she  had  never  seen  it.  Her  requests  were  at  last  complied  with ; 
she  was  armed  cap-a-pie,  mounted  on  horseback,  and  shown  in 
martial  habiliments  to  the  people.  Her  dexterity  in  managing 
her  steed  was  regarded  as  a  fresh  proof  of  her  mission;  and  she 
was  received  with  the  loudest  acclamations  by  the  spectators.  Her 
first  exploit  was  to  conduct  a  convoy  of  provisions  into  Orleans ; 
and  the  English,  daunted  by  a  kind  of  supernatural  terror,  did 
not  venture  to  resist  (April  29, 1429).  The  maid  entered  Orleans 
mounted  on  a  white  charger,  arrayed  in  her  military  garb,  and, 
displaying  her  consecrated  banner,  was  received  as  a  deliverer  from 
Heaven. 

She  now  called  upon  the  garrison  to  remain  no  longer  on 
the  defensive,  but  attack  the  redoubts  of  the  enemy  surrounding 
the  city.  These  enterprises  succeeded.  In  one  attack  Joan  was 
wounded  in  the  neck  with  an  arrow ;  she  retreated  a  moment  behind 
the  assailants,  pulled  out  the  arrow  with  her  own  hands,  had  the 
wound  quickly  dressed,  and  hastened  back  to  head  the  troops,  and 
to  plant  her  victorious  banner  on  the  ramparts  of  the  enemy.  By 
these  successes  the  English  were  discouraged,  and  evacuated  the 
forts  on  the  north.  As  it  seemed  dangerous  to  Suifolk,  with  such 
intimidated  troops,  to  remain  any  longer  in  the  presence  of  so 
courageous  and  victorious  an  enemy,  he  raised  the  siege,  and 
retreated  with  all  the  precaution  imaginable  (May  8). 

§11.  The  raising  of  the  siege  of  Orleans  was  one  part  of  the 
maid's  promise  to  Charles ;  the  crowning  of  him  at  Rheims  was  the 
other;  and  she  now  vehemently  insisted  that  he  should  forthwith 
set  out  on  that  enterprise.  A  few  weeks  before,  such  a  proposal 
would  have  appeared  the  most  extra vag&nt  in  the  world.  But 
Charles,  at  the  head  of  only  12,000  men,  marched  to  that  town 
without  opposition.  The  ceremony  of  his  coronation  was  per- 
formed with  the  holy  oil,  which  all  France  believed  a  dove  had 
brought  to  king  Clovis  from  heaven  on  the  first  establishment  of 
the  French  monarchy  (July  17).  The  Maid  of  Orleans,  as  she  was 
now  called,  stood  by  his  side  in  complete  armour,  and  displayed  her 
sacred  banner,  which  had  so  often  confounded  his  fiercest  enemies. 
The  people  shouted  with  unfeigned  joy  at  viewing  such  a  com- 
plication of  wonders.  Charles,  thus  crowned  and  anointed,  be- 
<mmo  more  formidable  in  the  eyes   of  all   his   subjects.     Many 


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204  HENBT  VI.  Chap,  xl 

towns  and  fortresMs  in  that  neighbourhood,  immediatelj  aft^ 
the  ceremony,  submitted  to  him  on  the  first  summons ;  and  the 
whole  nation  was  disposed  to  yield  him  the  most  zealous  proofs 
of  their  duty  and  affection. 

Nothing  can  impress  us  with  a  higher  idea  of  the  wisdom, 
address,  and  resolution  of  the  duke  of  Bedford,  than  his  ability 
to  maintain  himself  in  so  perilous  a  situation,  and  to  preserve  some 
rooting  in  France,  after  the  defection  of  so  many  places,  and  amidst 
the  universal  inclination  of  the  rest  to  imitate  so  contagious  an 
example.  The  small  supplies,  both  of  men  and  money,  which  he 
received  from  England,  set  the  talents  of  this  great  man  in  a  still 
stronger  light.  It  happened  fortunately,  in  this  emergency,  that 
the  bishop  of  Winchester,  now  created  a  cardinal,  landed  at  Calais 
with  a  body  of  5000  men,  which  he  was  conducting  into  Bohemia 
on  a  crusade  against  the  Hussites.  He  was  persuaded  to  lend  these 
troops  to  his  nephew  during  the  present  difficulties ;  and  the  regent 
was  thereby  enabled  to  take  the  field,  and  oppose  the  French  king, 
leho  was  advancing  with  his  army  to  the  gates  of  Paris,  when  an 
accident  put  into  the  duke's  hands  the  person  that  had  been  the 
author  of  all  his  calamities. 

§  1'?.  In  making  a  sally  from  Compiegne,  the  Maid  of  Orleans 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Burgundians  (May  26,  1430).  A  com- 
plete victory  could  not  have  given  more  joy  to  the  English  and 
their  partisans.  TV  Deum  was  publicly  celebrated  at  Paris  on 
this  auspicious  event.  The  duke  of  Bedford  fancied  that  he 
should  again  recover  his  former  ascendancy  in  France,  and  pur- 
chased the  captive  from  John  of  Luxemburg.  She  was  tried  and 
condemned  by  an  ecclesiastical  court  for  sorcery  and  magic ;  her 
revelations  were  declared  to  be  inventions  of  the  devil ;  and  she 
was  sentenced  to  be  delivered  over  to  the  secular  arm.  .Joan,  who 
had  borne  her  trial  with  amazing  firmness,  was  at  last  subdued. 
She  declared  herself  willing  to  recant ;  she  acknowledged  that  her 
pretensions  to  a  divine  influence  were  illusive,  and  promised  never 
to  assert  them  more.  Her  sentence  was  then  mitigated:  she 
was  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment,  and  to  be  fed  on  bread 
and  water.  But  the  barbarous  vengeance  of  Joan's  enemies  was 
not  satisfied  with  this  victory.  They  purposely  placed  in  her  apart- 
ment a  suit  of  her  own  armour.  On  the  sight  of  a  dress  in  which 
she  had  acquired  so  much  renown,  and  which,  she  once  believed, 
she  wore  by  the  particular  appointment  of  Heaven,  her  former 
enthusiasm  revive<i.  She  ventured  in  her  solitude  to  clothe  herself 
again  in  the  forbidden  garments.  Her  insidious  enemies  caught 
her  in  that  situation :  her  fault  was  interpreted  to  be  no  less  than 
a  relapse  into  heresy :  no  recantation  would  now  suffice,  and  nc 


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A.D.  1430-1460.  TREATY  OF  ARRAS.  206 

pardon  could  be  granted  her.*  She  was  condemned  to  be  burned 
in  the  market-place  of  Rouen;  and  the  infamous  sentence  was 
accordingly  executed  (May  30, 1431). 

§  13.  From  this  period  the  authority  of  the  English  in  France, 
the  result  of  which  we  shall  here  anticipate,  fell  insensibly  to  decay. 
The  regent  endeavoured  to  revive  the  declining  state  of  his  affairs 
by  bringing  over  the  young  king  of  England  and  having  him 
crowned  and  anointed  at  Paris  (December  17,  1431).  In  1432 
the  duchess  of  Bedford,  who  was  sister  to  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
died;  and  by  the  regent's  subsequent  hasty  marriage  with  Jaqueline 
of  Luxemburg,  the  last  link  was  severed  which  had  hitherto  pre- 
served some  appearance  of  friendship  between  these  princes;  an 
open  breach  took  place,  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy  determined  to 
reconcile  himself  with  the  court  of  France.  In  1435  a  treaty  was 
concluded  at  Arras  between  the  duke  of  Burgundy  and  Charles 
VII.,  and  whilst  it  was  in  progress  the  dake  of  Bedford  died  at 
Rouen  (September  14  th,  1435).  The  English  continued  to  hold  a 
gradually  declining  footing  in  France  for  some  years  after  that 
event ;  but  the  period  oflfers  few  interesting  or  memorable  occur- 
rences. Shortly  after  the  regent^s  death,  and  before  his  successor, 
the  duke  of  York,  could  arrive,  the  forces  of  the  French  king  were 
admitted  into  Paris  by  the  citizens.  Lord  Willoughby,  who  had 
retired  with  the  small  English  garrison  into  the  Bastile,  was  forced 
to  capitulate  on  the  condition  of  an  honourable  retreat  (April, 
143H).  Yet  the  struggle  was  still  feebly  protracted  on  both  sides. 
In  1444  a  truce  of  twenty-two  months  was  concluded,  chiefly 
through  the  influence  of  the  bishop  of  Winchester,  now  cardinal 
Beaufort;  for  the  duke  of  Gloucester  still  retained  the  idea  of 
subduing  France.    It  was  afterwards  prolonged  to  April,  1450. 

§  14.  We  now  turn  to  the  affairs  of  England.  The  death  of 
Bedford  was  an  irreparable  loss  to  the  English  nation.  During  his 
ascendency  some  show  of  agreement  had  been  preserved  between  the 
duke  of  Gloucester  and  cardinal  Beaufort,  but  after  his  death  they 
became  open  enemies.  The  truce  with  France  had  been  concluded 
through  the  influence  of  cardinal  Beaufort,  in  opposition  to  the  duke 
of  Gloucester;  and  each  party  was  now  ambitious  of  choosing  a 
queen  for  Henry,  as  it  was  probable  that  this  circumstance  would 
decide  the  victory  between  them.  Henr}'  was  now  in  the  twenty- 
third  year  of  his  age.  Of  harmless,  inoffensive,  simple  manners, 
but  of  slender  capacity,  he  was  fitted,  both  by  the  softness  of  his 
temper  and  the  weakness  of  his  understanding,  to  be  perpetually 
governed  by  those  who  surrounded  him ;  and  it  was  easy  to  foresee 

*  According  to  other  ftutboritiefl,  her  I  and  replaced  by  male  attire,  learing  her 
was  taken  from  her  as  she  slept,  i  no  alternative  in  the  matter. 

11 


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206  HENRY   VI.  Chap,  xl 

that  his  reign  would  prove  a  perpetual  minority.  The  duke  of 
Gloucester  proposed  to  marry  Henry  to  a  daughter  of  the  count  of 
Arrnagnac,  but  had  not  credit  enough  to  efifect  his  purpose.  The 
cardinal  and  his  friends  preferred  Margaret  of  Anjou,  daughter  of 
Ren^  count  of  Provence,  and  nominally  duke  of  Maine  and  Anjou, 
as  well  as  titular  king  of  Sicily,  Naples,  and  Jerusalem.  The 
princess  herself  was  the  most  accomplished  of  her  age,  both  in 
body  and  mind.  She  seemed  to  possess  those  qualities  which  would 
equally  enable  her  to  acquire  ascendency  over  Henry,  and  supply 
all  his  defects  and  weaknesses.  William  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Suffolk, 
who  had  previously  negociated  the  treaty  with  France,  now  made 
proposals  of  marriage  to  Margaret,  which  were  accepted  (1444) ;  and 
in  order  to  ingratiate  himself  with  her  and  her  family,  he  engaged, 
by  a  secret  article,  that  the  province  of  Maine,  which  was  at  that 
time  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  should  be  oeded  to  Charles  of 
Anjou,  her  uncle.  The  marriage  took  place  in  April,  1446; 
Suffolk  obtained  first  the  title  of  marquis,  then  that  of  duke, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  parliament  for  his  services.  The 
princess  fell  immediately  into  close  connections  with  the  dukes  of 
Somerset,  Suffolk,  and  Buckingham,*  who,  fortified  by  her  powerful 
patronage,  resolved  on  the  final  ruin  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester.  The 
king's  aversion  for  his  uncle  favoiu^  their  design,  in  addition  to  an 
intractable  temper  which  alienated  Gloucester's  friends.  In  1423  he 
had  married  the  heiress  of  the  count  of  Hainault,  whose  husband 
was  still  alive ;  grew  tired  of  her,  and  then  took  up  with  a  mistress, 
Eleanor  Cobham,  whom  he  afterwards  married.  She  was  accused 
of  witchcraft ;  and  it  was  alleged  that  there  was  found  in  her  pos- 
session a  waxen  figure  of  the  king,  which  she  and  her  associates, 
Roger  Bolingbroke,  a  priest,  and  one  Margery  Jouidemain  of  Eye, 
melted  with  unhallowed  ceremonies  before  a  slow  fire,  with  an 
intention  of  making  Henry's  force  and  vigour  waste  away  by  like 
insensible  degrees.  The  charge  led  to  further  investigations  of  her 
post  life.  She  was  charged  with  using  philters  to  secure  the  affec- 
tions of  the  duke  and  draw  him  into  a  discreditable  marriage 
with  herself.  She  was  condemned  to  walk  through  the  streets  of 
London,  on  three  different  days,  with  a  taper  in  her  hand,  and 
was  then  consigned  to  perjietual  imprisonment  (1441).  To  effect 
their  purpose  against  the  duke,  Suffolk  and  his  party  caused  a 
parliament  to  be  summoned  at  Bury  St.  Edmund's,  where  they 
expected  that  he  would  lie  entirely  at  their  mercy  (1447).  As 
soon  as  Gloucester  appeared  he  was  arrested,  and  a  few  days  after 
he  was  found  dead  in  his  lodgings ;  and  though  his  body,  which 
was  exposed  to  public  view,  bore  no  marks  of  outward  violence, 
many  believed  that  he  had  fallen  a  victim  to  the  vengeance  of 

•  8m  the  0«neaIogfcaI  Tablcn. 


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A.D.  1444-1458.     ENGLISH   EXPELLED  FROM  FRaNCK      207 

his  enemies.  The  cardinal  himself  survived  his  nephew  onlj  a 
few  weeks.* 

Suffolk,  raised  to  a  dukedom,  had  become  prime  minister,  and 
the  affairs  of  the  nation  were  directed  by  him  and  Margaret. 
While  the  court  was  divided  into  parties,  French  all'airs  were 
neglected.  The  province  of  Maine  was  ceded  to  Charles  of  Anjou, 
according  to  the  marriage  treaty.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
truce,  Charles  VII.  had  employed  himself  with  great  judgment  in 
repairing  the  numberless  ills  of  France ;  and  in  1449  he  availed 
himself  of  a  favourable  opportunity  to  break  the  truce.  He  overran 
Normandy  and  Guienne  without  resistance ;  and  by  the  summer 
of  1451  the  English  were  completely  dispossessed  of  all  they  had 
once  held  in  France,  with  the  exception  of  Calais.  Though  no 
peace  or  truce  was  concluded,  the  war  was  at  an  end,  and  the  civil 
dissensions  which  ensued  in  England  permitted  but  one  feeble 
effort  more,  in  1453,  for  the  recovery  of  Guienne,  in  which  the 
veteran  Talbot  lost  his  life. 

S  15.  Meanwhile  the  incapacity  of  Henry,  which  appeared  every 
day  in  a  fuller  light,  had  encouraged  the  appearance  of  a  claimant  of 
the  crown  All  the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Mortimer  was  extinct ; 
but  Anne,  the  sister  of  the  last  earl  of  March,  having  espoused  the 
<3arl  of  Cambridge,  who  was  beheaded  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V.,  had 
transmitted  her  latent  but  not  forgotten  claim  to  her  son,  Richard, 
duke  of  York.  This  prince,  thus  descended,  by  his  mother, 
from  Philippa,  only  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Clarence,  third  son  of 
Edward  III.,  stood  plainly  in  the  order  of  succession  before  the 
king,  who  derived  his  descent  from  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  fourth 
son  of  that  monarch  ;t  and  that  claim  could  not,  in  many  respects, 
have  fallen  into  more  dangerous  hands  than  those  of  the  duke  of 
York.  To  valour  and  abilities,  Richard  added  a  prudent  conduct 
and  mild  disposition.  He  possessed  an  immense  fortune  from  the 
union  of  so  many  successions,  those  of  York  on  the  one  hand  with 
those  of  Mortimer  on  the  other ;  and  his  marriage  with  the  daughter 
of  Ralph  Nevil,  earl  of  Westmoreland,  had  widely  extended  his 
interest  among  the  nobility.  He  was  closely  allied  to  the  earls  of 
Salisbury  and  Warwick,  the  son  and  grandson  of  Westmoreland, 
the  greatest  noblemen  in  the  kingdom.  The  personal  qualities 
of  these  two  earls,  especially  of  Warwick,  enhanced  the  splendour 
of  their  nobility,  and  increased  their  influence.  Warwick,  com- 
monly known  afterwards  as  the  King-maker,  was  distinguished 


*  The  populAr  belief,  tdopted  by 
Shakespeare,  of  the  cardinal's  remorse  for 
hlf  share  in  Oloooester's  death,  is  now  con- 
8id#red  to  be  unfounded.  Alter  Henry's 
marrliifre  and  Rnffolk's  r1w».  thp  cardlnfil 


took  no  part  in  state  affoirs.    The  dnke 
by  no  means  deserved  the  praises  too 
commonly  bestowed  upon  him. 
t  See  the  Genealogical  Tables. 


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208  HBNEY  VI.  CteAP.  XL 

far  his  gallantry  in  the  field,  the  hospitality  of  his  table,  ihe 
magnificence  and  the  generosity  of  his  expense,  and  for  the 
spirit  and  audacity  of  his  actions.  No  less  than  30,000  persons 
are  said  to  have  daily  fed  at  his  board  in  the  dififerent  manors  and 
castles  which  he  possessed  in  England.  Soldiers  were  allured  by 
his  m  unificenoe,  as  well  as  by  his  bravery,  and  the  people  in  general 
bore  him  a  warm  afiection. 

§  16.  Though  the  English  were  never  willing  to  grant  the  sup- 
plies necessary  for  keeping  possession  of  the  conquered  provinces  in 
France,  they  repined  extremely  at  the  loss  of  these  boasted  acqui- 
sitions. The  voluntary  cession  of  Maine  to  the  queen's  irncle 
made  them  suspect  treachery  in  the  loss  of  Normandy  and  Guienne. 
They  considered  Margaret  as  a  Frenchwoman  and  a  latent  enemy 
of  the  kingdom.  To  augment  the  unpopularity  of  the  government, 
the  revenues  of  the  crown,  which  had  long  been  disproportioned 
to  its  power  and  dignity,  had  been  extremely  impaired  during 
the  minority  of  Henry.  The  royal  demesnes  were  dissipated ;  and 
at  the  same  time  the  king  was  loaded  with  a  debt  of  372,000 
pounds,  a  sum  so  great  that  parliament  could  never  think  of  dis- 
charging it.  This  unhappy  situation  forced  the  ministers  upon 
many  arbitrary  measures.  The  household  itself  could  not  be 
supported  without  stretching  to  the  utmost  the  right  of  purvey- 
ance, and  rendering  it  a  kind  of  universal  robbery  upon  the  people. 
Suff  Ik,  once  become  odious,  bore  the  blame  of  the  whole;  and 
every  grievance,  in  every  part  of  the  administration,  was  universally 
imputed  to  his  tyranny  and  injustice.  The  commons  sent  up  to 
the  peers  an  accusation  of  high  treason  against  him  (1450).  The 
charge  was  incredible  and  preposterous.  But  Henry,  seeing  no 
means  of  saving  him  from  present  ruin,  banished  him  the  kingdom 
for  five  years.  On  his  passage  to  Flanders,  a  captain  of  a  vessel 
was  employed  by  his  enemies  to  intercept  him;  he  was  seized 
near  Dover,  his  head  was  struck  oflf  on  the  side  of  a  long-boat,  and 
his  body  thrown  into  the  sea  (May  2nd).  No  inquiry  was  made 
after  the  actors  and  accomplices  of  this  atrocious  deed. 

§  17.  The  humours  of  the  people,  set  afloat  by  the  parliamentary 
impeachment  and  by  the  fall  of  so  great  a  favourite  as  Suflfolk, 
broke  out  into  various  commotions.  The  most  dangerous  was  that 
excited  by  one  John  Cade,  a  native  of  Ireland,  who  had  served  in 
the  wars  with  France,  and  took  the  name  of  John  Mortimer. 
On  the  first  mention  of  that  popular  name,  the  people  of  Kent,  to 
the  number  of  20,000,  flocked  to  Cade's  standard.  Sir  Humphrey 
Stafford,  who  had  opiwsed  him  mth  a  small  force,  was  defeated  and 
slain  in  an  action  near  Sevenoaks ;  and  Cade,  advancing  with  his 
followers   towards    T.ondon,   encamped   on   Blackheath       Though 


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A.D.  1460-1465.  WARS  OF  THE  HOSES.  209 

elated  by  his  Tictoxy,  he  still  maintained  the  appearance  of  modera- 
tion, and  sent  to  the  court  a  long  list  of  grievances.  When  the 
city  opened  its  gates  to  Cade,  he  put  to  death  Lord  Say  and  his 
son-in-law,  William  Crowmer,  sheriff  of  Kent.  He  maintained,  for 
some  time,  order  and  discipline  among  his  followers.  But  as  they 
commenced  to  pillage  the  houses  of  unpopular  citizens,  the  authori- 
ties, assisted  by  lord  Scales,  governor  of  the  Tower,  dnive  them 
out  with  great  slaughter.  Upon  receiving  offers  of  a  general  pardon, 
many  dispersed.  On  Cade's  attempting  fresh  disturbances,  he  was 
pursued  out  of  Kent  into  Sussex,  where  he  was  taken  by  Alex- 
ander Iden.  Dying  shortly  after  of  his  woimds,  his  head  was  fixed 
on  London  Bridge  (1450). 

Suffolk  was  succeeded  as  minister  by  Edmund  Beaufort,  duke  of 
Somerset,  who  had  been  governor  of  Normandy,  but  his  loss  of  that 
province  made  him  unpopular.  The  duke  of  York,  who  had  re- 
cently returned  from  the  government  of  Ireland,  where  his  popularity 
long  influenced  the  fortunes  of  his  house,  raised  an  army  of  10,000 
men,  and  marched  towards  London  (1452),  demanding  a  refor- 
mation of  the  government,  and  the  removal  of  Somerset.  Having 
suffered  himself,  however,  to  be  entrapped  into  a  conference,  he  was 
seized,  but  dismissed ;  and  he  retired  to  his  seat  of  Wigmore,  on  the 
borders  of  Wales. 

§  18.  Th3  queen's  delivery  of  a  son  (October  13,  1453),  who 
received  the  name  of  Edward,  removed  all  hopes  of  the  peaceable 
succession  of  the  duke  of  York.  Henry,  always  unfit  to  exercise 
the  government,  fell  at  this  time  into  a  distemper  which  rendered 
him  incapable  of  maintaining  even  the  appearance  of  royalty.  The 
queen  and  the  coimcil,  destitute  of  this  support,  found  themselves 
unable  to  resist  the  Yorkists,  and  were  obliged  to  yield  to  the 
torrent.  They  sent  Somerset  to  the  Tower,  and  appointed  the 
duke  of  York  lieutenant  of  the  kingdom,  with  powers  to  open  and 
hold  a  session  of  parliament.  That  assembly,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  state  of  the  kingdom,  created  him  protector  during 
the  king's  pleasure  (1454).  As  the  king  recovered  his  health  in  the 
following  year,  the  protectorship  of  the  duke  was  annulled ;  Somer- 
set was  released  from  the  Tower,  and  the  administration  was 
committed  to  his  hands.  The  duke  of  York  levied  an  army,  but  still 
without  advancing  any  pretensions  to  the  crown.  He  complained 
only  of  the  king's  ministers,  and  demanded  a  reformation  of  the 
government.  A  battle  was  fought  at  St.  Albans  (May  23,  1455), 
in  which  the  Yorkists  were  victorious ;  among  the  slain  were  the 
duke  of  Somerset  and  many  other  persons  of  distinction.  The 
king  himself  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  duke  of  York,  who  treated 
him  with  great  respect  and  tenderness:   he  was  only  obliged 


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210  HEKRY  TI.  Crap.  xi. 

(which  he  regarded  as  do  hardship)  to  commit  the  whole  authority 
of  the  crown  into  the  hands  of  his  rival.  This  was  the  first 
hlood  spilt  in  that  fatal  quarrel,'  which  was  not  finished  in  less 
than  a  course  of  30  years,  and.  was  signalized  by  12  pitched 
battles.*  It  opened  a  scene  of  extraordinary  fierceness  and  cruelty, 
cost  the  lives  of  many  princes  of  the  blood,  and  almost  entirely 
annihilated  the  ancient  nobility  of  England.  The  supporters  of 
the  house  of  Lancaster  chose  a  red  rose  as  a  party  distinction; 
the  Yorkists  a  white  one;  and  the  civil  wars  were  thus  known 
as  the  Wars  of  the  Boaes,  In  1456  the  king  was  restored  to  the 
sovereign  authority;  and  for  two  or  three  years  both  parties 
seemed  reconciled  in  outward  appearance.  But  when  one  of  the 
king's  retinue  insulted  one  of  the  earl  of  Warwick's,  the  most 
important  partisan  of  the  duke  of  York,  their  companions  on  both 
sides  took  part  in  the  quarrel,  and  a  fierce  combat  ensued.  The 
earl,  thinking  his  life  was  in  danger,  fled  to  his  government  of 
Calais ;  and  both  parties,  in  every  county  of  England,  openly  made 
preparations  for  deciding  the  contest  by  arms  (1459). 

§  19.  A  civil  war  was  now  fairly  kindled.  The  duke  of  York 
assembled  his  forces  at  Ludlow,  and  the  earl  of  Salisbury,  marching 
to  join  him,  defeated  the  Lancastrians  at  Uloreheath  (September  23). 
A  few  days  after  (October  13),  Sir  Andrew  Trollope  went  over 
to  the  Lancastrians,  and  the  duke's  army  dispersed.  The  duke, 
who  had  sought  refuge  in  Ireland,  was  attainted  in  a  parliament 
at  Coventry.  In  1460  the  Yorkists  landed  in  England,  and,  march% 
ing  to  Northampton,  defeated  and  captured  the  king  (July  10). 
Though  the  duke  of  York  displayed  great  moderation  after  this 
success,  he  publicly  intimated  his  expectation  that  he  should 
be  raised  to  the  throne.  The  rival  claims  were  submitted  to 
the  decision  of  the  House  of  Peers,  whose  sentence  was  cal> 
culated,  as  far  as  possible,  to  please  both  parties.  They  declared 
the  title  of  the  duke  of  York  to  be  certain  and  indefeasible; 
but  in  consideration  that  Henry  had  enjoyed  the  crown,  with- 
out dispute  or  controversy,  during  the  course  of  38  years,  they 
determined  that  he  should  continue  to  possess  the  title  and 
dignity  during  the  remainder  of  his  life;  that  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  government,  meanwhile,  should  remain  with  the 
duke  of  York;  and  that  he  should  be  acknowledged  the  true 
and  lawful  heir  of  the  monarchy.  The  duke  acquiesced  in  this 
decision,  and  Henry  himself,  being  a  prisoner,  could  not  oppose  it. 
But  queen  Margaret,  who,  after  the  defeat  at  Northampton,  had 
fled  to  Durham  and  thence  to  Scotland,  had,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  northern  barons,  collected  an  army  20,000  strong.  The  duke 
•  See  the  list.  p.  213,  at  end  of  this  obi^iter. 


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AJ9.  146(H1461.      EDWARD  PBOCLAIMED  KINa  211 

of  York,  informed  of  her  appearance  in  the  north,  hastened  thither 
with  a  hody  of  5000  men,  to  suppress,  as  he  imagined,  the  begin- 
nings of  an  insurrection;  but,  on  his  arrival  at  Wakefield,  he 
found  himself  greatly  outnumbered  by  the  enemy.  He  neverthe- 
less hazarded  a  battle,  in  which  the  queen  gained  a  complete  victory 
(December  30).  The  duke  was  killed  in  the  action ;  and  when 
his  body  was  found  among  the  slain,  the  head  was  cut  off  by 
Margaret's  orders,  and  fixed  on  one  of  the  gates  of  York,  with  a 
paper  crown  upon  it  in  derision  of  his  title.  His  second  son,  the 
earl  of  Rutland,  a  youth  of  17,  was  brought  to  lord  Clifford ;  and 
in  revenge  for  his  Other's  death,  who  had  perished  in  the  battle  of 
St.  Albans,  Clifford  is  said  to  have  stabbed  him  in  cool  blood.  The 
earl  of  Salisbury  was  wounded,  taken  prisoner,  and  beheaded  the 
next  day  at  Pontefract.  The  duke  of  York  perished  in  the  50th 
year  of  his  age,  and  left  three  sons,  Edward  (afterwards  Edward  IV.), 
George  (afterwards  duke  of  Clarence),  Richard  (afterwards  duke  of 
Gloucester  and  king  Richard  III.),  and  three  daughters,  Anne, 
Elizabeth,  and  Margaret 

§  20.  The  queen,  after  this  important  victory,  divided  her  anny. 
She  sent  the  smaller  division  to  the  aid  of  Jasper  Tudor,  earl  of 
Pembroke,  half-brother  to  the  king,  who  was  raising  forces  in 
Wales  against  Edward,  the  new  duke  of  York.  She  herself  marched 
with  the  larger  division  towards  London,  where  the  earl  of  Warwick 
had  been  left  with  the  command  of  the  Yorkists.  Edward  met  them 
at  Mortimer's  Cross,  in  Herefordshire,  when  Pembroke  was  defeated, 
with  the  loss  of  nearly  4000  men  (February  2, 1461) :  his  army  was 
dispersed ;  he  himself  escaped  by  flight ;  but  his  father,  sir  Owen 
Tudor,  was  taken  prisoner  and  immediately  beheaded.  Margaret 
compensated  this  defeat  by  a  victory  which  she  obtained  over  the 
earl  of  Warwick  at  St.  Albans  (February  17),  when  the  person 
of  the  king  fell  again  into  the  hands  of  his  own  party ;  but  she 
gained  little  advantage  from  this  victory.  Edward  advanced  upon 
her  from  the  other  side,  and,  collecting  the  remains  of  Warwick's 
army,  was  soon  in  a  condition  to  give  her  battle  with  superior 
forces.  Sensible  of  her  danger  while  she  lay  between  the  enemy 
and  the  city  of  London,  which  favoured  the  Yorkists,  she  found 
it  necessary  to  retreat  with  her  army  to  the  north.  Edward 
entered  the  capital  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  citizens 
(February  28),  and  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  title  of  Edward  IV. 
(March  3, 1461). 


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212 


HENRT   IV. 


Chap,  xl 


List  of  the  Battles  in  the  Wars  ok  the  Roses. 

The  more  deeitive  battlet  are  dittinffuitked  6y  iwuM  eapUali. 


Datb. 


Placx. 


1455. 
May  33 

1459 
Sept.   23 

Oct.  13 

1460. 
July  10 

Dec.  30 

1461. 
Feb.  2 


Feb.  17 


Feb.  28 
Mar.  29 

1464. 
Apr.  25 


May  15 

1466. 
July 


1470. 
Oct.  3,9 

1471. 
Apr.  14 

May  4 


1485. 
Aug.    22 


St.  Albans  (first) 


Victors. 


ComtANDBR. 


York     .         .    Richard,  duke  of  York. 
Henry  VI  taken  prisoner. 

Ulorekeath^  in  Stiffordshire   |  York  .  |  Earl  of  Salisbury. 

(Fought  to  Join  the  duke  of  York  at  Ludlow.) 

Ludlov) [Lancaiter      .  J  Henry  VI. 

No  real  battle ;  York,  deserted,  disbands  his  army. 

Northampton 1/*"**     •    •    •  I  Warwick  and  Edward. 

Henry  VI.  again  taken  prisoner. 

Wakbfibld I  Lancaster      .  \  Queen  Margaret. 

Death  of  Richard,  duke  of  York,  and  his  son,  the  earl  of  Rutland. 

MoRTiNBR'8CR088,in  Here-  I  Forfc     .    .    .  I  Edward,  duke  of  York, 
fordshlre  I  | 

Sir  Owen  Tudor  taken  and  beheaded, 

St.  Albaru  (second),  or  Bar- 1  Lancaster      .  i  Queen  Margaret 
nard^s  Heath.  \  \ 

Total  but  temporary  defeat  of  Warwick. 

Kdward  enters  London,  and  becomes  king  as  Edward  IV.  (March  3.) 

Towtox  (near  York)      .    .  |  York     .    .    .  |  Edward  IV 

Somerset  and  Margaret  (with  Henry  VI.)  defeated. 

.  I  Lord  Muntacute,  brother  of 
I     Warwick. 
Queen  Margaret  defeated. 

Hbxham I  York     ■    .    .  |  Lord  Montacute. 

Ileiiry  VI.  and  Margaret  defeated,  aiMl  become  HigitiTes. 

Henry  VI.  token  prisoner  in  Lancashire,  brought  to  London,  and  impri- 
soned in  the  tower. 

Rebellion  of  Warwick  and  Clarence. 

Flight  of  Edward  IV.,  and  restoration  of  Henry  VI. 

Return  of  Edward  IV.,  who  lands  at  Ravenspur,  March  14. 

Babnet I  York         .     .  |  Edward  IV. 

Warwick  defeated.    Death  qf  Warwick. 

Tewkesbury  .     .  |  York     .         .  |  Edward  IV. 

Queen  Margaret  token    prisoner,  and  her  son,  Edward,  prince  of  Wales, 
murderwl. 


HedgeUy  Moor,  in    North-  |  York 
umberland. 


BoswoKTH  FiBLD,  in  Leices- 
tershire. 


Lancaiier  . 


Henry,    earl   of    Ricnmood. 
crownfd  on   the   field   as 
Henry  VII. 
Death  of  Richabd  III.,  and  final  defeat  of  tiie  W«iite  Rose. 


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R«Terae  of  Oreat  Seal  of  Edward  IV.  Rerene  of  Great  Seal  of  Richard  III. 

Edwardus  :  Dei     Gracia.    Rex  :  angUe  Ricardus  .  del  .  ktacU  .  Rex  .  angUe 

et  :  Francie  :  et  :  Dominas  :  Hlbernie.  et .  fyancle  .  et .  Dominus  .  Hlbemie. 


CHAPIT.R   XII. 
THE  HOUSE  OF  YORK. 

EDWARD   IV.,   EDWARD   V.,   RICHARD   III.     A.D.    1461-1485. 

§  1.  Edward  IV  assumes  the  crown.  Wars  of  the  Roses.  Battle  of 
Towton.  §  2.  Battle  of  Hexham.  Flight  of  Margaret  and  capture 
of  Henry  VI.  §  3.  Edward's  marriage.  Discontent  of  Warwick.  §  4. 
Warwick  flies  to  France  and  leagues  himself  with  Margaret.  §  5. 
Warwick  invades  England,  expels  Edward,  and  restores  Henry.  §  6. 
Return  of  Edward.  Battles  of  Barnet  and  Tewkesbury.  I>eath  of 
Henry  VI.  §  7.  Peace  of  Pecquigny  Execution  of  Clarence.  Death 
and  character  of  the  king.  §  8.  Accession  of  Edward  V.  Violent 
proceedings  of  Richard,  duke  of  Gloucester.  §  9.  Execution  of  Rivers, 
Hastings,  and  others.  §  10.  Richard  III.  Murder  of  Edward  V, 
and  the  duke  of  York.  §  11.  Conspiracy  in  favour  of  the  earl  of 
Richmond.  His  invasion,  and  death  of  Buckingham.  §  12.  Rich- 
mond's  aecond  invasion.  Battle  of  Bosworth  and  death  of  Richard. 
§  13.  State  of  the  nation  under  the  Plantagenets.  Progress  of  the 
coostitution.  §  14.  Civil  rights  of  individuals.  Villeuage.  §  1.5. 
General  progress  of  the  nation. 

§1.  Edward  IV.,  b.  1442;  r.  1461-1483.— Supported  by  the 
citizens  of  London,  Edward  summoned  a  council  uf  the  lords  and 
protested  his  right  to  the  crown.  Henry  was  formally  deposed 
for  breach  of  the  late  contract  between  himself  and  the  duke  of 
York,  an^  Edward's  claim  was  at  once  admitted.  The  next  day 
he  made  a  solemn  progress  through  the  city,  and  was  crowned  at 
Westminster.  He  had  no  time  for  repose.  Queen  Margaret  had 
collected  a  force  of  60,000  men  in  Yorkshire,  whilst  the  earl  ol 


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214  EDWABD  IV.  Obap.  xn 

Warwick,  at  the  head  of  49,000,  hastened  to  check  her  advance, 
and  Edward  speedily  followed.  The  hostile  armies  met  at  Towton, 
near  Tadcaster  (March  29,  1461),  when  a  fierce  and  hloody  battle 
ensued,  which  ended  in  a  complete  victory  on  the  side  of  the 
Yorkists.  Edward  issued  orders  to  give  no  quarter;  and  above 
36,000  men  are  computed  to  have  fallen  in  the  battle  and  pur- 
suit, of  whom  28,000  were  Lancastrians.  For  ten  miles,  to  the 
very  gates  of  York,  the  ground  was  strewed  with  the  slain.  The 
snow,  dyed  with  their  blood,  ran  down,  as  it  melted,  in  crimson 
streams.  Henry  and  Margaret  had  remained  at  York  during  the 
action ;  but,  learning  the  defeat  of  their  army,  and  sensible  that 
no  place  in  England  could  now  afiford  them  shelter,  they  fled 
with  great  precipitation  into  Scotland.  Edward  returned  to 
London-,  where  a  parliament  was  summoned  to  settle  the  govern- 
ment. It  recognized  the  title  of  Edward,  by  hereditary  descent 
through  the  family  of  Mortimer;  and  declared  that  he  was  king 
by  right,  from  the  death  of  his  father,  who  also  was  "  in  his  life 
very  king  in  right."  Henry  VI.,  queen  Margaret,  and  their  infant 
son,  prince  Edward,  besides  many  other  persons  of  distinction, 
were  attainted  and  their  possessions  forfeited.  The  royal  family 
were  reduced  to  great  distress.  On  one  occasion  it  is  said  that 
Margaret,  flying  with  her  son  into  a  forest,  where  she  endeavoured 
to  conceal  herself,  was  beset  during  the  night  by  robbers,  who, 
either  ignorant  or  regardless  of  her  quality,  despoiled  her  of  her  rings 
and  jewels,  and  treated  her  with  the  utmost  indignity.  The  par^ 
tition  of  so  rich  a  booty  raised  a  quarrel  among  them  ;  and  while 
their  attention  was  thus  engaged,  she  took  the  opportunity  of 
making  her  escape  with  her  son  into  the  thickest  of  the  forest, 
where  she  wandered  for  some  time,  overspent  with  hunger  and 
fatigue.  In  this  wretched  condition,  she  saw  a  robber  approach ; 
and  finding  she  had  no  means  of  escape,  she  suddenly  embraced  the 
resolution  of  trusting  herself  to  his  faith  and  generosity.  She 
advanced  towards  him,  and  presenting  to  him  the  young  prance, 
"Here,  my  friend,**  said  she,  "save  the  son  of  your  king.**  The 
brigand  took  the  child  "with  very  good  will;"  and  conducted 
the  queen  in  safety  to  Sluys  and  thence  to  Bruges,  where  she  and 
her  son  were  received  with  honour 

§  2.  Twice  did  Margaret  sail  to  France  to  solicit  assistance. 
Louis  XI.,  who  had  succeeded  liis  father,  Charles  VII.,  was  pre- 
vailed upon  to  grant  her  a  small  lx)dy  of  troops,  on  promise  of  the 
surrender  of  Calais  if  her  family  should  by  his  means  recover  the 
throne  of  England.  She  invaded  England  in  1464;  but  was  de- 
feated in  two  battles  by  Lord  Montacute,  brother  of  the  earl  of 
Warwick,  first  at  Hedgley  Moor  (April  25),  and  afterwards  at 


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AJk  1461-147a  HIS  MARRIAGE.  215 

Hexham  (May  16).  The  duke  of  Somerset  and  the  lords  Boos  and 
Hungerford  were  taken  in  the  pursuit,  and  immediately  beheaded. 
Conveyed  into  Lancashire,  Henry  remained  concealed  more  than 
a  twelyemonth ;  but  he  was  at  last  delivered  up  to  Edward  and 
thrown  into  the  Tower  (1466). 

§  3.  Though  inured  to  the  ferocity  of  civil  wars,  Edward  was,  at 
the  same  time,  extremely  devoted  to  the  softer  passions.  Jaqueline 
of  Luxemburg,  duchess  of  Bedford,  had,  after  her  husband*s  death, 
married  sir  Richard  Woodville,  a  private  gentleman,  to  whom  she 
bore  several  children;  and  among  the  rest  Elizabeth,  who  was 
remarkable  for  the  grace  and  beauty  of  her  person,  as  well  as  for 
her  accomplishments.  This  lady  had  married  Sir  John  Grey,  by 
whom  she  had  children ;  and  her  husband  being  slain  in  the  second 
battle  of  St.  Albans,  fighting  on  the  side  of  Lancaster,  and  his 
estate  confiscated,  his  widow  retired  to  live  with  her  father  at 
his  seat  of  Qrafton,  in  Northamptonshire.  The  king,  then  two 
and  twenty,  who  had  hitherto'  lived  the  life  of  a  libertine,  came 
accidei^tally  to  the  house  after  a  hunting  party,  and  was  so  charmed 
with  the  beauty  of  the  young  widow  that  he  ofifered  to  share  his 
throne  with  her.  The  marriage  was  privately  celebrated  at  Grafton^ 
but  was  not  avowed  by  Edward  till  the  autumn  of  1464.  It  gave 
great  offence  to  the  earl  of  Warwick,  who  had  intended  to  strengthen 
the  throne  of  Edward  by  a  more  splendid  connection  with  France. 
The  influence  of  the  queen  soon  became  apparent,  as  she  sought 
to  draw  every  grace  and  favour  to  her  own  friends  and  kindred, 
and  to  exclude  those  of  Warwick,  whom  she  regarded  with  dislike. 
The  earl  perceived  with  disgust  that  his  credit  was  lost ;  and  the 
nobility  of  England,  envying  the  sudden  growth  of  the  Woodvilles, 
were  inclined  to  take  part  with  Warwick,  to  whose  grandeur  they 
were  already  accustomed.  But  the  most  considerable  associate 
that  Warwick  acquired  was  (Jeorge,  duke  of  Clarence,  the  king's 
second  brother,  by  offering  him  in  marriage  Isabel,  his  eldest 
daughter,  co-heir  of  his  immense  fortunes  (1469).  Thus  an  ex- 
tensive and  dangerous  combination  was  insensibly  formed  against 
Edward  and  his  ministry. 

i  4.  There  is  no  part  of  English  history  since  the  Conquest  so 
obscure  or  disconnected,  as  that  of  the  wars  between  the  two  Roses : 
and  as  they  exhibit  a  mere  struggle  for  power,  we  narrate  them 
as  briefly  as  possible.  In  1470  Warwick  and  Clarence,  being 
denounced  as  traitors,  took  refuge  in  France,  and  were  well  received 
by  Louis  XI.  Margaret  was  sent  for  from  Anjou  ;  and  in  spite  of 
the  injuries  which  Warwick  had  experienced  at  her  hands,  and 
the  inveterate  hatred  which  he  bore  to  the  house  of  Lancaster,  an 
agreement  was,  from  common   interest,  soon  concluded  between 


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216  EDWARD  IV.  Ohap.  xn. 

them.  It  was  stipulated  that  Warwick  should  espouse  the  cause 
of  Henry,  and  endeavour  to  re-estahlish  him  on  the  throne ;  that 
the  administration  of  the  government  during  the  minority  of  young 
Edward,  Henry's  son,  should  be  intrusted  conjointly  to  the  earl  of 
Warwick  and  the  duke  of  Clarence;  that  prince  Edward  should 
marry  the  lady  Anne,  second  daughter  of  Warwick ;  and  that  the 
crown,  in  case  of  the  failure  of  male  issue  ef  that  prince,  should 
descend  to  the  duke  of  Clarence,  to  the  entire  exclusion  of  king 
Edward  and  his  posterity. 

§  5.  Louis  now  prepared  a  fleet  to  escort  the  earl  of  Warwick, 
and  granted  him  a  supply  of  men  and  money.  That  nobleman 
landed  at  Dartmouth  (September  13,  1470),  with  the  duke  of 
Clarence,  the  earls  of  Oxford  and  Pembroke,  and  a  small  body  of 
troops,  while  the  king  was  in  the  north,  engaged  in  suppressing  an 
insurrection  which  had  been  raised  by  lord  Fite-Hugh,  brother-in- 
law  to  Warwick.  The  scene  which  ensued  resembles  more  a  page 
of  fiction  than  an  event  in  history.  The  popularity  of  Warwick 
drew  such  multitudes  to  his  standard,  that  in  a  very  few  days  his 
army  amounted  to  60,000  men,  and  was  continually  increasing. 
Edward  hastened  southwards  to  encounter  him ;  but  being  deserted 
by  the  marquis  of  Montacute,  Warwick's  brother,  he  hurried  with 
a  small  retinue  to  Lynn,  in  Norfolk,  where  he  luckily  found  some 
ships  ready,  on  board  of  which  he  instantly  embarked  (October  3). 
Thus  the  earl  of  Warwick,  in  no  longer  space  than  twenty  days 
after  his  first  landing,  was  left  entire  master  of  the  kingdom.  He 
hastened  to  London,  and,  taking  Henry  from  the  Tower,  proclaimed 
him  king  with  great  solemnity.  A  parliament  was  summoned, 
in  the  name  of  that  prince,  to  meet  at  Westminster;  and  the 
treaty  with  Margaret  was  fully  ratified  (1471).  Henry  was  recog- 
nized as  lawful  king;  but  his  incapacity  for  government  being 
avowed,  the  regency  was  intrusted  to  Warwick  and  Clarence  till 
the  majority  of  prince  Edward ;  and  in  default  of  that  prince's 
issue,  Clarence  was  declared  successor  to  the  crown. 

§  H.  The  duke  of  Burgundy  had  treated  Edward  with  great  cold- 
ness on  his  first  landing  in  Holland,  but  subsequently  hired  for 
him  a  small  squadron  of  ships  and  about  2000  men.  With  these 
the  king  landed  at  Ravenspur,  in  Yorkshire  (March  14,  1471). 
Partisans  every  moment  flocked  to  his  standard :  he  was  admitted 
into  the  city  of  York,  and  was  soon  in  such  a  situation  as  gave 
him  hopes  of  succeeding  in  all  his  claims  and  pretensions.  War- 
wick assembled  an  army  at  Leicester,  with  the  intention  of  meet- 
ing and  giving  him  battle ;  but  Edward,  by  taking  another  road, 
passed  him  immolested,  and  presented  himself  before  the  gates  of 
London,  where  his  admittance  by  the  citizens  made  him  master 


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A.D.  U70-1471.        DEATH  OF  HENRY   VI.  217 

not  only  of  that  rich  and  powerful  city,  but  also  of  the  penoii  of 
Henry,  who,  destined  to  be  the  perpetual  sport  of  fortune,  thus 
fell  again  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  Edward  soon  found 
himself  in  a  condition  to  face  the  earl  of  Warwick,  who  had  taken 
post  at  Bamet,  near  London  (April  14).  Meanwhile  his  son- 
in-law,  the  duke  of  Clarence,  in  fulfilment  of  some  secret  engage- 
ments which  he  had  formerly  taken  with  his  brother,  to  support 
the  interests  of  lus  own  family,  deserted  to  the  king  in  the  night- 
time, and  carried  over  a  body  of  12,000  men  along  with  him. 
Warwick,  however,  was  too  far  advanced  to  retreat;  and  as  he 
rejected  with  disdain  all  terms  of  peace  offered  by  Edward  and 
Clasence,  he  was  obliged  to  hazard  a  general  engagement,  in  which 
his  army  was  completely  routed.  Ck>ntrary  to  his  more  usual 
practice,  Warwick  engaged  that  day  on  foot,  resolving  to  show  his 
army  that  he  meant  to  share  the  same  fortune  with  them.  He  was 
slain  in  the  thickest  of  the  engagement :  his  brother  experienced 
the  same  fate :  and,  as  Edward  had  issued  orders  not  to  give  quarter, 
a  great  and  undistinguished  slaughter  was  made  in  the  pursuit. 
The  same  day  on  which  this  decisive  battle  was  fought,  queen 
Margaret  and  her  son,  now  about  18  years  of  age,  and  a  young 
prince  of  great  hopes,  landed  at  Weymouth,  supported  by  a  small 
body  of  French  forces.  She  advanced  through  the  counties  of 
Dorset,  Somerset,  and  Gloucester,  increasing  her  army  on  each 
day's  march;  but  was  at  last  overtaken  by  the  rapid  and  expe- 
ditious Edward  at  Tewkesbury,  on  the  banks  of  the  Severn.  The 
Lancastrians  were  totally  defeated  (May  4).  Margaret  and  her 
son  were  taken  prisoners  and  brought  to  the  king,  who  asked  the 
prince,  after  an  insulting  manner,  how  he  dared  to  invade  his 
dominions  ?  The  young  prince,  more  mindful  of  his  high  birth  than 
of  his  present  fortune,  replied  that  he  came  thither  to  claim  his 
just  inheritance.  Edward,  insensible  to  pity,  struck  him  on  the 
face  with  his  gauntlet;  and  the  dukes  of  Clarence  and  Gloucester, 
lord  Hastings,  and  sir  Thomas  Grey,  taking  the  blow  as  a  signal 
for  further  violence,  hurried  the  prince  into  the  next  apartment, 
and  despatched  him  with  their  daggers.  Margaret  was  thrown 
into  the  Tower:  Henry  expired  there  soon  after  the  battle  of 
Tewkesbury;  but  whether  he  died  a  natural  or  violent  death  is 
uncertain.*  It  is  pretended,  and  was  generally  believed,  that  the 
duke  of  Gloucester  killed  the  king  with  his  own  hands ;  but  the 
universal  odium  which  that  prince  has  incurred  inclined  the  nation 
to  aggravate  his  crimes  without  any  sufficient  authority.  Henry 
was  buried  at  Chertsey  Abbey;  but  his  body  was  removed  by 

*  Tbe  date  also  is  doubtftd,  but  it  was  probably  Hay  Slat  or  22ud. 


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218  EDWARD  IV.  Chap,  xil 

Richard  HL,  and  lidd  beside  his  rival,  Edward  IV.,  in  the  new 
royal  vault  of  St  QeoTge*B  chapel,  Windsor. 

§  7.  The  Lancastrians  were  reduced  to  the  most  abject  poverty. 
One  of  them,  Hugh  Holland,  duke  of  Exeter,  though  he  had  married 
a  sister  of  Edward  IV.,  was  seen  in  the  Low  Countries,  bare-legged 
and  bare-footed,  begging  from  door  to  door.  Every  legitimate 
prince  of  the  line  was  dead:  and  peace  being  restored  to  the 
nation,  a  parliament  was  summoned,  which  ratified,  as  usual,  all 
the  acts  of  the  victor,  and  recognized  his  legal  authority.  Relying 
on  the  assistance  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  Edward  now  invaded 
France  in  1475  with  a  considerable  army.  The  expedition  was 
popular.  The  supplies  voted  by  Parliament  were  supplemented  by 
loans  upon  the  wealthy,  known  then  and  afterwards  by  the  name 
of  Benevolences.  Disappointed  in  his  expectations  from  Burgundy, 
Edward  readily  listened  to  the  advances  of  Louis,  who  was  willing 
to  conclude  a  truce  on  terms  more  advantageous  than  honourable. 
He  agreed  to  pay  Edward  immediately  75,000  crowns,  on  condition 
that  he  should  withdraw  his  army  from  France,  and  promised  to 
pay  a  sum  of  60,000  crowns  a  year:  it  was  added  that  the 
dauphin,  when  of  age,  should  marry  Edward's  eldest  daughter. 
The  two  monarchs  ratified  this  treaty,  by  which  Louis  saved  the 
integrity  of  France,  in  a  personal  interview  at  Pecquigny,  near 
Amiens.*  The  most  honourable  part  of  it  was  the  stipulation  for 
the  liberty  of  queen  Margaret.  Louis  paid  50,000  crowns  for  her 
ransom ;  and  that  princess,  who  had  been  so  active  on  the  stage 
of  the  world,  passed  the  remainder  of  her  days  in  privacy,  till  the 
year  1482,  when  she  died. 

Notwithstanding  the  services  of  the  duke  of  Clarence  in  deserting 
Warwick,  he  had  never  been  able  to  regain  the  king's  friendship, 
which  he  had  forfeited  by  his  former  confederacy  with  that  noble- 
man. He  had  also  the  misfortune  to  displease  the  queen  herself, 
as  well  as  his  brother  Richard,  duke  of  Gloucester,  a  prince  of 
consummate  astuteness  and  policy.  He  had  refused  to  divide  with 
Gloucester,  who  had  married  Anne,  widow  of  Edward,  prince  of 
Wales,  stabbed  at  Tewkesbury,  the  inheritance  of  their  fiither-in- 
law,  the  late  earl  of  Warwick.  The  variance  was  increased  when 
Clarence,  now  a  widower,  was  desirous  of  marrying  Mary,  the 
heiress  of  Charles,  duke  of  Burgundy.  Some  gentlemen  of  his 
household  had  been  tried  and  executed  for  sorcery,  and  the  duke 
loudly  protested  against  the  sentence.  Highly  offended  with  his 
freedom,  the  king  committed  the  duke  to  the  Toiler,  and  summoned 
a  parliament,  by  whom  he  was  pronounced  guilty  (February  7, 

•  To  avoid  the  posribllitj  of  treacfaery,  I  with  a  wooden  graUDg,  through  which 
a  bridge  was  thrown  aoroM  the  river,  j  the  two  kings  shook  hands. 


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A.D.  1475-1488.  HIS  DEATH.  219 

1478).  The  manner  of  his  death  is  unknown ;  but,  according  to 
rumour,  he  was  drowned  in  a  butt  of  Mahnsey  (February  18). 

Instead  of  carrying  out  the  treaty  of  Pecquigny,  Louis  found  his 
advantage  in  contracting  the  dauphin  to  the  princess  Margaret, 
daughter  of  the  emperor  Maximilian.  Edward,  cruelly  disap- 
pointed, prepared  for  revenge.  But  in  the  midst  of  his  preparations 
he  was  seized  with  a  distemper,  and  expired  in  the  forty-first  year 
of  his  age,  and  twenty-second  of  his  reign  (April  9,  1483).  Hand- 
some in  person  and  affable  in  manners,  his  qualities  were  more 
showy  than  solid.  Brave,  but  cruel ;  addicted  to  pleasure,  though 
capable  of  activity  in  great  emergencies;  he  was  less  fitted  to 
prevent  ills  by  wise  precautions,  than  to  remedy  them  after  they 
had  taken  place  by  his  vigour  and  enterprise. 

Besides  five  daughters,  this  king  left  two  sons :  Edward,  prince  of 
Wales,  his  successor,  then  in  his  thirteenth  year,  and  Richaid,  duke 
of  York,  in  his  eleventh. 

EDWARD  V. 

§  8.  Edward  V.,  6. 1470 ;  r.  1483. — ^The  young  king,  at  the  time 
'  of  his  father's  death,  resided  in  the  castle  of  Ludlow,  on  the  borders 
of  Wales,  under  the  care  of  his  uncle,  Anthony,  earl  of  Rivers,  the 
most  accomplished  nobleman  in  England.*  The  queen,  anxious 
to  preserve  that  ascendency  over  her  son  which  she  had  long 
maintained  over  her  husband,  wrote  to  the  earl  that  he  should  levy 
a  body  of  forces,  in  order  to  escort  the  king  to  London,  to  protect 
him  during  his  coronation,  and  to  keep  him  from  falling  into  the 
hands  of  his  enemies.  The  duke  of  Gloucester,  meanwhile,  whom 
the  late  king,  on  his  death-bed,  had  nominated  as  regent,  set  out 
from  York,  attended  by  a  numerous  train  of  the  northern  gentry. 
Falling  in  with  the  king's  escort  at  Stony  Stratford,  he  caused 
lord  Rivers  and  sir  Richard  Grey,  one  of  the  queen's  sons,  together 
with  sir  Thomas  Vaughan,  to  be  arrested  (April  30);  and  the 
prisoners  were  conducted  to  Pontefract.  Gloucester  approached  the 
young  prince  with  the  greatest  demonstrations  of  respect,  and 
endeavoured  to  satisfy  him  for  the  violence  committed  on  his  uncle 
and  brother ;  but  Edward,  much  attached  to  these  near  relations, 
by  whom  he  had  been  tenderly  educated,  was  not  such  a  master 
of  dissimulation  as  to  conceal  his  displeasure. 

As  the  young  king  and  his  uncle  approached  London,  they  were 
met  by  the  corporation  at  Homsey.  Edward's  coronation  was  post- 
poned till  June  22,  and  by  act  of  the  Great  Council  Richard  was 
declared  protector.    Apprehensive  of  the  consequences,  Eliznbeth  fletl 

*  ThU  nobleman  first  introdooed  the  I  was  recommended  by  him  to  the  patrona^ 
art  of  printing  into   England.    Caxton  |  of  Fdward  IV. 


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220  EDWARD  V.  Chap.  xu. 

into  sanctuary  at  Westminster,  attended  by  the  marquis  of  Dorset ; 
and  she  carried  thither  the  five  princesses,  together  with  the  duke 
of  York.  But  being  at  length  persuaded  by  the  archbishops  of 
Canterbury  and  York  to  surrender  her  son  into  their  hands,  that  he 
might  join  his  brother,  struck  with  a  kind  of  presage  of  his  future 
fate,  she  bedewed  him  with  tears,  and  bade  him  an  eternal  adieu. 

§  9.  Gloucester,  who  had  hitherto  concealed  his  designs  with 
the  most  profound  dissimulation,  no  longer  hesitated  at  removing 
the  obstructions  which  lay  between  him  and  the  throne.  The 
death  of  earl  Rivers,  and  of  the  other  prisoners  detained  in  Ponte- 
fract,  was  first  determined ;  and  he  easily  obtained  the  consent  of 
the  duke  of  Buckingham,  as  well  as  of  lord  Hastings,  the  two  chief 
leaders  of  the  party  opposed  to  the  queen,  to  this  sanguinary 
measure.  Orders  were  accordingly  issued  to  sir  Richard  Ratcliffe 
to  cut  ofif  the  heads  of  the  prisoners.  The  protector  then  assailed 
the  fidelity  of  Buckingham  by  all  the  arguments  capable  of  sway- 
ing a  vicious  mind,  which  knew  no  motive  of  action  but  interest 
and  ambition,  and  easily  obtained  from  him  a  promise  of  support- 
ing him  in  all  his  enterprises.  He  then  sounded  the  sentiments 
of  Hastings  by  means  of  Catesby,  a  lawyer,  who  lived  in  great 
intimacy  with  him;  but  found  him  firm  in  his  allegiance  to  the 
children  of  Edward.  He  saw,  therefore,  that  there  were  no  longer 
any  measures  to  be  kept  with  him;  and  he  determined  to  ruin 
the  man  whom  he  despaired  of  engaging  to  concur  in  his  usur- 
pation. Accordingly  he  summoned  a  council  in  the  Tower ;  whither 
Hastings,  suspecting  no  design  against  him,  repaired  without 
hesitation.  The  duke  of  Gloucester  appeared  in  the  easiest  and 
most  gracious  humour  imaginable.  After  some  familiar  conversation 
he  left  the  council,  as  if  called  away  by  other  business ;  but  soon 
after  returning  with  an  angry  and  inflamed  countenance,  he  de- 
manded what  punishment  they  deserved  that  had  plotted  against  the 
life  of  one  who  was  so  nearly  related  to  the  king,  and  was  intrusted 
with  the  administration  of  government  ?  Hastings  replied  that  they 
merited  the  punishment  of  traitors.  "  These  traitors,**  cried  the 
protector,  "  are  the  sorceress,  my  brother's  wife,  and  Jane  Shore, 
his  mistress,  with  others,  their  associates.  See  to  what  a  condition 
they  have  reduced  me  by  their  incantations  and  witchcraft :  "  upon 
wb»ch  he  laid  bare  his  arm,  all  shrivelled  and  decayed.  The  coun- 
sellors, who  knew  that  this  infirmity  had  attended  him  from  his 
birth,  looked  on  each  other  with  amazement.  Lord  Hastings,  who, 
since  Ed  warded  death,  had  been  engaged  in  an  intrigue  with  Jane 
Shore,  ventured  to  reply,  "  Certainly,  my  lord,  if  they  have  done  so 
heinously,  they  deserve  the  most  heinous  punishment.**  "  What !  ** 
exclaimed  Richard,  "dost  thou  bandv  me  with  ifs  and  ans9    I 


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A.D.  1488.  MURDER  OF  THE  PRINCES.  221 

aver  they  have  done  it;  and  I  will  make  it  good  on  thy  body, 
thou  traitor  I  "  So  saying,  he  struck  the  table  with  his  fist.  Arraed 
men  rushed  in  at  the  signal.  Hastings  was  seized,  hurried  away, 
and  instantly  beheaded  on  a  timber  log  intended  for  repairs  in 
the  Tower.  Lord  Stanley,  the  archbishop  of  York,  the  bishop  of 
Ely,  and  other  counsellors,  were  committed  to  different  chambers. 
To  carry  on  the  farce  of  his  accusations,  Richard  ordered  the  goods 
of  Jane  Shore  to  be  seized :  and  he  summoned  her  to  answer  before 
the  council  for  sorcery  and  witchcraft.  Eventually  he  directed  her 
to  be  tried  in  the  spiritual  court,  for  incontinence ;  and  she  did 
penance  in  a  white  sheet  in  St.  Paul's,  before  the  people. 

§  10.  These  acts  of  violence,  exercised  against  the  nearest  con- 
nections of  the  late  king,  prognosticated  the  fate  of  his  defenceless 
children ;  and,  after  the  murder  of  Hastings,  the  protector  no  longer 
made  a  secret  of  his  intentions  to  usurp  the  crown.  Dr.  Shaw,  in 
a  sermon  at  St.  Paul's  cross,  attempted  to  persuade  the  people  that 
Edward  IV.  had  been  previously  married  to  Lady  Butler,  and  that 
therefore  Edward  V.  and  his  other  children  by  Elizabeth  Woodville 
were  illegitimate.  Various  other  artifices  were  employed  to  induce 
the  people  to  salute  Richard  as  king.  At  length  Buckingham  and 
the  lord  mayor  proceeded  with  a  body  of  prelates,  nobles,  and  com- 
mons to  his  residence  at  Baynard's  castle.  He  was  assured  that  the 
nation  was  resolved  to  have  him  for  their  sovereign;  and,  after 
some  well-acted  hesitation,  he  accepted  the  crown  (June  26).  The 
farce  was  soon  after  followed  by  the  murder  of  the  two  young 
princes.  Richard  gave  orders  to  sir  Robert  Brakeubury,  constable 
of  the  Tower,  to  put  his  nephews  to  death ;  but  this  gentleman, 
to  his  honour,  refused  such  an  infamous  office.  The  tyrant  then 
sent  for  sir  James  Tyrrel,  who  promised  obedience ;  and  he  ordered 
Brakenbury  to  resign  to  Tyrrel  the  keys  and  government  of  the 
Tower  for  one  night  Choosing  associates,  Dighton  and  Forest, 
Tyrrel  came  in  the  night-time  to  the  door  of  the  chamber  where 
the  princes  were  lodged;  and  sending  in  the  assassins,  he  bade 
them  execute  their  commission,  while  he  himself  stayed  without. 
They  foimd  the  young  princes  in  bed,  and  fallen  into  a  profound 
sleep.  After  suffocating  them  with  the  bolster  and  pillows,  they 
showed  their  naked  bodies  to  Tyrrel,  who  ordered  them  to  be 
buried  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs,  deep  in  the  ground,  under  a  heap 
of  stones  ♦ 

•  This  story  has  been  questioned  l^  two  youths  were  discovered  under  a  stair- 

Walpole   in    his   Historic   Doubts,   and  case  in  the  White  Tower,  and  were  In- 

Bubaequently  by  other  writers;  but,  on  terred  In  Westminster  Abbey  by  order 

the  whole*    the   balance  of   probability  of  Charles  II.  as  those  of  2d  ward  V.  and 

greatly  preponderates  in  ito  fitvour.    In  his  brother. 
liUt  during  some  repairs,  the  bones  of 


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222  RICHARD  lU.  Chap,  xn 

§11.  Richard  m.,  6.  1460;  r.  1483-1485.— The  first  acts  of 
Richard's  administration  were  to  bestow  rewards  on  those  who  had 
assisted  him  in  gaining  the  crown,  and  to  conciliate  by  favours 
those  who  were  best  able  to  support  his  government.  He  loaded 
the  duke  of  Buckingham  especially,  who  was  allied  to  the  royal 
family,  with  grants  and  honours.  But  it  was  impossible  that 
friendship  could  long  remain  inviolate  between  the  two.  Soon 
after  Richard's  accession,  the  duke,  disappointed,  or  delayed,  in 
some  requests  he  liad  made,  began  to  form  a  conspiracy  against  the 
government,  and  attempted  to  overthrow  that  usurpation  which  he 
himself  had  so  zealously  contributed  to  establish.  Morton,  bishop 
of  Ely,  a  zealous  Lancastrian,  whom  the  king  had  committed  to  the 
duke's  custody,  encouraged  these  sentiments.  By  his  exhortations 
the  duke  turned  his  thoughts  towards  the  young  earl  of  Richmond, 
as  the  only  person  who  could  free  the  nation  from  the  present 
usurper.  On  his  mother's  side  he  was  descended  from  John  of 
Ghiunt  by  Katharine  Swynford,  a  branch  legitimated  by  parliament 
(1397),  but  excluded  from  the  succession  by  Henry  IV.  (1407).  On 
his  father's  side  he  was  grandson  of  Owen  Tudor  and  Katharine  of 
Prance,  relict  of  Henry  V.* 

The  universal  detestation  of  Richard's  conduct  after  the  death  of 
the  two  young  princes  turned  the  attention  of  the  nation  towards 
Henry,  from  whom  only  it  could  expect  deliverance.  It  was  there- 
fore suggested  by  Morton,  and  readily  assented  to  by  the  duke, 
that,  to  overturn  the  present  usurpation,  the  opposite  factions  should 
be  united  by  contracting  a  marriage  between  the  earl  of  Richmond 
and  the  princess  Elizabeth,  eldest  daughter  of  king  Edward. 
Margaret,  Richmond's  mother,  assented  to  the  plan  without  hesi- 
tition;  whilst  on  the  part  of  the  queen  dowager,  the  desire  of 
revenge  for  the  murder  of  her  brother  and  of  her  three  sons, 
apprehensions  for  her  surviving  family,  and  indignation  against 
her  confinement,  easily  overcame  all  her  prejudices  against  the 
house  of  Lancaster,  and  procured  her  approbation  of  a  marriage 
to  which  the  age  and  birth,  as  well  as  the  present  situation,  of 
the  parties  seemed  so  naturally  to  invite  them.  She  "secretly 
borrowed  a  sum  of  money  in  the  city,  sent  it  over  to  the 
earl  of  Richmond,  who  was  at  present  detained  in  Brittany  in  a  kind 
of  honourable  custody,  required  his  oath  to  celebrate  the  marriage 
as  soon  as  he  should  arrive  in  England,  advised  him  to  levy  as 
many  foreign  forces  as  possible,  and  promised  to  join  him  on  his 
first  appearance,  with  all  the  friends  and  partisans  of  her  family/ 
The  plan  was  secretly  communicated  to  the  principal  persons  of 

*  For  the  genealogj  of  Henrjr  of  Richmond  and  the  duke  of  Backlngham,  boo  the  . 
Oenealoglcal  Tables. 


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A.D.  148a.  DEATH  OF  BUCKINGHAM.  223 

both  paiiieB  in  all  the  counties  of  England ;  and  a  wonderful  alacrity 
appeared  in  every  c^er  of  men  to  forward  its  success  and  completion. 
The  duke  of  Buckingham  took  up  arms  in  Wales,  and  gave  the  signal 
to  his  accomplices  for  a  general  insurrection  in  all  parts  of  England. 
But  heavy  rains  having  rendered  the  Severn,  with  the  other  rivers 
in  that  neighbourhood,  impassable,  the  Welshmen,  partly  moved  by 
superstition  at  this  extraordinary  event,  partly  distressed  by  famine 
in  their  camp,  fell  off  from  him  ;  and  Buckingham,  finding  himself 
deserted  by  his  followers,  put  on  a  disguise,  and  took  shelter  in  the 
house  of  Banaster,  an  old  servant  of  his  family.  Tempted  by  the 
reward,  Banaster  betrayed  his  retreat.  He  was  brought  to  the  king 
at  Salisbury,  and  was  instantly  executed,  according  to  the  summary 
method  practised  in  that  age  (November  2, 1483).  The  other  con- 
spirators inmiediately  dispersed.  The  earl  of  Richmond,  in  concert 
with  his  friends,  had  set  sail  from  St.  Malo,  with  a  body  of  5000  men 
levied  in  foreign  parts ;  but,  as  his  fleet  was  at  first  driven  back  by 
a  storm,  he  did  not  appear  in  England  till  after  the  dispersion  of 
hiB  friends,  and  he  found  himself  obliged  to  return  to  Brittany. 

The  king,  everywhere  triumphant,  ventured  at  last  to  summon 
a  parliament,  which  had  no  choice  left  but  to  recognize  his  au- 
thority, and  acknowledge  his  right  to  the  crown.  To  reconcile  the 
nation  to  his  government,  Richard  passed  some  popular  laws,  par- 
ticularly against  Benevolences ;  but  be  soon  after  resorted  to  the 
same  practice.  His  consort  Anne,  the  second  daughter  of  the  earl 
of  Warwick,  and  widow  of  Edward,  prince  of  Wales,  having  borne 
him  but  one  son,  who  died  about  this  time,  he  considered  her  as  an 
invincible  obstacle  to  the  settlement  of  his  fortune.  It  is  said 
that,  in  anticipation  of  her  death,  he  proposed,  by  means  of  a  papal 

G«iie«loc7  of  Henry  of  BtobmoiMl  aod  of  the  dake  of  Buckingtuun  :— 

EDWARD  m. 


Jobn  Of  OAont,  dfnke  of  Lanouter, 

Thomaa,  doke  of 

m.  Catherine  Swynford. 

John  Beanfort,  earl  of  Somerset, 

Anne, 

<L  1410. 

m.  Edmund,  earl 

1 

ofStaflord. 

Oatberine  of  Fnno^    John  Beanfort.  doke  of 

1 

widow  of  Henry  V..              Somerset, 
m.  Owen  Twfcr.                  d.  1444. 

Humphrey  Sufford,  doke 

of  Buckingham, 

1                                   1 

d.  1460. 

KdmnndTodor,  earl  of  Richmond,  m.  Margaret. 

1 

henrVth. 

Humphrey  Stafford, 

d.lnlifeUmeofhlsljither. 

Henry  Stallbrd,  duke 
of  Buckiugham, 
beheaded  1483. 
8m  the  QeoMloglcal  Table  of  the  Hoiae  of  Lanoafter. 


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224  RICHARD  III.  Chap.  xii. 

dispensation,  to  espouse  the  princess  Elizabetli,  and  thus  to  unite 
in  his  own  fiamily  their  contending  titles. 

§  12.  Exhorted  by  his  partisans  to  prevent  this  marriage  by  a  new 
invasion,  and  having  received  assistance  from  the  court  of  France, 
Richmond  set  sail  from  Harfleur  in  Normandy,  with  a  small  army 
of  about  2000  men.  After  a  voyage  of  six  days  he  arrived  at 
Milford  Haven,  in  Wales,  where  he  landed  without  opposition 
(August  7,  1485).  The  earl,  advancing  towards  Shrewsbury, 
received  every  day  fresh  reinforcements  fix>m  his  partisans. 

The  two  rivals  at  last  approached  each  other  at  Bosworth,  near 
Leicester ;  Henry  at  the  head  of  6000  men,  Richard  with  an  army 
nearly  double  the  number.  Before  the  battle  beg&n,  lord  Stanley, 
who,  without  declaring  himself,  had  raised  an  army  of  7000  men 
and  had  so  |X)8ted  himself  as  to  be  able  to  join  either  party,  appeared 
in  the  field,  and  declared  for  the  earl  of  Richmond.  The  intrepid 
tyrant,  sensible  of  his  desperate  situation,  cast  his  eyes  around  the 
field,  and,  descrying  his  rival  at  no  great  distance,  he  drove  against 
him  with  fury,  in  hopes  that  either  Henry's  death,  or  his  own, 
would  decide  the  victory  between  them.  He  killed  with  his  own 
hands  sir  William  Brandon,  standard-bearer  to  the  earl :  he  dis- 
mounted sir  John  Cheyney :  he  was  now  within  reach  of  Richmond 
himself,  who  declined  not  the  combat ;  when  sir  William  Stanley, 
breaking  in  with  his  troops,  surrounded  Richard,  who,  fighting 
bravely  to  the  last  moment,  was  overwhelmed  by  numbers,  and 
perished  by  a  fate  too  mild  and  honourable  for  his  multiplied 
enormities  (August  22,  1485).  The  naked  body  of  Richard  was 
thrown  carelessly  across  a  horse,  carried  to  Leicester  amidst  the 
shouts  of  the  insulting  spectators,  and  interred  in  the  Grey  Friars' 
church  of  that  place. 

The  historians  who  lived  in  the  subsequent  reign  have  probably 
exaggerated  the  vices  of  the  monarch  whom  their  master  overthrew ; 
and  some  modem  writers  have  attempted  to  palliate  the  crimes  by 
which  he  procured  possession  of  the  crown.  It  is  certain  tnat  he 
possessed  energy,  courage,  and  capacity ;  but  these  qualities  would 
never  have  compensated  his  subjects  for  the  usurpation  and  the 
vices  of  which  he  was  guilty.  Inured  to  scenes  of  bloodshed 
from  his  childhood,  and  all  the  horrors  of  a  civil  war,  it  was  in- 
evitable that  his  courage  should  be  stained  with  cruelty,  and  that 
danger  should  have  taught  him  dissimulation.  His  fiersonal 
api)earance  has  even  been  a  subject  of  warm  controversy:  while 
some  represent  him  as  small  of  stature  and  humpbacked,  others 
maintain  that  his  only  defect  was  in  having  one  shoulder  a  little 
higher  than  the  other. 


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A.O.  1485.  CIVIL  RIGHTS— VILLENAGU  226 

§  18.  The  reign  of  the  house  of  Plantagenet  expired  with 
Bichard  III.  on  Bosworth  field.  In  a  limited  monarchy,  change  of 
a  dynasty  is  generally  accompanied  by  some  revolution  in  the 
state.  The  reigns  of  Henry  VII.,  and  of  his  successors  of  the  ttouse 
of  Tudor,  bear  a  character  dintinct  from  those  of  the  Plantagenet 
princes.  The  exhaustion  of  the  kingdom  through  the  protracted 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  and  the  almost  entire  annihilation  of  the 
greater  English  nobility,  enabled  the  Tudors  to  rule  with  a  despotic 
power  unknown  to  their  predecessors. 

The  period  of  the  Plantagenets  forms  an  important  and  in- 
teresting epoch  in  English  history.  Its  leading  feature  is  the 
gradual  development  of  the  English  constitution.  The  first  osten- 
sible act  in  the  process  is  the  Great  Charter  wrung  from  John. 
In  the  subsequent  reigns  Magna  Carta  was  repeatedly  confirmed. 
The  weak  and  long  reign  of  Henry  III.,  and  the  neccHsities  of 
Edward  I.,  served  to  foster  the  infancy  of  English  freedom,  whilst 
the  establishment  of  the  commons  as  a  permanent  estate  of  the 
great  council  of  the  nation  forms,  in  a  constitutional  point  of  view, 
the  chief  glory  of  this  era  of  history. 

§  14.  From  the  constitution  we  naturally  turn  our  view  to  those 
who  were  its  subjects.  As  early  at  least  as  the  reign  of  Henry  III., 
the  legal  equality  of  all  freemen  below  the  rank  of  the  peerage 
appears  to  have  been  completely  established.  The  civil  rights  of  in- 
dividuals were  protected  by  that  venerable  body  of  ancient  customs, 
which,  under  the  name  of  the  common  law,  still  obtains  in  our 
oourts  of  justice.  Its  origin  is  lost  in  the  obscurity  of  remote  anti- 
quity. A  very  small  portion  of  it  may  be  traced  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
times ;  but  the  greater  part  must  have  sprung  up  after  the  Conquest, 
since  we  find  the  pecuniary  penalties  which  marked  the  Anglo-Saxon 
legislation  exchanged  in  criminal  cases  for  capital  punishment. 

It  is  difficult  to  trace  the  steps  by  which  villenage  was  gradually 
mitigated  under  the  Plantagenets ;  but  on  the  whole  it  is  certain 
that  at  the  termination  of  their  dynasty  it  was  rapidly  falling  into 
disuse.  Tenants  in  villenage  were  gradually  transformed  into 
copyholders.  Villeins  bound  to  personal  service  esca^Kjd  to  distant 
parts  of  the  country,  where  they  could  not  easily  be  traced  and 
reclaimed,  and  entered  into  free  and  voluntary  service  under  a  new 
mMter.  Others  hid  themselves  in  towns,  where  a  residence  of  a 
twelvemonth  made  them  free  by  law,  though  they  were  not  ad- 
mitted to  municipal  privileges.  Something  must  also  be  attributed 
to  manumission.  The  influence  of  the  church  was  exerted  on 
behalf  of  this  degraded  class ;  and  the  repentant  lord  was  exhorted 
by  his  spiritual  adviser  to  give  freedom  to  his  fellow  Christians. 
As  public  opinion  became  more  enlightened  and  humane,  the  courts 


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226 


RICHARD  m. 


Chap.  xn. 


of  law  leaned  to  the  side  of  the  oppressed  peasantry  in  all  suits  in 
which  their  rights  were  concerned.  The  statutes  framed  for  the 
regulation  of  wages,  and  the  popular  insurrection  in  the  time  of 
Richard  II.,  betray  an  advance  in  the  condition  of  the  lower 
classes ;  and,  though  they  attest  a  large  amount  of  yillenage,  they 
discover  at  the  same  time  a  greater  extension  of  freedom. 

§  15.  With  regard  to  the  general  progress  of  the  nation,  we  per- 
ceive under  the  sway  of  the  Plantagenets  a  notable  increase  in  its 
wealth  and  intelligence,  as  well  as  in  its  freedom.  The  woollen 
manufactures  were  established  in  various  parts  of  England,  and 
began  to  supply  foreign  nations.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  UI.  the 
English  were  remarkable  for  their  excellence  in  the  arts  of  peace 
as  well  as  of  war.  A  rich  literature,  adorned  with  the  names  of 
Chaucer  and  Oower,  of  WicklifTe  and  Mandeville,  was  now  destined 
to  exercise  a  better  influence,  by  the  invention  of  printing,  intro- 
duced into  England  in  the  reign -of  Edward  IV. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


A.    ORIGIN  AND  PROGRESS  OF 
PARLIAMENT. 

The  word  Parliament  (jwrlement  or 
eoUoquium  as  some  of  our  historians 
'translate  it)  is  derived  trom  the  French, 
and  signifies  any  assembly  that  meets 
and  confers  together.  It  appears  on 
the  Close  Rolls  of  1244,  as  applied  to 
the  meeUng  of  king  John  and  the  barons 
at  Ronnymede.  The  oonstitoent  parts 
of  parliament  in  its  more  restricted 
sense  are  now,  and  were  under  the  later 
Plantagenet  kings,  the  sovereign  and 
the  three  estates  of  the  realm,  the  lords 
spiritual,  the  lords  temporal  (who  sit,  to- 
ller with  their  sovereign,  in  one  house), 
and  the  commons,  who  sit  by  them> 
selves  in  another.  The  parliament,  as 
so  constituted,  is  an  outgrowth  of  the 
Great  Council  of  the  realm,  held  under 
the  Anglo-Norman  kings,  the  constitu- 
tion of  which  has  been  already  explained 
Cp.  129).  It  will  be  convenient  to  trace 
separately  the  history  of  each  house. 

I.  Th«  House  or  Lorm.— The  spiri- 
tual peerage  consisted  originally  of 
archbishops,  bishops,  and  abbots;  and 
the  lay  peerage  only  of  barons  and 
«wl«,  but  every  earl  was  also  a  baron. 
For  more  than  two  centuries  afler  the 
Norman  conquest  the  only  baronies 
known  were  baronies  by  ttnur^^  being 


incident  to  the  tenure  of  land  heUk 
immediately  under  the  crown.  Hence 
the  right  of  peerage  was  originally 
territorial,  being  annexed  to  certain 
lands,  and,  when  they  were  alienated, 
passing  with  them  as  an  i4)pendant. 
Thus  m  1433  the  possession  of  the  castle 


of  Arundel  was  adjudged  to  oonftr  an 
earldom  **  by  tenure  "  on  its  poeteBSor. 

Afterwards,  when   the  alienations  of 
land  became  fluent,  and  the  number 
of  those  who  held  of  the  king  in  eapiU 
increased,  it  became  the  praotioe,  either 
in  the  reign  of  John  or  Heniy  III.,  for 
the  king  to  summon  to  the  Great  Council, 
by  Writt  all  such  persons  as  he  thought 
fit  so  to  summon.  In  this  way  the  dignity 
I  of  the  peerage  became  personal  instead  of 
I  territorial.    Proof  of  a  tenure  by  barony 
I  became  no  longer  necessary,  and  the  re- 
I  cord  of  the  writ  of  summons  came  to  bo 
,  sufficient  evidence  to  constitute  a  peer. 
The  thiid  mode  of  creating  peers  is 
by  /.sttcr*  Patent  from  the  crown,  in 
which   the   descent  of    the   dignity   is 
regulated,    being    usually    confined    to 
heirs  male.    The  first  peer  created  by 
patent  was  lord   Beauchamp  of  Kidder- 
minster, In  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  (1387). 
It  is  still  occasionally  the  practice  to  call 
up  the  eldest  son  of  a  peer  to  the  House 
of  Lords  by  writ  of  summons  in  the  name 
of  hit  Cathei's  barony ;   but,  with  this 


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Chap*  xn. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 


227 


exception,  peers  toe  dow  aIivrtb  creeled 
bj  letters  patent. 

The  lint  instance  In  which  earls  and 
barons  are  called  peers  is  in  14  Edw.  II. 
(1331),  in  the  award  of  exile  against  the 
Pespensers. 

The  degrees  of  nobilitj  are  dokes, 
marqoessee,  earls,  viscoonts,  and  barons. 
1.  The  title  of  Duke  or  dwc  v.is  used 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons  as  a  title  of 
dignitjr ;  but  as  William  the  Ck>nqaeror 
and  his  snooessors  were  dulces  of  Nor- 
mandy, they  would  not  honour  soy 
sulliM  with  the  Utle  till  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  who,  claiming  to  be  king 
of  France,  created  his  eldest  son  Edward, 
the  Black  Prince,  duke  of  Cornwall  (1 337). 
Several  of  the  royal  funily  subiequently 
reodved  the  title  of  duke.  2.  The  title 
of  Jtarqueu  or  marchio  was  originally 
applied  to  a  Lord  Marcher,  or  lord  of 
the  fipontler  districts,  called  the  marches, 
fhnn  the  Teutonic  word  marka^  a  limit ; 
but  it  was  first  created  a  parliamentary 
dignity  by  Richard  II.,  who  made  Robert 
de  Vere  marquess  of  Dublin  (1386).  3.  An 
Earl  corresponded  to  the  Saxon  ealdor- 
man  or  alderman,  who  originally  had 
the  administration  of  a  shire.  Under 
ihe  Norman  kings  the  title  became 
merely  personal,  though  the  earl  con- 
tinued to  receive  a  third  penny  of  the 
emoluments  arising  from  the  pleas  in 
the  county  courts.  In  Latin  the  earl 
was  called  Cbme«,  and  after  the  Norman 
conquest  CoufU,  whence  the  name  county 
is  stUl  applied  to  the  shires  ^  but  the  title 
of  count  never  superseded  the  more  an- 
dent  designation  of  earl,  and  soon  fell 
into  disuse.  The  title  of  earl  continued 
to  be  tbe  highest  hereditary  dignity  till  the 
reign  of  Edward  lU.  4.  The  dignity  of 
Vimmnt  or  Vioe-Comei  was  borrowed  from 
France,  and  was  first  conferred  in  1440  by 
Henry  VI.,  who  had  been  crowned  king 
of  France.  6.  The  title  of  Baronhas  been 
already  explained.    (See  p.  126.) 

II.  Tub  Hodsb  or  Comhoxs.— The 
memben  of  the  House  of  (Commons  oon- 
rist  of  the  knights  of  the  shires,  and  tbe 
burgesses,  or  representative  of  the  dties, 
nniverdties,  and  boroughs.  The  origin 
of  the  knights  of  the  shires  ia  traced 
to  the  fourteenth  clause  in  the  charter  of 
John,  by  which  the  sheriCT  was  bound  to 
BumuMMi  to  the  Great  Coundl  all  the  (in- 
ferior) tenants  in  chief.  The  prindple  of 
representation  introduced  by  Simon  de 
Montfort  in  the  4»th  of  Henry  III.  (I2M) 


has  been  already  explained  (p.  lisy, 
Fram  this  time  till  the  23rd  of  Edward  L 
(1296)  the  representatives  of  the  dties  and 
boroughs  wero  occadonally  summoned ; 
but  Uiey  were  not  permanently  engrafted 
upon  parliament  till  the  latter  date,  when 
the  expenses  of  Edward,  arising  fh>m  his 
foreign  wars,  led  him  to  have  recourse 
to  this  means  for  obtaining  supplies  of 
money,  nu  i$  the  true  date  of  the 
HouMe  qf  OommoM  (Stubbe,  p.  402). 
The  success  of  the  experiment  insured 
its  repetition;  and  the  king  found  that 
he  could  more  readily  obtain  larger  sums 
of  money  by  the  subsidies  of  the  citiiens 
and  burgesses  than  he  had  previously 
obtained  by  tallages  upon  their  towns. 
It  must  be  recollected  that  the  only 
object  of  summoning  tbe   dtixens  and 

I  burgesses  was  to  obtain  money,  and  that 
it  was  not  originally  intended  to  give 
them  the  power  of  consenting   to   the 

.  laws.  And  often  after  this  period  the 
upper  house  continued  to  dt  and  pass 
laws,  when  the  commons  had  retired. 
But  gradually  the  power  of  the  purse 
procured  them  a  share  in  legislatiou. 

At  first  both  houses  sat  in  the  same 
chamber;  but  fh>m  the  earliest  times 
they  voted  separately,  and  imposed 
separate  taxes,  each  upon  its  own  order. 
The  knights  of  the  shires  voted  at  flnit 
with  the  earls  and  l)arons;  but  in  the 
latter  years  of  Edward  III.  the  houses 
delibeiated  apart,  and  were  divided  as  we 
now  find  them. 

In  the  feeble  reign  of  Edward  II.  the 
commons  were  not  slow  iu  advandng 
their  rights;  and  the  rolls  of  parlia- 
ment show  that  on  one  occasion,  at 
least,  they  granted  supplies  on  con- 
dition that  the  king  should  redress  the 
grievances  of  which  they  complained. 
Gradually  the  assent  of  the  commons 
came  to  be  conddered  necessary  for  the 
enactment  of  laws ;  and  in  tbe  long  and 
prosperous  reign  of  Edward  IIL  the 
three  essential  prlndples  of  our  govern- 
ment were  generally  established :  (l)  The 
consent  of  parliament  to  all  extraordinary 
aids  and  takes ;  (2)  the  concurrence  of  the 
two  houses  in  all  matters  affecting  the 
realm ;  (3)  the  right  of  the  commons  to 
inquire  into  public  abuses,  and  to  impeadi 
public  counsellors.  With  regard  to  the 
second  constitutional  principle  mentioned 
above,  we  find  in  15  Edward  II.  that 
**  matters  to  be  established  for  the  esUte 
•f  the  king  and  his  heirs,  and  for  the 


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228 


NOTES  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Ghaf.  xii. 


etUte  of  the  ntha  tad  of  the  people,  shall 
be  treated,  accorded,  and  established,  in 
parliament  by  the  king,  and  by  the  assent 
of  the  prelates,  earls,  and  barons,  and  the 
oooimoDalty  of  the  realm,  according  as 
has  been  before  accustomed."  It  was  the 
practice  that  the  petitions  of  the  commons, 
with  the  respective  answers  made  to  them 
in  the  king's  name,  should  be  drawn  up 
after  the  end  of  the  session  in  the  form  of 
laws,  and  entered  upon  the  statute-n^. 
Still  it  must  be  observed  that  the  statutes 
do  not  always  express  the  true  sense  of 
the  commons,  as  their  petitions  were  f^ 
quently  modified  and  otherwise  altered  by 
the  king's  answers.  The  first  instance  in 
which  the  commons  exercised  the  third 
constitutional  principle  alluded  to  was  in 
50  Edward  III.,  when,  instigated  by  the 
Black  Prince,  they  impeached  lord  Latimer 
and  other  ministers  of  the  king. 

Under  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  the 
power  of  the  House  of  Commons  made 
still  further  progress,  which  was  con- 
tinued under  the  three  kings  of  the 
house  of  Lancaster,  who  owed  their 
throne  to  a  parliamentary  title.  Among 
the  rights  established  under  these  kings 
the  two  following  were  the  most  im- 
portant: 1.  The  introduction,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.,  of  complete  statutes 
under  the  name  of  bills,  instead  of  the 
old  petitions,  to  which  the  king  gave 
his  consent,  and  which  he  was  not  at 
liberty  to  alter,  as  he  had  done  in  the  case 
of  petitions.  It  now  became  the  practice 
for  either  house  to  originate  a  bill,  except 
in  the  case  of  money  bills,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  originated  exclusively  by 
the  commons.  2.  That  the  king  ought 
not  to  take  notice  of  matters  pending 
in  parliament,  and  that  the  commons 
should  enjoy  liberty  of  speech. 

The  persons  who  had  the  right  of  voting 
for  knights  of  the  shire  were  declared  by 
8  Hen.  VI.  c.  7,  to  be  ail  freeholders  of 
lands  and  tenements  of  the  annual  value 
of  40<.,  equivalent  at  least  to  30{.  of  our 
value;  which  was  a  limitation  of  the 
number  of  voters,  since  It  would  appear 
f^om  1  Hen.  IV.  c.  15,  that  all  persons 
whatever,  present  at  the  county  court,  had 
previously  the  right  of  voting  for  the 
knights  of  their  shires.  For  ftirther  par- 
ticulars as  to  the  House  of  Lords,  see  sir 
Harris  Nicolas,  Tlie  Historic  Peerage  qf 
England,  Introduction,  in  the  edit,  of 
1857 ;  and  as  to  the  House  of  Commons, 
Hallam's  MiddU  Agt9,  vol.  iii.  c.  8. 


B.  AUTHORITIES  FOR  THE  PERIOD 
OF  THE  PLANTAGENET8  FROM 
JOHN  TO  RICHARD  III. 
A  reference  to  Note  C,  appended  to 
chapter  vii.  (pp.  129. 130>,  will  show  what 
histories  already  menttpned  extend  into 
this  period  In  addition  may  be  named 
the  AnnaU  ^f  DunstabU  to  1297  (RdUi); 
Walter  of  Hemingford,  Live*  qf  Sdward 
/.,  //.,  ///.;  John  lYokelowe,  Annak* 
Edwardi  11.^  with  a  continuation  by  Henry 
Blaneford  (Rolls) ;  Robert  of  Avesbniy, 
HUtoria  de  MirabUibu*  Gettii  JBdiwardi 
in. ;  the  Monk  of  Evesham,  Hi»t.  Vita  ei 
Begni  Hicardi  II. ;  Otterboume's  Chroni- 
cle, fh>m  Brute  to  1420  ;  Whethamstede's 
ChnmicU,  1441  to  1460 (Rolls);  Elmbam, 
Vita  et  Geita  Henrici  V.  (Rolls);  Titus 
Livius,  idem.:  William  of  Worcester, 
AnnaUi  Berum  Anglicarum^  1324  to  1491 ; 
Rous,  Hiitoria  Regum  Anglia  (to  1485). 
The  preceding  works  are  published  in 
Hearue's  collection.  The  following  are  in 
the  collection  of  Hall :  Nicholas  Trivet, 
AnnaUg  hx  regum  Angliot,  1136  to  1318 ; 
Adam  Murimuth,  Ckronide  (with  con- 
tinuation), 1303  to  1380.  The  L%ronicl4 
qf  Lanercostf  published  by  the  Bannatyne 
Club,  extends  fh)m  1201  to  1346.  Joan. 
Amundcsham,  1422-1440  (Rolls).  The 
following  are  in  Camden's  Anglica,  kc.  : 
Thos.  de  la  More,  De  Vita  et  MarU 
Bdtoardi  II. ;  Walsingham,  Hiitoria 
hrevi*  Anglutt  1272  to  1422:  the  same 
author's  Hypodigma  Neuttria^  containing 
an  account  of  the  affisirs  of  Normandy 
to  Henry  V.  (Rolls),  is  also  in  Camden. 
Froissarfs  Chronique*  (translated  by 
Lord  Bemers)  is  an  interesting  but  not 
very  trustworthy  work  for  the  times  oi 
Edward  III.  and  Richard  U.  CKrm. 
AnglicBy  1328-1388  (Rolls).  The  Chro- 
nique* of  Monstrelet  (1400  to  1467)  and 
the  Mimoiret  of  Philip  de  Comines  (1461 
to  1498)  may  also  be  consulted  for  foreign 
affairs  during  the  later  Plantagenets. 

The  early  printed  chronicles  which 
treat  of  this  period,  with  the  exception 
of  Fabyan's  (to  1509)  and  Hardyng's 
(to  1538),  are  not  contemporary.  The 
principal  are  those  of  Hall,  Grafton, 
Holinshed,  and  Stowe.  Sir  Thos.  More's 
Hiitorjf  qf  Richard  III.  is  the  best 
authority  for  that  period:  he  was  old 
enough  to  have  heard  the  facts  from 
contemporaries,  and  eepedally  fkom 
bishop  Morton,  in  whose  servioa  bs 
had  Uved« 


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Henry  VII.  and  Elizabeth  of  Yurk.     From  their  monument  in  Westminster  Abb«y. 

BOOK  IV. 
THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR. 

A.D.  1485-1603. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

HENRY   VII.      A.D.  1485-1509. 

§  1.  IntrodiutioD.  §  2.  Accession  of  Henrv  V^II.  His  coronation,  marriage, 
and  settlement  of  the  government.  §  3.  Discontents.  Invasion  nf 
Lambert  Simnel,  and  battle  of  Stoke.  Coronation  of  the  queen. 
§  4.  Foreign  affairs.  Peace  of  Estaples.  §  5.  Pferkin  Warbeck.  Execu- 
tion of  lord  Stanley.  ^  6.  Further  attempt.^  of  Perkin.  Cornish  in- 
surrection, and  battle  of  Blackheath.  f  7  Perkin  again  invade^ 
England,  is  captured,  and  executed.  Execution  of  Warwick.  §  8.  Mar- 
riage and  death  of  priuce  Arthur.  Marriage  of  the  princess  Margaret. 
Oppression  of  Empson  ana  Dudley  §  9.  Matrimonial  negociations  of 
Henry.  Death  and  character  of  the  king    §  10.  Miscellaneous  occurrences. 

§  1.  The  accession  of  the  Tiidors  to  the  English  throne  is  nearly 
coincident  with  the  proper  epoch  of  modern  history.     The  final  im- 
portant change  in  the  European  populations  had  been  effected  by 
12 


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230  HENRY  VIL  Chap.  xin. 

the  settlement  of  the  Turks  at  Constantinople  in  1453.  The  im- 
provement in  navigation  was  soon  to  lay  open  a  new  world,  as  well 
as  a  new  route  to  that  ancient  continent  of  Asia,  whose  almost 
fabulous  riches  had  attracted  the  wonder  and  cupidity  of  Europeans 
since  the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Hence  was  to  arise  a  new 
system  of  relations  among  the  states  of  Europe.  The  commerce  of 
the  East,  previously  monopolized  by  the  Venetians  and  Genoese, 
began  to  be  diverted  to  the  Western  nations ;  its  richest  products 
to  be  rivalled  by  those  of  another  hemisphere.  The  various  Euro- 
pean states,  having  consolidated  their  domestic  institutions,  were 
beginning  to  direct  their  attention  to  the  afildrs  of  their  neighbours. 
The  invasion  of  Italy  by  Charles  "VHI.  of  France,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  YII.,  is  justly  regarded  as  the  commencement  of  the  political 
system  of  Europe,  or  of  that  series  of  wars  and  negociations  among 
its  different  kingdoms  which  has  continued  to  the  present  day, 
The  house  of  Tudor,  lifted  to  the  throne  by  the  civil  wars,  and 
strengthened  by  the  very  desolation  which  they  had  occasioned, " 
was  enabled  to  play  an  effective  part  upon  the  continent,  and  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  that  European  influence  which  England  still 
commands. 

Besides  the  advantages  derived  from  commerce,  the  intercourse  of 
nations  is  beneficially  felt  in  their  mutual  influence  upon  opinion  and 
the  progress  of  society.  Europe,  first  cemented  into  a  whole  by  the 
conquests  of  the  Romans,  derived  a  still  firmer  bond  of  union  from 
its  common  Christianity.  The  distinguishing  historical  feature  of 
the  reign  of  the  Tudors  is  the  progress  and  final  establishment 
of  the  Reformation.  That  great  revolution  was  accompanied  by 
an  astonishing  progress  in  manners,  literature,  and  the  arts ;  but, 
above  all,  it  encouraged  that  spirit  of  civil  freedom,  by  which,  under 
the  house  of  Stuart,  the  last  seal  was  aMxed  to  our  constitutional 
liberties. 

§  2.  The  victory  which  the  earl  of  Richmond  gained  at  Bosworth 
was  entirely  decisive.  Sir  William  Stanley  placed  upon  his  head 
the  crown  which  Richard  had  worn  in  the  battle ;  and  the  acclama- 
tions of  "Long  live  Henry  the  Seventh!"  by  a  natural  and 
unpremeditated  movement,  resounded  from  all  quarters  of  the  field 
(August  22,  1485).  Henry  was  now  in  his  30th  year.  He  had 
no  real  title  to  the  crown ;  but  he  determined  to  put  himself  in  im- 
mediate possession  of  regal  authority,  and  to  show  all  opponents 
that  nothing  but  force  of  arms  should  be  able  to  expel  him.  He 
brought  to  the  throne  all  the  bitter  feelings  of  the  Lancastrians. 
To  exalt  that  party,  and  depress  the  adherents  of  the  house  of 
York,  were  his  favourite  objects,  and  through  the  earlier  part  of 
his  reign  were  never  forgotten.    His  first  command  after  the  battle 


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A.D.  1486-1486.    HIS  CORONATION  AND  MARRIAGE.  231 

of  Bosworth  was  to  secure  the  person  of  Edward  Plantagenet,  earl 
of  Warwick,  son  of  the  duke  of  Clarence,  who  had  been  put  to 
death  by  his  brother,  Edward  IV.  Henry  immediately  afterwards 
set  out  for  the  capital.  His  journey  bore  the  appearance  of  an 
established  monarch  making  a  peaceable  progress  through  his 
dominions,  rather  than  that  of  a  prince  who  had  opened  his  way  to 
the  throne  by  force  of  arms.  The  promise  he  had  made  of  marrying 
Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  seemed  to  insure  a  union 
of  the  contending  titles  of  the  two  families ;  but,  though  bound 
by  honour  as  well  as  by  interest  to  complete  this  alliance,  he 
was  resolved  to  postpone  it  till  the  ceremony  of  his  own  corona- 
tion should  be  finished,  and  his  title  recognized  by  parliament. 
Anxious  to  support  his  personal  and  hereditary  right  to  the  throne, 
he  dreaded  lest  an  earlier  marriage  with  the  princess  should  imply 
a  right  in  her  to  participate  in  the  sovereignty,  and  raise  doubts  of 
his  own  title  through  the  house  of  Lancaster.  On  the  30th  of  October 
Henry  was  crowned  at  Westminster  by  cardinal  Bourchier,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  The  parliament,  which  assembled  soon  after, 
seemed  entirely  devoted  to  him.  It  was  enacted  **  That  the  inherit- 
ance of  the  crown  should  rest,  remain,  and  abide  in  the  king,  and 
none  other ;  *'  but  whether  as  rightful  heir,  or  only  as  present  pos- 
sessor, was  not  determined*  In  the  following  year  Henry  applied  to 
the  papal  authority  for  a  confirmation  of  his  title.  The  parliament, 
at  his  instigation,  passed  an  act  of  attainder  against  the  late  king 
and  the  richest  of  his  adherents  ;  they  also  reversed  the  attainders 
of  Henry  VI.  and  107  Lancastrians.  Henry  bestowed  favours  and 
honours  on  some  particular  persons  who  were  attached  to  him ;  but 
the  ministers  whom  he  most  trusted  and  favoured  were  not  chosen 
from  among  the  nobility,  or  even  from  among  the  laity.  John 
Morton  and  Richard  Fox,  two  clergymen  of  singular  industry 
and  capacity,  who  had  shared  in  his  dangers  and  distresses,  were 
called  to  the  privy  council ;  Morton  was  restored  to  the  bishopric 
of  Ely,  and  Fox  was  created  bishop  of  Exeter  (14r>7).  The 
former,  soon  after,  upon  the  death  of  Bourchier,  was  raised  to  the 
see  of  Canterbury.  The  king's  marriage  was  celebrated  at  London, 
January  18,  i486,  with  greater  demonstrations  of  joy  than  ap- 
peared either  at  his  first  entry  or  his  coronation.  But,  though 
naarried,  the  queen  was  not  crowned  until  the  end  of  the  next  year. 
5  3.  In  the  course  of  this  year  an  abortive  attempt  at  insurrection 
was  made  by  lord  Level :  but  though  Henry  had  been  able  to  de- 
feat this  hasty  rebellion,  laised  by  the  relics  of  Richard's  \  artisans, 
his  government  was  disturbed  by  a  more  formal  attem]  t.  There 
lived  in  Oxford  one  Richard  Simon,  a  priest  who  entertained  the 
design  of  disturbing  Henry's  government  by  raising  up  a  pretender 


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232  HENRY  VII.  Chap  xm. 

to  the  crown.  For  that  purpose  he  cast  his  eyes  on  Lambert  iSimnel, 
a  youth  of  fifteen  years  of  age,  who  was  son  of  a  joiner,  or,  as  some 
say,  of  a  baker.  Being  endowed  with  understanding  above  his 
years,  and  address  above  his  condition,  Simnel  seemed  well  fitted  to 
personate  a  prince.  A  report  had  been  spread  among  the  people 
and  received  with  great  avidity,  that  Richard,  duke  of  York,  second 
son  of  Edward  IV.,  had  escaped  from  the  cruelty  of  his  uncle,  and 
lay  somewhere  concealed  in  England.  Taking  advantage  of  this 
rumour,  Simon  instructed  his  pupil  to  assume  that  name,  which  he 
found  to  be  so  fondly  cherished  by  the  public ;  but  hearing  after- 
wards a  new  report,  that  the  earl  of  Warwick  had  made  his  escape 
from  the  Tower,  and  observing  that  this  news  was  attended  with 
no  less  general  satisfaction,  he  changed  his  plans,  and  made  Simnel 
personate  that  unfortunate  prince.  As  the  Irish  were  zealously 
attached  to  the  house  of  York,  and  bore  an  aHectionate  regard  to 
the  memory  of  Richard,  duke  of  York,  Warwick's  grandfather,  who 
had  been  their  lieutenant,  Ireland  was  selected  for  the  first  scene 
of  the  plot.  Gerald  Fitzgerald,  earl  of  Kildare,  the  deputy,  and 
other  persons  of  distinction,  gave  countenance  to  Simnel ;  and  he 
was  crowned  at  Dublin,  under  the  appellation  of  Edward  VI.  (May, 
1487).  The  whole  island  followed  the  example  of  the  capital,  and 
not  a  sword  was  drawn  in  Henry  s  quarrel.  The  king's  first  act 
on  this  intelligence  was  to  order  the  queen-dowager  and  her  son, 
the  marquis  of  Dorset,  into  close  confinement,  the  former  in  the 
nunnery  of  Bermondsey,  the  latter  to  the  Tower.  He  next  ordered 
Warwick  to  be  taken  from  the  Tower,  be  led  in  procession  through 
the  streets  of  London,  be  conducted  to  St.  Paul's,  and  there  exposed 
to  the  view  of  the  whole  people.  The  expedient  had  its  effect 
in  England ;  but  in  Ireland  the  ^jeople  still  persisted  in  their  revolt, 
and  Henry  had  soon  reason  to  apprehend  that  the  design  against 
him  was  not  laid  on  such  slight  foundations  as  the  absurdity  of  the 
contrivance  seemed  to  imply.  John,  earl  of  Lincoln,  son  of  John 
de  la  Pole,  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  of  Elizabeth,  eldest  sister  of  Edward 
IV.,  whom  Richard  III.  had  declared  heir  to  the  throne,  was  engaged 
in  the  conspiracy ;  and  he  induced  Margaret,  the  dowager  duchess 
of  Burgundy,  another  sister  of  Edward  IV.,  to  join  it.  After  con- 
sulting with  Lincoln  and  lord  Lovel,  she  hired  a  body  of  2000  veteran 
Germans,  under  the  command  of  Martin  Schwartz,  a  brave  and 
experienced  officer,  and  sent  them  over,  together  with  these  two 
noblemen,  to  join  Simnel  in  Ireland.  An  invasion  of  England 
was  resolved  on.  Simnel  landed  in  l^ancashire,  and  advanced 
as  far  as  Stoke,  near  Newark.  He  was  defeated  by  Henry  in  a 
decisive  battle  (June  16,  1487).  Lincoln  and  Schwartz  perished 
on  the  field,  with  4000  of  their  followers.    Lovel  escaped,  but  wm 


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A.D.  1487-1491. 


FOREIGN  AFFAIRS. 


23S 


never  more  seen  or  heard  of.*  Simnel,  with  his  tutor  Simon, 
was  taken  prisoner.  Simon,  being  a  priest,  was  not  tried  at  law, 
and  was  only  committed  to  close  custody.  Sinmel  was  too  con- 
temptible to  be  an  object  either  of  apprehension  or  resentment. 
He  was  pardoned,  and  made  a  scullion  in  the  king's  kitchen,  from 
which  post  he  was  afterwards  advanced  to  the  rank  of  falconer. 

§  4.  The  foreign  transactions  of  this  reign  present  little  of  interest 
or  importance.  The  cautious  and  parsimonious  temper  of  the  king 
rendered  him  averse  to  war,  and  he  could  never  be  induced  to  take 
up  arms  when  he  saw  the  least  prospect  of  attaining  his  ends  by 
negociation.  About  this  time  events  in  France  compelled  his  in- 
terference ;  but  it  was  exercised  too  late,  and  without  vigour  enough 
to  be  effective.  Charles  VIII.,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  throne 
of  France  in  1483,  was  extremely  desirous  of  annexing  Brittany 
to  his  dominions;  and,  at  the  invitation  of  some  discontented 
Breton  barons,  the  French  invaded  that  province  with  a  large  array 
(1488).  Henry  entered  into  a  league  with  Maximilian  of  Germany 
and  Ferdinand  of  Arragon  for  the  defence  of  Brittany ;  but  the 
resources  of  these  princes  were  distant,  and  Henry  hhnself  only 
despatched  an  army  of  6000  men,  which,  in  virtue  of  a  secret 
agreement  with  Charles,  never  took  the  field  (14b9).  An  unfore- 
seen event  disconcerted  the  policy  of  the  allies.  Anne,  who  had 
succeeded  to  the  duchy  of  Brittany  on  the  death  of  her  father  in 
1488,  had  made  a  contract  with  Maximilian,  but  Charles  invested 
Rennes,  where  the  duchess  resided,  with  a  large  army,  and  extorted 
a  promise  of  marriage  as  the  condition  of  her  release.  The  nuptials 
were  accordingly  celebrated,  and  Anne  was  conducted  to  Paris, 
which  she  entered  amidst  the  joyful  acclamations  of  the  people. 
Thus  Brittany  was  finally  annexed  to  the  French  crown  (1491). 

On  pretence  of  a  French  war,  Henry  now  levied  a  benevolence,^ 
and  the  parliament,  which  met  soon  after,  inflamed  with  the  idea 
of  a  war  with  France,  voted  him  a  supply.  He  crossed  over  to 
Calais  with  a  large  army,  and  proceeded  to  invest  Boulogne ;  but 
notwithstanding  these   professions  of  hostility,   secret    advances 


•  *  Towards  the  doae  of  the  1 7th  century, 
At  his  8i«t  at  MiDBter  Lovel,  in  Oxfordshire, 
was  accidentally  discovered  a  chamber 
ODder  the  ground,  in  which  was  the  sicele- 
too  of  a  man  s^ted  in  a  cbair,  with  his 
head  reclining  on  a  table.  Hence  it  is 
supposed  that  the  fugiUve  had  found  an 
asylum  in  this  subterraneous  chamber, 
where  he  was  perhaps  starved  to  death 
tbruni^  neglecL" — Lingard. 

f  Parliament  consented  that  a  bene- 
voUitee^  or  contribution,  should  be  levied 


''from  the  abler  sort"  This  mode  of 
raising  money,  devised  l^  Edward  IV., 
was  abolished  by  Richard  III.,  but  after- 
wards revived  by  him,  under  another 
name,  and  now  by  Henry  VII ,  with  the 
consent  of  parliament.  In  1505  Henry 
raised  another  benevolence,  without  con- 
sent of  parliament.  **  So  forcible,"  says 
Coke,  '*is  once  a  precedent  fixed  in  the 
crown,  add  wliat  proviso  you  will."  a 
Ins,  p.  61,  4  Ins.  p.  32. 


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234  HENRY  VIL  Chap,  xui 

had  been  made  towards  peace  above  three  months  before,  and  com- 
missioners had  been  appointed  to  treat  of  the  terms.  They  met 
at  Estaples.  The  king  of  France  consented  to  pay  £149,000  in 
half-yearly  instalments  for  the  peaceable  possession  of  Brittany 
(1492).  Thus  the  king,  as  remarked  by  his  historian,  Lord  Bacon, 
made  profit  upon  his  subjects  for  the  war,  and  upon  his  enemies  for 
the  peace.     (Su|)i)'<'ni'M  t.  Note  I.) 

§  5.  Henry  had  now  reason  to  flatter  himself  with  the  prospect 
of  durable  peace  and  tranquillity ;  but  his  inveterate  and  indefati- 
gable enemies  raised  up  an  adversary  who  long  kept  him  in  alarm, 
and  sometimes  even  brought  him  into  danger.  The  report  was 
revived  that  Richard,  duke  of  York,  had  escaped  from  the  Tower 
when  his  elder  brother  was  murdered ;  and,  finding  this  rumour 
greedily  received,  the  enemies  of  Henry  looked  out  for  some  young 
man  to  personate  that  unfortunate  prince.  There  was  one  Pierce 
Osbeck,  or  Perkin  Warbeck,  bom  at  Toumay  of  respectable  parents, 
who  by  the  natural  versatility  and  sagacity  of  his  genius  seemed 
to  be  perfectly  fitted  to  act  any  part,  or  assume  any  character. 
He  was  comely  in  his  person,  graceful  in  his  air,  courtly  in  his 
address,  full  of  docility  and  good  sense  in  his  behaviour  and  con- 
versation. The  war  which  was  then  ready  to  break  out  between 
France  and  England  seemed  to  afford  a  proper  opportunity  for  the 
discovery  of  this  new  phenomenon ;  and  Ireland,  which  still  retained 
its  attachment  to  the  house  of  York,  was  chosen  an  the  proper  place 
for  his  first  appearance.  He  landed  at  Cork;  and  immediately 
assuming  the  name  of  Richard  Plantagenct,  drew  to  him  partisans 
among  that  credulous  people  (1492).  The  news  soon  reached  France, 
and  Charles  sent  Perkin  an  invitation  to  repair  to  him  at  Paris. 
He  received  him  with  all  the  marks  of  regard  due  to  the  duke 
of  York  ;  settled  on  him  a  handsome  vension ;  assigned  him  magni- 
ficent lodgings ;  and,  in  order  to  provide  at  once  for  his  dignity 
and  security,  gave  him  a  guard  for  his  person.  When  peace  was  con- 
cluded between  France  and  England  at  Estaples,  Henry  applied 
to  have  Perkin  put  into  hin  hands;  but  Charles,  resolute  not  to 
betray  a  young  man,  of  whatever  birth,  whom  he  had  invited  into 
his  kingdom,  would  only  agree  to  dismiss  him.  The  pretended 
Richard  retired  to  the  duchess  of  Burgundy,  who  is  thought  by 
many  to  have  been  the  original  instigator  of  the  plot.  This  princess, 
after  feigning  a  long  and  severe  scrutiny,  burst  out  into  joy  and 
admiration  at  his  wonderful  deliverance,  embraced  him  as  her 
nephew,  the  true  image  of  Edward,  the  sole  heir  of  the  Plantagenets, 
and  the  legitimate  successor  to  the  English  throne.  She  imme- 
diately assigned  him  an  equipage  suited  to  his  pretende<^  bir^ht  and 
on  all  occasions  honoured  him  with  the  appellation  of  the  WhiU 


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A.D.  1499-1495.  PERKIN  WARBECK.  235 

Bo&e  of  England  (1493).  The  Ehiglish,  from  their  great  commu- 
nication with  the  Low  CountrieB,  were  every  day  more  and  more 
prepoBseesed  in  favour  of  the  impostor.  The  whole  nation  was  held 
in  suspense,  a  regular  conspiracy  was  formed  against  the  king's 
authority,  and  a  correspondence  settled  hetween  the  malcontents  in 
Flanders  and  those  in  England.  The  king  was  informed  of  all  these 
particulars ;  but  agreeably  to  his  character,  which  was  both  cautious 
and  resolute,  he  (m)ceeded  deliberately,  though  steadily,  in  counter- 
working the  projects  of  his  enemies.  His  first  object  was  to  ascertain 
the  death  of  the  real  duke  of  York,  and  to  confirm  the  opinion  that 
had  always  prevailed  with  regard  to  that  event.  Two  of  the 
persons  employed  in  the  murder  of  Richard's  nephews,  Forrest  and 
Dighton,  were  alive,  and  they-  agreed  in  the  same  story ;  but,  as  the 
bodies  were  supposed  to  have  been  removed  by  Richard's  orders 
from  the  place  where  they  were  first  interred,  and  could  not  now  be 
found,  it  was  not  in  Henry's  power  to  put  the  fact,  so  much  as  he 
wished,  beyond  all  doubt  and  controversy.*  He  dispersed  his  spies 
all  over  Flanders  and  England ;  and  he  induced  sir  Robert  Clifford, 
one  of  the  partisans  of  the  impostor,  to  betray  the  secrets  intrusted 
to  him.  Several  of  Warbeck's  partisans  in  England  were  arraigned, 
convicted,  and  executed  for  high  treason.  Among  the  victims  was 
sir  William  Stanley,  the  lord  chamberlain,  who  had  saved  Henry's 
life  at  Boeworth.  He  had  told  Clifford  in  confidence,  that,  if  he 
were  sure  the  young  man  who  appeared  in  Flanders  was  really 
son  to  king  Edward,  he  never  would  bear  arms  against  him. 

§  6.  The  fate  of  Stanley  made  a  great  impression  on  the  kingdom, 
and  struck  all  the  partisans  of  Perkin  with  the  deepest  dismay. 
When  Perkin  found  that  the  king's  authority  daily  gained  ground 
among  the  people,  and  that  his  own  pretensions  were  becoming 
obsolete,  he  resolved  to  attempt  something  which  ii.ight  revive  the 
hopes  and  expectations  of  his  partisans.  After  a  vain  attempt 
upon  the  coast  of  Kent  he  crossed  over  in'o  Ireland  (1495).  But 
sir  Edward  Poynings,  who  had  been  appointed  deputy  of  Ireland  in 
1494,t  had  put  the  affairs  of  that  island  into  so  good  a  posture 
that  Perkin  met  with  little  success.  He  therefore  bent  his  course 
towards  Scotland,  and  presented  himself  to  James  IV.,  who  then 

*  See  note,  p.  221.  The  ottJecttoo  |  txtOi,  HUtoryqf  England,  voLii.  pp.  bB-M. 
raiied  fhm  their  impunfty  (which  would  |  f  The  statute  of  Drogheda«  enacted  in 
naturally  be  a  condition  of  their  ooii-  i  1496,  and  known  by  the  name  of  PoynlngiH' 
femloa)  is  &r  more  than  outweighed  by  i  law,  formed  the  basis  for  the  goveniment 
the  rewards  they  bad  received  from  |  of  Ireland  till  the  time  of  the  Union.  Its 
Richard.  The  fi&ct  that  the  pretended  most  important  pmvisioD  was  that  no  bill 
dulte  of  York  never  attempted  to  explain  could  be  introduced  into  the  Irish  parlia- 
what  bad  become  of  Edward  V.  is  con-  ment  unless  it  bad  previously  received  the 
elusive  sgalnst  his  own  claims.    Maclcin-     approval  of  the  English  ooundl. 


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2d6  HENRY  Vn.  Chap,  xuc 

governed  that  kingdom.  James  gave  him  in  marriage  the  lady 
Katharine  Gordon,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Huntley,  and  made  an 
inroad  into  England  (1496),  carrying  Perkin  along  Mdth  him,  in 
hopes  that  the  appearance  of  the  pretended  prince,  who  issued  a 
proclamation,  styling  himself  Richard  IV.,  might  raise  an  insur- 
rection in  the  northern  counties.  Instead  of  joining  the  irivaders, 
the  English  prepared  to  repel  them  ;  and  James  retreated  into  his 
own  country.  Henry  discovered  little  anxiety  to  procure  either 
reparation  or  vengeance  for  this  insult  committed  on  him  by  the 
Scots :  his  chief  concern  was  to  draw  advantage  from  it,  by  the 
pretence  which  it  afforded  him  to  levy  impositions  on  his  own 
subjects.  But  the  people,  who  were  acquainted  with  the  immense 
treasures  which  he  had  amassed,  could  ill  brook  these  new  ex- 
actions. When  the  attempt  was  made  to  levy  the  subsidy  in 
(V)mwall,  the  inhabitants,  numerous  and  poor,  robust  and  courage- 
ous, murmured  against  a  tax  occasioned  by  a  sudden  inroad  of  the 
Scots,  from  which  they  esteemed  themselves  entirely  secure,  and 
which  had  usually  been  repelled  by  the  northern  counties.  They 
took  up  arms,  and  about  16,000,  instigated  by  Flammark,  an 
attorney,  determined  to  march  to  London.  They  were  defeated  at 
Blackheath  (June  17,  1497).  Their  leaders,  with  lord  Audley, 
were  taken  and  executed;  2000  were  slain;  the  rest  were  made 
prisoners,  but  were  dismissed  without  further  punishment. 

§  7.  Henry  now  attempted  by  negociations  to  obtain  possession 
of  Warbeck's  person.  But  James  refused  his  advances ,  and,  as  he 
could  no  longer  afford  the  pretender  protection,  he  fitted  out  a 
small  flotilla,  with  which  Warbeck  and  his  wife  escaped  to  Ireland 
(July  30, 1497).  He  was  invited  to  land  in  Cornwall  (September  7). 
No  sooner  did  he  make  his  appearance  at  Bodmin,  than  the  popu- 
lace flocked  to  his  standard ;  and  Perkin,  elated  with  his  success, 
attempted  to  get  possession  of  Exeter.  On  learning  the  approach 
of  the  king's  forces,  he  abandoned  the  siege  and  advanced  to 
Taunton.  Though  his  followers  now  amounted  to  the  number  of 
nearly  7000,  and  seemed  still  resolute  to  maintain  his  cause,  he  him- 
self despaired  of  success,  and  secretly  withdrew  to  the  .  anctuary  of 
Beaulieu,  in  the  New  I' orest  (September  21).  The  rebels  submitted 
to  the  king's  mercy ;  a  few  persons  of  desperate  fortunes  were 
executed,  many  were  severely  fined,  the  rest  were  dismissed  with 
impunity.  Perkin  himself  was  persuaded,  under  promise  of  life, 
to  deliver  himself  into  the  hands  of  Henry,  who  conducted  him, 
in  a  species  of  mock  triumph,  to  London.  Having  attempted  to 
escape,  he  was  confined  to  the  Tower,  where  his  habits  of  restless 
intrigue  and  enterprise  followed  him.  In  1498  he  insinuated  him- 
self into  the  intimacy  of  four  servants  of  Sir  John  Digby,  lieutenant 


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AJ>.  1496-1008.       EXECUTION  OF  WARWICK.  237 

of  the  Tower ;  and  by  their  means  opened  a  correspondence  mih 
the  earl  of  Warwick,  who  was  confined  in  the  same  prison.  Perkin 
engaged  him  to  embrace  a  project  for  his  escape,  and  offered  to 
conduct  the  whole  enterprise.  The  design,  whether  feigned  or  not, 
was  employed  as  a  charge  against  him,  and  Perkin  was  arraigned, 
condemned,  and  soon  after  hanged  at  Tyburn,  with  two  of  his 
former  adherents.  The  earl  of  Warwick  was  beheaded  on  Tower 
Hill  a  few  days  afterwards  (November,  1499).  This  act  of  tyranny 
begat  great  discontent  among  the  people,  which  Hairy  vainly 
endeavoured  to  alleviate  by  alleging  that  his  ally,  Fentinand  of 
Arragon,  scrupled  to  give  his  daughter  Katharine  in  marriage  to 
his  son,  prince  Arthur,  while  any  male  descendant  of  the  house  of 
York  remained.  On  the  contrary,  greater  indignation  was  felt 
at  seeing  a  young  prince  sacrificed,  not  to  law  and  justice,  but 
to  the  jealous  policy  of  two  subtle  and  crafty  tyrants. 

5  8.  Two  years  later  (November  14,  1501)  the  king  had  the 
satisfeu^tion  of  completing  a  marriage  which  had  been  projected 
and  negociated  during  the  course  of  seven  years;  Arthur  being 
now  near  16  years  of  age,  Katharine  18.  But  this  marriage 
proved  unprosperous.  The  young  prince  a  few  months  after 
sickened  and  died  (April  2,  1502).  Desirous  to  continue  his 
alliance  with  Spain,  and  imwiHing  to  restore  Katharine's  dowry  of 
200,000  ducats,  Henry  contracted  the  Infanta  to  his  second  son 
Henry,  a  boy  of  11  years  of  age,  whom  he  created  prince  of  Wales : 
an  event  which  was  afterwards  attended  with  the  most  important 
consequences.*  The  same  year  another  marriage  was  celebrated, 
which  was  also,  in  the  next  age,  productive  of  great  events — the 
marriage  of  Margaret,  the  king*s  eldest  daughter,  with  James,  king 
of  Scotland.  But  amidst  these  prosperous  incidents  the  king  met 
with  a  domestic  calamity.  His  queen  died  in  childbed  (February 
11, 1503),  and  the  infant  did  not  long  survive  her. 

The  situation  of  the  king^s  affairs,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  being 
now  in  every  respect  very  fortunate,  he  gave  full  scope  to  his  natural 
propensity ;  and  avarice,  which  had  ever  been  his  ruling  passion, 
increasing  with  age  and  encouraged  by  absolute  authority,  broke 
through  all  restraints  of  shame  or  justice.  He  had  found  two 
ministers,  Empeon  and  Dudley,  perfectly  qualified  to  second  his 
rapacious  inclinations.  These  instruments  of  oppression  were  both 
lawyers:  the  first  of  mean  birth,  of  brutal  manners,  of  an  unre- 
lenting temper;  the  second  better  bom,  better  educated,  and 
better  bred,  but  equally  unjust,  severe,  and  inflexible.  By  their 
knowledge  of  the  law  these  men,  whom  the  king  made  officers  of 
the  Exchequer,  were  qualified  to  pervert  the  forms  of  justice ;  and 

*  Thej  were  nol  nurltd  imttl  16M. 
12* 


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238  HJBOmT  TIL  Chip.  xm. 

the  most  iniquitous  extortions  were  practised  under  l^al  pre- 
tences. The  chief  means  of  oppression  were  the  penal  statutes, 
which,  without  consideration  of  rank,  quality,  or  services,  were 
rigidly  put  in  force  against  all  men:  spies  and  informers  were 
rewarded  and  encouraged;  no  difference  was  made  whether  the 
statute  were  beneficial  or  hurtful,  recent  or  obsolete.  The  sole 
end  of  the  king  and  his  ministers  was  to  amass  money,  and  bring 
every  one  under  the  lash  of  their  authority.  So  overawed  was  the 
parliament,  that  at  this  very  time  the  commons  chose  Dudley  for 
their  speaker  (1504).  By  these  arts,  joined  to  a  rigid  frugality, 
the  king  so  filled  his  coffers,  that  he  is  said  to  have  possessed  in 
ready  money  the  sum  of  1,800,000  pounds:  a  treasure  almost 
incredible,  if  we  consider  the  scarcity  of  money  in  those  times. 

§  9.  The  remaining  years  of  Henry's  reign  present  little  that 
is  memorable.  The  archduke  Philip,  on  the  death  of  his  mother- 
in-law,  Isabella,  proceeded  by  sea,  with  his  wife  Joanna,  to  take 
possession  of  Castile,  but  was  driven  by  a  violent  tempest  into 
Weymouth  (1506).  The  king  availed  himself  of  this  event  to 
detain  Philip  in  a  species  of  captivity,  and  to  extort  from  him  a 
promise  of  the  hand  of  his  sister  Margaret,  with  a  large  dowry. 
Nor  was  this  the  only  concession.  He  made  Philip  promise  that 
his  son  Charles  should  espouse  Henry's  daughter  Mary,  though  that 
prince  was  already  afi&anced  to  a  daughter  of  the  king  of  France. 
He  also  negociated  a  new  treaty  of  commerce  with  the  Flemings, 
much  to  the  advantage  of  the  English.  But  perhaps  his  most  un- 
generous act  on  this  occasion  was  his  obliging  Philip  to  surrender 
Edmund  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Suffolk,  nephew  of  Edward  lY.,  and 
younger  brother  of  the  earl  of  Lincoln,  who  had  perished  at  the 
battle  of  Stoke.  The  earl  of  Suffolk,  having  incurred  the  king's 
resentment,  had  taken  refuge  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  had  in- 
trigued to  gain  possession  of  Calais.  Philip  stipulated  indeed  that 
Suffolk's  life  should  be  spared ;  but  Henry  committed  him  to^  the 
Tower,  and,  regarding  his  promise  as  only  personal,  recommended 
his  successor  to  put  him  to  death.*  Shortly  afterwards  Henry's 
health  declined,  and  he  died  of  a  consumption,  at  his  favourite 
palace  of  Richmond  (April  21,  1509),  after  a  reign  of  23  years  and 
eight  months,  and  in  the  52nd  year  of  his  age.  He  was  buried  in 
the  chapel  he  had  built  for  himself  at  Westminster. 

§  10.  The  reign  of  Henry  VII.  was,  in  the  main,  fortunate  for 
his  people  at  home,  and  honourable  abroad.  He  put  an  end  to 
the  civil  wars  with  which  the  nation  had  long  been  harassed,  he 
maintained  peace  and  order  in  the  state,  he  repressed  the  exorbitant 
power  of  the  nobility,  and,  together  with  the  friendship  of  some 
*  Bmrj  YIII.  pat  him  to  deatli  In  inz,  without  aUeglngany  new  ullieDoe  agnlnrthtBt 


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A.D.  1609.  DISCOVERY   OF  AMERICA. 

foreign  princes,  he  acquired  the  consideration  and  regard  of  all. 
A  new  stimulus  was  given  to  English  commerce  by  the  treaty  with 
Burgundy,  called  The  Great  Intercourse,  and  stability  to  trade  by 
a  strict  regulation  of  weights  and  measures.*  Bacon  compares 
him  with  Louis  XI.  of  France  and  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and  de- 
scribes the  three  as  **  the  tres  vnagi  of  kings  of  those  ages," — the 
great  masters  of  kingcraft. 

§  10.  The  Star-chamber,  so  called  from  the  room  in  which  it  met, 
is  usually  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. ; 
but  this  is  not  strictly  oorrect.t  In  1495  the  parliament  enacted 
that  no  person  who  should  by  arms  or  otherwise  assist  the  king  for 
the  time  being  should  be  liable  to  attainder  for  such  obedience. 
Such  a  statute  could  not  of  course  bind  future  parliaments ;  but, 
as  Mr.  Hallam  observes,}  it  remains  an  unquestionable  authority 
for  the  constitutional  maxim,  *'  that  possession  of  the  throne  gives 
a  sufficient  title  to  the  subject's  allegiance,  and  justifies  his  resist- 
ance of  those  who  may  pretend  to  a  better  right." 

It  was  by  accident  only  that  the  king  had  not  a  considerable  share 
in  those  great  naval  discoveries  by  which  his  age  was  so  much  dis- 
tinguished. Columbus,  after  meeting  with  many  repulses  from  the 
courts  of  Portugal  and  Spain,  sent  his  brother  Bartholomew  to 
London,  in  order  tu  explain  his  projects  to  Henry,  and  crave  his  aid 
for  the  execution  of  them.  The  king  invited  him  over  to  England ; 
but  his  brother,  being  taken  by  pirates,  was  detained  in  his  voyage ; 
and  Columbus,  meanwhile,  having  obtained  the  coimtenance  of 
Isabella,  was  supplied  with  a  small  fleet,  and  happily  executed  his 
enterprise  (1492).  Not  discouraged  by  this  disappointment,  Henry 
fitted  out  Sebastian  Cabot,  a  Venetian  settled  in  Bristol,  and  sent 
him  westwards  in  search  of  new  countries  (1498).  Cabot  discovered 
the  mainland  of  America,  Newfoundland,  and  other  countries,  but 
tetumed  to  England  without  making  any  conquest  or  settlement. 

*  Some  towns  still  possess  the  standards  Issued  in  his  reigii. 
t  See  Kotos  and  lUustraUonsAtttie  end  of  tld8l)ook.  ^  <^d^  RI^m  «b.  i 


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Snver  medal  of  Hf  iiry  VIII. 

.nil  .DBI.ORA  BEX  ARQL.  FRAKC.  DOM.  BTB*^ 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


HRNRT   Vin.     FROM   HIS  ACCESSION  TO  THE  DEATH  OF    WOUBK. 

h.  1401  i  r.  1509-1547 

§  1.  Acccjuion  of  Hbney  VIII.  EmpooD  and  Dudley  punished.  §  2.  Tht 
king's  marriage.  War  with  France.  Wolsey  minister.  §  3.  Battle  ol 
Guinegate.  Battle  of  Floddcn.  §  4.  Peace  with  France  Louu  XIL 
marries  the  princess  Mary.  §  5.  Greatness  of  Wolscy.  He  induces  Henry 
to  cede  Tournay  to  France.  Wolsey  legate.  §  6.  Election  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  Interview  between  Henry  and  Francis.  Charles  nsits 
England.  Henry  visiu  France.  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  §  7.  Henry 
mediates  between  Charles  and  Francis.  Execution  of  Buckmgham. 
§  8.  Henry  styled  ''  Defender  of  the  Faith.*  Charles  again  in  England. 
War  with  France.  Scotch  affairs.  Defeat  of  Albany.  §  9.  Supplies 
illegally  levied.  League  of  Henry,  the  emperor,  and  the  duke  of  Bourbon. 
§  10.  Battle  of  Pavia.  Treaty  between  England  and  France.  §  11.  Dis- 
content of  the  English.  Francis  recovers  his  freedom.  Sack  of  Rome. 
League  with  France.  §  12.  Henry's  scruples  about  his  marnage  with 
Kathaiine.  Anne  Boleyn.  Proceedings  for  a  divorce.  §  13.  Wolsey's 
fall.    §  14.  Rise  of  Cranmer.     Death  of  Wolsey. 

§  1.  The  death  of  Henry  VII.  had  been  attended  with  as  open  and 
visible  a  joy  among  the  people  as  decency  would  permit ,  and  the 
accession  of  his  son,  Henry  VIII.,  spread  universally  a  declared  and 
unfeigned  satisfaction.  Henry  was  now  in  his  19th  year.  Bom 
in  1491,  he  had  received  a  liberal  education,  and  after  the  death  of 
his  brother  Arthur,  in  1502,  was  created  prince  of  Wales.  The 
beauty  and  vigour  of  his  person,  accompanied  with  great  dexterity  in 
all  manly  exercises,  were  further  adorned  with  a  blooming  and 
ruddy  countenance,  a  lively  air,  and  no  little  vivacity.  The 
vehemence,  ardour,  and  impatience  of  his  disposition,  which  degene- 
rated into  tyranny  in  after  years,  were  considered  only  as  faults 
incident  to  unguarded  youth ;  and,  as  the  contending  titles  of  York 


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A^.  150^1511.  flIS  KARRIAOE.  241 

and  Lancaster  were  now  at  last  folly  united  in  his  person,  his  sub- 
jects justly  expected  from  a  prince  obnoxious  to  no  party  that  im- 
partiality of  administration  which  had  long  been  unknown  in  Eng- 
land. The  chief  competitors  for  favour  and  authority  under  the 
new  king  were  the  earl  of  Surrey,*  treasurer,  and  Fox,  bishop  of 
Winchester,  secretary  and  privy  seal.  Surrey  knew  how  to  conform 
himself  to  the  humour  of  his  new  master ;  and  no  one  was  so  forward 
in  promoting  that  liberality,  pleasure,  and  magnificence  which  b^an 
to  prevail  imder  the  young  monarch.  One  party  of  pleasiu'e  suc- 
ceeded to  another ;  tilts,  tournaments,  and  carousals  were  exhibited 
with  all  the  magnificence  of  the  age ;  and,  as  the  present  tranquillity 
of  the  public  permitted  the  court  to  indulge  its^  in  every  amuse- 
ment, serious  business  was  but  little  attended  to.  As  the  frank 
and  careless  humour  of  the  king  led  him  to  dissipate  the  treasures 
amassed  by  his  father,  so  it  rendered  him  negligent  in  protecting  the 
instruments  whom  that  prince  had  employed  in  his  extortions.  The 
informers  were  thrown  into  prison.  Empson  and  Dudley  were 
conmiitted  to  the  Tower ;  and  in  order  to  gratify  the  people  with  the 
punishment  of  these  obnoxious  ministers,  crimes  very  improbable, 
or  indeed  ahsolutely  impossible,  were  charged  upon  them.  They 
were  accused  of  having  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  the  sove- 
reign, and  intending,  on  the  death  of  the  late  king,  to  seize  the 
government.  Their  conviction  by  a  jury  was  confirmed  by  a  bill  of 
attainder,  but  they  were  not  executed  imtil  next  year,  on  Tower  Hill. 

§  2.  Soon  after  his  accession,  Henry,  by  the  advice  of  his  council, 
celebrated  his  marriage  with  the  infanta  Katharine  (June  7) ;  and 
the  king  and  queen  were  crowned  at  Westminster  on  the  24th. 

The  first  two  or  three  years  of  Henry's  reign  were  spent  in  pro- 
found peace ;  but  impatient  of  acquiring  that  distinction  in  Europe, 
to  which  his  power  and  opulence  entitled  him,  he  could  not  long 
remain  neutral  amidst  the  noise  of  arms.  The  natural  enmity  of 
the  English  against  France,  as  well  as  their  ancient  claims  upon 
that  kingdom,  led  Henry  to  join  the  alliance,  or  Holy  League, 
which,  after  the  league  of  Camlwray  (1509),  the  pope,  Spain,  and 
Venice  had  formed  against  Louis  XIL  War  was  declared  against 
France  (1511) ;  and  a  parliament  being  summoned,  readily  granted 
supplies  for  a  purpose  so  much  favoured  by  the  English  nation. 
But  Henry  suffered  himself  to  be  deceived  by  the  artifices  of  his 
father-in-law,  Ferdinand.  That  selfish  and  treacherous  prince 
advised  him  not  to  invade  France  by  the  way  of  Calais,  where  he 
himself  would  not  have  it  in  his  power  to  assist  him  ;  but  rather 
to  send  forces  to  Fontarabia,  whence  he  could  easily  make  a  con- 

*  The  earl  of  Surrey  bad  been  attainted  on  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.  (1485),  but 
iTM  mtond  to  the  earldom  in  1489. 


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242  HENRT  vm.  Chap,  n^ 

quest  of  Gnienne,  a  i«oyince  in  which,  it  was  imagined,  the  English 
had  still  some  adherents.  He  promised  to  assist  in  this  conquest 
by  the  junction  of  a  Spanish  army ;  and  so  forward  did  he  seem 
to  promote  the  interests  of  his  son-in-law,  that  he  even  sent  vessels 
to  England  in  order  to  transport  over  the  forces  which  Henry  had 
levied  for  that  purpose.  But,  false  to  his  promises,  Ferdinand 
employed  himself  solely  in  the  conquest  of  Navarre.  Failing  of  the 
promised  support,  the  marquis  of  Dorset,  the  English  commander, 
finding  that  his  further  stay  served  not  to  promote  the  main  under- 
taking, and  that  his  men  were  daily  perishing  by  want  and  sick- 
ness, returned  to  England  (1512).  Notwithstanding  his  disappoint- 
ments in  this  campaign,  Henry  was  still  encouraged  to  prosecute  his 
warlike  measures  against  Louis,  especially  as  Leo  X.,  who  had  suo- 
ceeded  tJulius  II.  on  the  papal  throne,  had  detached  the  emperor 
Maximilian  from  the  French  interests  (1513).  Determined  to  in- 
vade France,  Henry  was  little  discouraged  by  the  prospect  of  a  war 
with  the  Scots,  who  had  formed  an  alliance  with  France.  His 
schemes  were  promptly  seconded  by  Wolsey. 

Thomas  Wolsey,  dean  of  Lincoln  and  almoner  to  the  king,  was 
now  fast  advancing  towards  that  unrivalled  grandeur  which  he 
afterwards  attained.  Reputed  to  be  the  son  of  a  butcher  at  Ipswich, 
he  was  educated  at  Oxford,  became  a  fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  and 
was  appointed  for  his  learning  master  of  the  college  schooL  Three 
sons  of  the  marquis  of  Dorset  were  placed  under  his  charge,  and 
he  soon  gained  the  friendship  and  countenance  of  that  nobleman, 
who  offered  him  the  living  of  Lymington,  which  Wolsey  accepted, 
and  left  Oxford  (1500).  Appointed  chaplain  to  Henry  VII.,  he 
was  employed  in  a  secret  negociation  which  regarded  Henry's 
intended  marriage  with  Margaret  of  Savoy,  Maximilian's  daughter, 
and  acquitted  himself  to  the  king's  satisfaction.  Introduced  to 
Henry  VHI.  by  Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester,  he  promoted  all  those 
amusements  which  he  found  suitable  to  the  age  and  inclination 
of  the  young  monarch.  He  was  advanced  to  be  a  member  of  his 
council,  and  became  his  chief  minister.  By  this  rapid  advance- 
ment the  character  and  genius  of  Wolsey  had  full  opportunity  to 
display  themselves.  Insatiable  in  his  acquisitions,  but  still  more 
magnificent  in  his  expense ;  of  extensive  capacity,  but  unbounded 
enterprise ;  ambitious  of  power,  but  still  more  desirous  of  glory ; 
insinuating,  engaging,  persuasive,  and,  by  turns,  lofty,  elevated, 
commanding ;  haughty  to  his  equals,  but  affable  to  his  dependants ; 
he  was  framed  to  take  the  ascendant  in  his  intercourse  with  others. 
But  this  superiority  of  mature  was  often  exerted  in  such  a  way  as 
exposed  him  to  envy,  and  made  every  one  willing  to  reoal  the 
original  inferiority  of  his /or^une. 


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AJ).  1512-1514.  BATTLES  OF  GUINEGATE  AND  FLODDEN.  24» 

$  3.  The  war  commenced  in  1613  with  »  desperate  navai  action, 
in  which  Sir  Edward  Howard,  the  English  admiral,  was  slain,  whilst 
attempting  to  cut  six  French  galleys  out  of  the  port  of  Conquet 
with  only  two  vessels.  On  the  30th  of  June  the  king  landed  at 
Calais  with  a  considerable  army.  Marching  from  Calais  on  the  21st  of 
July,  he  appeared  before  Terouenne,  and  was  joined  by  the  emperor 
Maximilian  (August  12),  who  had  enlisted  himself  in  Henry's  service, 
wore  the  cross  of  St.  George,  and  received  100  gold  crowns  a  day 
as  one  of  his  captains.  But  while  he  exhibited  this  extraordinary 
spectacle,  of  an  emperor  serving  under  a  king  of  England,  he  was 
treated  with  the  highest  respect  by  Henry.  Receiving  intelligence 
of  the  approach  of  the  French  along  the  Lis  to  relieve  the  town, 
Henry  met  and  overthrew  them  with  so  much  precipitation  that 
they  immediately  took  to  flight  and  were  pursued  by  the  English, 
and  many  officers  of  distinction  were  made  prisoners.  The  action 
is  sometimes  called  the  Battle  of  Gui  negate,  from  the  place  where 
it  wa3  fought ;  but  more  commonly  the  Battle  of  Spurs,  because  the 
French  that  day  made  more  use  of  their  spurs  than  their  swords 
(August  16).  Teroueime  was  taken  (August  22).  The  king  then 
laid  siege  to  Toumay,  which  surrendered  (September  21).  As  the 
bishop  of  Toumay  was  lately  dead,  the  administration  of  the  see 
was  bestowed  on  Wolsey.  Seeing  that  the  season  was  far  advanced, 
Henry  returned  to  England  with  the  greater  part  of  his  army. 

The  success  which  during  the  summer  had  attended  Henry's  arms* 
in  the  north  under  Surrey  was  much  more  decisive.  James  IV., 
king  of  Scotland,  had  assembled  tHe  whole  force  of  his  kingdom  ;  and 
having  passed  the  Tweed,  with  a  brave  though  a  tumultuary  army  of 
above  60,000  meti,  he  ravaged  those  parts  of  Northumberland  which 
lay  nearest  that  river.  Meanwhile  the  earl  of  Surrey,  having  collected 
a  force  of  26,000  men,  marched  to  the  defence  of  the  country.  The 
two  armies  met  at  Flodden,  near  the  Cheviot  Hills  (September  9). 
The  action  was  desperate ;  the  defeat  of  the  Scotch  complete.  The 
English  lost  no  person  of  note ;  but  the  flower  of  the  Scottish  no- 
Inlity  had  fallen,  and  their  king  himself,  after  the  most  diligent 
inquiry,  could  nowhere  be  found.  The  fond  conceit  was  long  enter- 
tained among  the  Scots  that  he  was  still  alive,  and,  having  secretly 
gone  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  I^nd,  would  soon  retiurn  and  take 
possesion  of  the  throne.  When  the  queen  of  Scotland,  Margaret, 
who  was  created  regent  during  the  infancy  of  her  son  James  V., 
applied  for  peace,  Henry  readily  granted  it,  and  took  compassion 
upon  the  helpless  coudition  of  his  sister  and  nephew.  For  this 
victory  Surrey  was  created  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  his  son  succeeded 
to  hi:i  father's  title. 

S  4.  In  the  following  year  (1514)  Henry  discovered  that  both  the 


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244  HENRT  VIIL  CbAP.  xiT. 

emperor  and  the  king  of  Spain  had  deserted  his  alliance  for  that  of 
Louis ;  and  that  they  had  listened  to  a  proposition  for  the  marriage 
of  their  common  grandson,  the  archduke  Charles,  to  a  daughter  of 
the  French  king,  although  that  young  prince  was  already  affianced 
to  Henry's  sister  Mary.  Under  these  circumstances,  Henry  readily 
listened  to  the  suggestion  of  his  prisoner,  the  duke  of  Longueville, 
for  a  peace  with  France,  to  he  confirmed  by  Mary's  marriage  with 
Louis,  who  was  now  a  widower.  The  articles  were  easily  adjusted 
between  the  two  monarchs;  but  Louis  died  in  less  than  throe  months 
after  the  marriage  (January  1, 1515).  He  was  succeeded  by  Fran- 
cis, count  of  Angoultoe,  a  youth  of  21,  who  had  married  Louis's 
eldest  daughter.  At  that  time  Charles  Brandon,  duke  of  Suffolk, 
was  ambassador  at  the  court  of  France.  He  was  the  most  comely 
personage  of  his  time,  and  the  most  accomplished  in  all  the  exer- 
cises which  were  then  thought  to  befit  a  courtier  and  a  soldier. 
He  was  Henry's  chief  favourite  and  companion.  Taking  advantage 
of  the  opportunity  thus  offered  him,  he  contracted  a  secret  marriage 
with  Mary,  not  without  the  connivance  of  the  French  king.  The 
act,  which  incurred  Henry's  indignation  was  soon  forgiven,  through 
the  good  offices  of  Wolsey  and  the  French  monarch,  and  the  pair 
were  permitted  to  return  to  England. 

§  5.  The  numerous  enemies  whom  Wolsey's  elevation  had  raised 
against  him,  served  only  to  rivet  him  faster  in  Henry's  confidence. 
-Well  acquainted  with  the  king's  imperious  temper,  he  concealed 
from  him  the  ascendency  he  had  acquired ;  and  while  he  secretly 
directed  all  public  councils,  he  e\fr  pretended  profound  submission 
to  the  will  and  authority  of  his  master.  He  had  now  been  pro- 
moted to  the  see  of  York  (1514),  vrith  which  hd  was  allowed  to 
unite  Durham  in  1523,  and  the  abbey  of  St.  Alban's  in  1521.  In 
1515  the  pope  created  him  a  cardinaL  No  churchman  ever  carried 
to  a  greater  height  the  state  and  dignity  of  that  character.  His 
household  consisted  of  500  servants,  many  of  whom  were  knights 
and  gentlemen  ;  some  even  of  the  nobility  put  their  children  into 
his  family  as  a  place  of  education.  Whoever  was  distinguished 
by  any  art  or  science  paid  court  to  the  cardinal,  and  none  paid 
court  in  vain.  Literature,  which  was  then  in  its  infancy,  foimd 
in  him  a  generous  patron;  and  both  by  his  public  institutions 
and  private  bounty  he  gave  encouragement  to  every  branch  of 
learning.  Not  content  with  this  munificence,  which  gained  him 
the  approbation  of  the  wise,  he  strove  to  dazzle  the  eyes  of  the 
populace  by  the  splendoiu:  of  his  equipage  and  furniture,  the  costly 
embroidery  of  his  liveries,  and  the  lustre  of  his  apparel,  (hi  the 
resignation  of  the  great  seal  by  Warham,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
it  was  immediately  delivered  to  Wolsey  (December  22,  1515X 


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A.D.  1516-1519.     ELECTION  OF  EMPEROR  CHARLES  Y.       245 

If  this  new  accumulation  of  dignity  increased  his  enemies,  it  also 
seryed  to  exalt  his  personal  character,  and  to  proye  the  extent  of  his 
capacity.  A  strict  administration  of  justice  took  place  during  his 
enjoyment  of  this  high  office;  and  no  chancellor  ever  showed 
greater  care  or  impartiality  in  his  decisions. 

In  1618,  Francis  being  desirous  of  recovering  Toumay,  a  treaty 
was  entered  into  f;>r  the  cedmg  of  that  town  by  the  cardinal's  advice. 
To  give  the  measure  a  more  graceful  appearance,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  dauphin  and  the  princess  Mary,  the  king's  daughter,  both  of 
them  infants,  should  be  betrothed,  and  that  Toumay  should  be 
comddered  as  the  dowry  of  the  princess.  Francis  also  agreed  to 
pay  600,000  gold  crowns  in  twelve  annual  pajrments;  and  lest 
t^e  cardinal  should  think  himself  neglected  in  these  stipulations, 
he  was  promised  a  yearly  pension  of  12,000  livres,  as  an  equivalent 
for  the  loss  of  the  bishopric  of  Toumay. 

The  authority  of  Wolsey  was  about  this  time  further  increased 
by  his  being  invested  with  the  legatine  power,  by  virtue  of  which 
he  had  the  right  of  visiting  the  clergy  and  the  monasteries  in  Eng- 
land, and  holding  a  legatine  court.  He  claimed  also  jurisdiction  over 
the  bishops'  courts,  especially  in  the  matter  of  wills  and  testaments. 

{  6.  While  Henry,  indulging  himself  in  pleasure  and  amusement, 
intrusted  the  government  of  his  kingdom  to  his  minister,  the  death 
of  the  emperor  Maximilian  left  the  highest  dignity  in  Christendom 
open  to  competition  for  Christian  princes,  and  proved  a  kind  of  era 
in  the  political  system  of  Europe  (1519).  Francis  I.  and  Charles  I., 
king  of  Spain,  immediately  declared  themselves  candidates  for  the 
imperial  crown,  and  employed  every  expedient  of  money  or  intrigue 
which  promised  them  success.  Henry  also  was  encouraged  to 
advance  his  pretensions ;  but  his  minister,  Pace,  who  was  despatched 
to  the  electors,  found  that  he  had  begun  his  solicitations  too  late, 
and  that  the  votes  of  all  these  princes  were  already  i  re-engaged 
either  on  one  side  or  the  other.  Charles  ultimately  prevailed; 
and  was  thus  raised  to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  fortune  as  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  He  enjoyed  the  succession  of  Castile,  of 
Arragon,  of  Austria,  and  of  the  Netherlands;  he  inherited  the 
conquests  of  Naples  and  Grenada;  election  raised  him  to  the 
empire;  even  the  bounds  of  the  globe  seemed  to  be  enlarged  a 
little  before  his  time,  that  he  might  possess  the  whole  treasure, 
as  yet  entire  and  imrifled,  of  the  new  world.  Francis,  disgusted 
with  his  ill  success,  now  applied  himself,  by  way  of  counterpoise 
to  the  power  of  Charles,  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  Henry,  who 
possessed  the  felicity  of  being  able,  both  by  the  native  force  of  his 
kingdom  and  its  situation,  to  hold  the  balance  between  these  two 
powers.    He  solicited  an  interview  near  Calais,  in  expectation  of 


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246  HENRY  VIII.  Ohap.  xm 

being  able,  by  familiar  conversation,  to  gain  upon  his  friendship 
and  confidence;  and  as  Henry  himself  loved  show  and  magnificence, 
and  had  entertained  a  curiosity  of  being  personally  aoquunted 
with  the  French  king,  he  cheerfully  adjusted  all  the  preliminaries. 
Meanwhile  the  emperor,  politic  though  young,  being  informed  of 
the  intended  interview  between  Francis  and  Henry,  was  appre- 
hensive of  the  consequences,  and  took  the  opportunity,  in  his  pas- 
sage from  Spain  to  the  Low  (countries,  to  make  the  English  king 
a  still  higher  compliment  by  paying  him  a  visit  in  his  own 
dominions.  Hearing  of  his  nephew's  arrival,  Henry  hastened  to 
meet  him  at  Dover.  Besides  the  marks  of  regard  and  attachmeat 
which  Charles  gave  to  Henry,  he  gained  the  cardinal  to  his  interests 
by  holding  out  to  him  the  hope  of  attaining  the  papacy.  The 
views  of  Henry  himself,  indeed,  were  directed  towards  France  as 
his  ancient  inheritance ;  and  no  power  was  more  fitted  than  the 
emperor  to  assist  him  in  such  a  design. 

The  day  of  Charles's  departure  (May  31, 1520),  Henry  went  over 
to  Calais  with  the  queen  and  his  whole  court ;  and  thence  proceeded 
to  Guisnes,  a  small  town  near  the  frontiers.  Francis,  attended  in 
like  manner,  came  to  Ardres,  a  few  miles  distant;  and  the  two 
monarchs  met  for  the  first  time  in  the  fields  at  a  place  situated 
between  these  two  towns,  but  still  within  the  English  pale;  for 
Francis  agreed  to  pay  this  compliment  to  Henry  in  consideration 
of  that  prince's  passing  the  sea  that  he  might  be  present  at  the 
interview.  Wolsey,  to  whom  both  kings  had  intrusted  the  regula- 
tion of  the  ceremonial,  contrived  this  circumstance  in  order  to  do 
honour  to  his  master.  The  nobility  both  of  France  and  England 
here  displayed  their  magnificence  with  such  emulation  and  pro- 
fuse  expense  as  procured  for  the  place  of  interview  the  name  of  Hm 
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  The  two  monarchs,  who  were  the  most 
comely  personages  of  the  age,  as  well  as  the  most  expert  in  every 
military  exercise,  pas8e<l  the  time  till  their  departure  in  tournaments 
and  Dther  entertainments,  more  than  in  any  serious  business.  Henry 
then  paid  a  visit  to  the  emperor  and  Margaret  of  Savoy,  at  Grave- 
lines,  and  engaged  them  to  go  along  with  him  to  Calais.  Charles 
here  completed  the  impression  which  he  had  begun  to  make  on 
Henry  and  his  favourite ;  and,  to  secure  the  cardinal  still  further 
in  his  interests,  promised  him  a  pension  from  the  ecclesiastical 
revenues  of  Toledo  and  Palencia  in  Castile ;  but  never  paid  it. 

§  7.  The  violent  personal  emulation  and  political  jealousy  which 
had  taken  place  between  the  emperor  and  the  French  king  soon 
broke  out  in  hostilities  (1521);  but  while  these  ambitious  and 
warlike  princes  were  acting  against  each  other  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  they  still  made  professions  of  peace,  and  carried  their  com? 


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JLD.  1519-1622.    EXECUTION  OF  BUCKINGHAM. 


247 


plaints  to  Hemy,  as  to  the  umpire  between  them.  The  king,  who 
pretended  to  be  neutral,  engaged  them  to  send  their  ambasMdors 
to  Calais,  there  to  negociate  a  peace,  under  the  mediation  of  Wolsey 
and  the  pope's  nuncio.  The  emperor  was  well  apprised  of  the 
partiality  of  these  mediators,  and  his  demands  in  the  conference 
were  so  unreasonable  as  plainly  proved  him  conscious  of  the  advan- 
tage. Francis  rejected  the  terms ;  the  congress  of  Calais  broke  up ; 
and  Wolsey  soon  after  took  a  journey  to  Bruges,  where  he  met 
the  emperor,  and  arranged  the  terms,  in  his  master's  name,  for 
an  offensive  aDiance  with  Charles  and  the  pope  against  France. 
It  was  stipulated  that  England  should  next  summer  invade  that 
kingdom  with  40,000  men;  and  that  Charles  should  marry  the 
princess  Mary,  the  king's  only  child,  who  had  now  some  prospect 
of  inheriting  the  crown.  The  death  of  the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
tried  and  executed  for  high  treason  in  May  17,  1521,  for  letting 
£Edl  some  unguarded  expressions,  as  if  he  thought  himself  entitled 
to  succeed,  in  case  the  king  should  die  without  issue,  was  popularly 
attributed  to  Wolsey,  and  provoked  more  than  ever  the  resentment 
of  the  nobility.* 

§  8.  Europe  was  at  this  time  in  a  ferment  with  the  progress  o£ 
Luther  and  the  Reformation.  Henry,  who  had  been  educated  in  a 
strict  attachment  to  the  church  of  Rome,  wrote  a  book  in  Latin  in 
defence  of  the  Seven  Sacraments  against  Luther,  and  sent  a  copy 
of  it  to  pope  Leo,  who  received  so  magnificent  a  present  with  great 
professions  of  regard,  and  conferred  on  the  king  the  title  of  Defender 
of  the  Faith  (October  11, 1521).  This  was  one  of  the  last  acts  of 
Leo  X.,  who  died  before  the  close  of  the  year,  in  the  flower  of 
his  age.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  papal  chair  by  Adrian  VI., 
a  Fleming,  who  had  been  tutor  to  the  emperor  Charles.  The 
emperor,  who  had  taken  no  pains  to  make  good  his  promises  to 
Wolsey,  paid  a  second  visit  to  England  in  1522.  Flattering  the 
vanity  of  the  king  and  the  cardinal,  he  renewed  to  Wolsey  all 
the  promises,  which  he  had  made  him,  of  seconding  his  pretensions 
to  the  papal  throne.  War  was  now  declared  against  France.  The 
English  army,  which  landed  at  Calais  imder  the  command  of  Surrey, 
did  not  accomplish  anything  of  importance;  but  in  Scotland  the 
regent  Albany,  though  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army,  was 
frightened  into  a  disgraceful  truce  with  lord  Dacre;  and  in  the 
following  year  he  retreated  still  more  disgracefully.    Soon  after  he 


*  Henry  Stafford,  duke  of  BacUngham, 
was  the  son  of  the  duke  of  Buckingham 
executed  by  Richard  III.,  and  was  de- 
scended hy  the  female  line  from  the  duke 
wf  Qk>iioe8ter,yoanBest  son  of  Edward  UL 


(See  Genealogical  Table,  p.  223.)  The 
office  of  ometable,  which  this  nobleman 
inherited  from  the  Bohons,  earls  of  Here- 
ford, was  forfeited,  and  was  never  after- 
wards revived  in  Rngland. 


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248  HENBY  Vra.  Chap.  xiv. 

went  over  to  France,  and  never  again  returned  to  Scotland.  The 
Scottish  nation,  agitated  by  domestic  fetctions,  was  not  during 
several  years  in  a  condition  to  give  any  more  disturbance  to  Eng- 
land ;  and  Henry  had  full  leisure  to  prosecute  his  designs  on  the 
continent. 

§  9.  To  carry  on  the  war  against  Prance,  Henry  in  1523  sum- 
moned parliament,  and  demanded  a  subsidy  of  800,000?.  To  hasten 
it,  Wolsey  went  in  state  to  the  lower  house,  to  discuss  the  matter, 
but  was  informed  that  this  practice  was  neither  expedient  nor  agree- 
able to  their  ancient  liberties.  He  desired  a  property  tax  of  twenty 
per  cent,  to  be  raised  at  once ;  but  the  house  demurred.  After  a 
long  debate,  it  was  concluded  that  five  per  cent,  should  be  paid  on 
all  property  below  201.,  and  ten  per  cent,  on  all  pro|  erty  above  that 
value,  for  the  first  and  second  year ;  and  the  same  rates  for  the 
third  and  fourth  year. 

The  sum  granted  by  the  commons,  besides  being  distributed 
over  so  long  a  period,  was  wholly  inadequate  to  the  expenses  of  the 
war,  which  required  to  be  pushed  with  the  greatest  vigour  and 
alacrity.  France  was  threatened  by  a  formidable  confederacy 
(1523).  It  was  exposed  to  still  greater  peril  by  a  domestic  con- 
spiracy which  had  been  formed  by  Charles,  duke  of  Bourbon,  con- 
stable of  France,  who,  entering  into  the  emperor's  service,  employed 
all  the  force  of  his  enterprising  spirit,  and  his  great  talents  for 
war,  to  the  prejudice  of  his  native  country.  A  league  was  formed 
by  Henry,  Charles,  and  Bourbon,  for  the  conquest  and  partition 
of  France.  Provence,  Dauphin^,  Auvergne,  and  the  Bourbonnais, 
were  to  be  erected  into  a  kingdom  for  Bourbon ;  Burgundy,  Lan- 
guedoc.  Champagne,  and  Picardy,  were  to  be  given  to  the  emperor ; 
and  the  king  of  England  was  to  have  the  rest  of  France  (1523). 
The  duke  of  Suflfolk  led  an  army  into  France;  but,  though  he 
advanced  within  sight  of  Paris,  he  returned  to  Calais  without 
effecting  anything  of  importance.  Meanwhile,  pope  Adrian  VI. 
died  (September  24,  1523),  and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  VI.,  of 
the  family  of  the  Medici,  supported  by  the  imperial  foction.  Wolsey 
was  now  fully  convinced — if  he  was  not  convinced  before— of  the 
emperor's  insincerity ;  but  the  interests  of  England  were  superior 
to  all  other  considerations,  and,  if  he  nourished  resentment  at  the 
treatment  he  had  received,  he  did  not  suffer  his  passions  to  inter- 
fere with  his  policy. 

§  10.  The  year  1525  was  marked  by  a  memorable  event 
Francis  had  been  expelled  from  Italy  in  the  preceding  year ;  and 
the  imperialists  had  invaded  the  south  of  France  and  laid  siege 
to  Marseilles.  But  upon  the  approach  of  the  French  king  with  a 
numerous  army,  they  found  themselves  under  a  necessity  of  raising 


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AJ>.  162a-1526.      BATTLE  OF  PAVIA — ^TBEATY.  249 

ihe  siege ;  and  they  led  their  forces,  weakened,  baffled,  and  dis- 
heartened, into  Italy.  Notwithstanding  the  advanced  season, 
Francis  pursued  them  into  that  country,  and  sat  down  before  Pavia ; 
but,  after  he  had  invested  it  several  months,  the  imperial  generals 
came  to  its  relief.  The  French  were  put  to  the  rout,  and  Francis, 
surrounded  by  his  enemies,  was  compelled  to  surrender  himself 
prisoner  (February  24,  1525).  Almost  the  whole  army,  full  of 
nobility  and  brave  officers,  either  perished  by  the  sword,  or  were 
made  prisoners. 

Henry  was  at  first  ostensibly  inclined  to  take  advantage  of  the 
French  monarch's  misfortune.  He  pressed  the  emperor  to  invade 
France  next  summer  from  the  south,  whilst  he  himself  entered  it 
on  the  north  :  he  anticipated  that  they  might  meet  at  Paris,  when, 
after  being  crowned  king  of  France,  he  would  assist  Charles  to 
recover  Burgundy,  and  accompany  him  to  Rome  for  his  coronation. 
If  the  emperor  fulfilled  his  contract  in  marrying  the  princess  Mary, 
he  held  out  the  prospect  that  he  or  his  posterity  might  eventually 
succeed  to  the  crown  of  France,  and  eveji  of  England  itself.  But 
Charles  was  in  no  humour  to  let  Henry  reap  the  chief  benefit  from 
his  success,  or  to  seek,  by  an  invasion  of  France,  advantages  which 
the  captivity  of  Francis  afibrded  an  opportunity  to  extort.  Under 
one  pretence  or  another,  he  declined  to  invade  France,  intending 
to  secure  his  own  interests  alone  from  the  necessities  of  his  roysd 
prisoner.  Henry  resolved  to  anticipate  him.  He  entered  secretly 
into  negociations  with  Louise,  the  queen-mother  and  regent,  for 
which  Wolsey  had  already  paved  the  way  some  months  before, 
engaging  to  procure  her  son  his  lit)erty  on  reasonable  conditions. 
A  treaty  was  concluded ;  the  regent  acknowledged  the  kingdom 
Henry's  debtor  for  2,000,000  crowns,  to  be  discharged  in  half- 
yearly  payments  of  50,000  crowns  :  after  which  Henry  was  to 
receive,  during  life,  a  yearly  pension  of  100,000  crowns.  The 
interests  of  Wolsey  were  secured  by  a  pension  of  100,000  crowns, 
as  a  compensation  for  the  loss  of  his  Spanish  pension,  and  the 
arrears  due  to  him  for  relinquishing  the  adniinistration  of  Toiu*nay. 

§  11.  To  meet  the  expenses  incurred  by  these  various  negocia- 
tions, Henry  had  recourse  to  an  Amicable  Loan,  as  it  was  called. 
As  the  sub^dy  levied  by  parliament  had  not  yet  been  fully  paid, 
this  attempt  met  with  considerable  opposition.  It  was  urged  that 
the  labouring  population,  especially  those  who  were  engaged  in  the 
woollen  trades,  could  be  no  longer  set  to  work  whilst  the  country 
was  thus  drained  of  its  capital.  The  people  broke  out  into  murmurs 
and  complaints;  their  refractory  disposition  threatened  a  general 
insurrection.  But,  as  they  were  not  headed  by  any  considerable 
^-jperson,  it  was  easy  for  the  duke  of  Suffolk  and  the  earl  of  Surrey, 


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250  HENRT  VIIL  Chap.  xit. 

now  duke  of  Norfolk,  by  employing  persuasion  and  authority,  to 
induce  the  ringleaders  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  surrender  them- 
selyes  prisoners.  The  king,  finding  it  dangerous  to  punish  criminals 
engaged  in  so  popular  a  cause,  was  determined,  notwithstanding  his 
imperious  temper,  to  grant  them  a  general  pardon;  and  he  pru- 
dently overlooked  their  guilt. 

Early  in  1526  the  French  king  recovered  his  liberty  in  accord- 
ance with  a  treaty  concluded  at  Madrid  ;  the  principal  condition  of 
which  was  the  restoring  of  Francis  to  liberty,  and  the  delivery  of 
his  two  eldest  sons  as  hostiges  to  the  emperor  for  the  cession 
of  Burgundy.  If  any  difficulty  should  afterwards  occur  in  the 
execution  of  this  last  article,  from  the  opposition  of  the  States, 
either  of  France  or  the  province,  Francis  stipulated  that  in  six 
weeks'  time  he  should  return  to  prison,  and  remain  there  till  the 
full  performance  of  the  treaty.  But  at  the  very  moment  of  signing 
it  he  entered  a  secret  protest  against  it,  and  declared  that  he  would 
never  observe  it ;  and  when  he  returned  to  France,  he  openly  showed 
his  resolution  to  evade  its.  performance,  in  which  he  was  encouraged 
by  the  English  court.  War  was  therefore  renewed  between  Francis 
and  Charles.  In  the  following  year  (1527),  Bourbon,  who  com- 
manded the  imperialists  in  Italy,  finding  it  difficult  to  support  his 
army,  determined  to  lead  it  to  Rome,  which  was  taken  by  storm  : 
but  the  duke  himself  was  slain  in  the  assault.  Pope  Clement  was 
taken  captive,  and  the  city  was  exposed  to  all  the  violence  and 
brutality  of  a  licentious  soldiery. 

The  sack  of  Rome  and  the  captivity  of  the  pope  caused  general 
indignation  among  all  the  catholics  of  Europe.  A  new  treaty  was 
concluded  between  Henry  and  Francis,  with  a  view  of  expelling 
the  imperialists  from  Italy,  and  restoring  the  pope  to  liberty. 
Henry  agreed  finally  to  renounce  all  claims  to  the  crown  of  France; 
claims  which  might  now  indeed  be  deemed  chimerical,  but  which 
had  often  served  as  a  pretence  for  exciting  the  unwary  English  to 
wage  war  upon  the  French  nation.  As  a  return  for  this  concession, 
Francis  bound  himself  and  his  successors  to  pay  T  0,000  crowns 
a  year  to  Henry  and  his  successors ;  and,  that  greater  solemnity 
might  be  given  to  this  treaty,  it  was  agreed  that  the  parliaments 
and  great  nobility  of  both  kingdoms  should  give  their  assent 
to  it. 

§  12.  About  this  time  Henry  began  to  express  those  doubts  he 
had  already  entertained  respecting  the  lawfulness  of  his  marriage 
with  Katharine  of  Arragon,  his  brother's  widow,  though  he  had 
been  united  to  her  18  years.  Several  causes  tended  to  render  his 
conscience  more  scrupiilous.  The  queen  was  older  than  the  king 
by  no  less  than  six  years ;  and  the  decay  of  her  beauty  contributed, 


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A.D.  153^-1529        BEPUDIATES  KATHARINE.  251 

notwithstanding  her  blameless  character  and  deportment,  to  render 
her  person  un^usceptable.  Though  she  had  borne  him  several 
children,  they  had  all  died  in  early  infancy,  except  one  daughter. 
The  king  professed  to  be  the  more  struck  with  this  misfortune, 
because  the  curse  of  being  childless  is  the  threat  contained  in  the 
Mosaical  law  against  those  who  espouse  their  brother's  widow. 
He  urged  that  the  succession  of  the  crown  was  in  danger ;  and  that 
doubts  of  Mary's  legitimacy  might  hereafter  throw  the  kingdom 
into  confusion.  Bnt  Henry  had  already  fixed  his  affections  on 
Anne  Boleyn.  This  young  lady  was  daughter  of  sir  Thomas 
Boieyn,  and,  through  her  mother,  grand-daughter  of  the  late  and 
niece  of  the  present  duke  of  Norfolk.  Anne  herself,  in  early  youth, 
had  been  carried  over  to  Paris,  and  returned  to  England  in  1522. 
As  inclination  and  policy  seemed  thus  to  conciu'  in  making  the 
king  desirous  of  a  divorce,  he  resolved  to  apply  to  Clement  VI., 
and  he  sent  Knight,  his  secretary,  to  Rome  for  that  purpose. 
The  pope,  who  was  then  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the  emperor, 
and  had  no  hopes  of  securing  his  liberty  except  by  the  efforts 
of  the  league  which  Henry  had  formed  with  Francis  and  the 
Italian  powers  in  order  to  oppose  the  ambition  of  Charles,  soon 
after  escaped  in  disguise  to  Orvieto;  but  as  he  still  remained  in 
dread  of  the  imperialists,  he  had  the  strongest  motives  to  embrace 
every  opportunity  of  gratifying  the  English  monarch.  When  the 
English  secretary,  therefore,  solicited  him  in  private,  he  received 
a  very  &vourable  answer.  After  many  negociations  and  some 
delay,  he  granted  a  commission  in  1528  to  cardinals  Wolsey  and 
Campeggio,  to  try  the  validity  of  the  marriage.  Charles  had, 
meanwhile,  promised  Katharine,  his  aunt,  his  utmost  protection ; 
and  in  all  his  negociations  with  the  pope  he  pressed  urgently  for 
the  recal  of  the  commission  issued  to  the  two  cardinals. 

Campeggio  arrived  in  England,  October  7,  and  the  two  legates 
opened  their  court  at  London,  May  31,  1529,  and,  after  certain  pre- 
Hminaries,  cited  the  king  and  queen  to  appear  before  them.  They 
both  presented  themselves,  and  the  king  answered  to  his  name 
when  called ;  but  the  queen,  instead  of  answering  to  hers,  rose  from 
her  seat,  and,  throwing  herself  at  the  king's  feet,  made  a  very 
pathetic  harangue,  which  her  virtue,  her  dignity,  and  her  misfor- 
tunes rendered  the  more  affecting.  She  concluded  by  declaring  that 
she  would  not  submit  her  cause  to  be  tried  by  a  court  whose  de- 
pendence on  her  enemies  was  too  visible  ever  to  allow  her  any 
hopes  of  obtaining  from  them  an  equitable  or  impartial  decision. 
With  these  words,  she  rose,  and  making  the  king  a  low  rever- 
ence she  departed  firom  the  court,  and  never  would  again  appear 
in  it.    The  trial  was  spun  out  till  the  23rd  of  July,  the' two 


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252  HENRT  Vm.  Orap,  xnr. 

legates  udng  all  their  perauasions,  but  in  vain,  to  induce  Katharine 
to  consent  to  a  separation  and  dissolution  of  the  marriage.  The 
king  was  anxiously  expecting  a  sentence  in  his  favour,  when,  to 
his  great  surprise,  Gampeggio  prorogued  the  court  till  the  Ist  of 
October.  A  few  days  afterwards  the  king  and  queen  received  a 
citation  from  the  pope  to  appear  either  in  person  or  by  proxy  at 
Rome.  This  measure,  which  the  emperor  had  extorted  from  the 
timidity  of  Clement,  put  an  end  to  all  the  hopes  of  success  which 
the  king  had  so  long  and  so  anxiously  cherished. 

§  13.  Wolsey  had  long  foreseen  this  measure  as  the  sure  fore- 
runner of  his  ruin.  He  had  employed  himself  with  the  utmost 
assiduity  and  earnestness  to  bring  the  sffalr  to  a  happy  issue: 
he  was  not,  therefore,  to  be  blamed  for  the  unprosperous  event 
which  Clement's  partiality  had  produced.  Anne  Boleyn  also,  who 
was  prepossessed  against  him,  imputed  to  him  the  failure  of 
her  hopes.  Even  the  high  opinion  which  Henry  entertained  of  the 
cardinal's  capacity  tended  to  hasten  his  downfall ;  while,  encouraged 
in  his  animosity  against  the  unfortunate  cardinal  by  Anne  Boleyn 
and  her  friends,  he  imputed  the  bad  success  of  that  minister's  un- 
dertakings, not  to  ill  fortune,  or  to  mistake,  but  to  the  malignity 
or  infidelity  of  his  intentions.  Wolsey  appeared  for  the  last  time  in 
the  court  of  Chancery,  October  9.  The  same  day  an  indictment 
was  preferred  against  him  in  the  King's  Bench  for  breach  of  pr»- 
murtire^  in  procuring  bulls  from  Rome  and  exercising  the  legatine 
authority.  The  great  seal  was  taken  from  him  a  few  days  after, 
and  delivered  by  the  king  to  sir  Thomas  More,  a  man  who,  besides 
the  ornaments  of  an  elegant  literature,  possessed  the  highest 
virtue,  integrity,  and  capacity.  Wolsey  was  ordered  to  depart 
from  Tork-place,  a  palace  which  he  had  built  in  London,  and 
which,  though  it  really  belonged  to  the  see  of  York,  was  seized  by 
Henry,  and  became  afterwards  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Eng- 
land, by  the  title  of  Whitehall.  All  his  furniture  and  plate  were 
seized;  and  he  was  ordered  to  retire  to  Esher,  a  country  seat 
he  possessed  near  Hampton  Court.  The  world,  that  had  paid  him 
such  abject  court  during  his  prosperity,  now  entirely  deserted  him 
on  this  fatal  reverse  of  all  his  fortunes. 

Upon  the  meeting  of  parliament  (November  3),  which  had  not 
been  summoned  for  seven  years,  the  House  of  Lords  voted  a  long 
charge  against  Wolsey,  consisting  of  44  articles,  and  acccompanied 
it  with  an  application  for  his  punishment  and  his  removal  from 
all  authority.  The  articles  were  sent  do\vn  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, where  Thomas  Cromwell,  his  servant,  and  who  had  been  raised 
by  him  from  a  very  low  station,  defended  his  unfortunate  patron 
with  much   spirit  anei  generosity.      After  some  months  Wolsey 


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A.D.  1529.  RISE  OF  CRANMfctt.  253 

obtained  bin  i  ardon.  He  was  alluwed  to  retam  the  see  of  York,  and 
a  small  portion  of  his  plate  and  furniture  was  restored. 

§  14.  The  general  peace  established  this  summer  in  Europe  by 
the  treaty  of  Cambray  (August  5, 1529)  left  Henry  full  leisure  to 
prosecute  his  divorce.  Amidst  the  anxieties  with  which  he  was 
agitated,  he  was  often  tempted  to  break  off  all  connections  with  the 
court  of  Rome.  He  found  his  prerogative  firmly  established  at 
home ;  and  he  observed  that  his  people  were  in  general  much  dis- 
gusted with  clerical  usurpations,  and  disposed  to  reduce  the  powers 
and  privileges  of  the  ecclesiastical  order.  But  notwithstanding  these 
inducements,  Henry  had  strong  motives  still  to  desire  a  good  agree- 
ment with  the  sovereign  pontiff.  He  apprehended  the  danger  of 
such  great  innovations :  he  dreaded  the  reproach  of  heresy :  he 
abhorred  all  connections  with  the  Lutherans,  the  chief  opponents  of 
the  papal  power:  and  having  once  exerted  himself  with  much 
applause,  as  he  imagined,  in  defence  of  the  papal  authority,  he 
was  ashamed  to  retract  his  former  opinions,  and  betray  from  passion 
such  a  palpable  inconsistency.  While  he  was  agitated  by  these 
contrary  motives,  an  expedient  was  proposed,  which,  as  it  promised 
a  solution  of  all  difiiciilties,  was  embraced  by  him  with  the  greatest 
joy  and  satisfaction. 

The  story  goes,  though  many  of  its  details  are  certainly  apocryphal, 
that  Dr.  Thomas  Cranmer,  fellow  of  Jesus  College  in  Cambridge,  fell 
one  evening  by  accident  into  company  with  Gardiner,  now  the  king's 
secretary,  and  Fox,  the  king's  almoner ;  and,  as  the  business  of  the 
divorce  became  the  subject  of  conversation,  he  observed  that  the 
readiest  way,  either  to  quiet  Henry's  conscience  or  extort  the 
pope's  consent,  would  be  to  consult  the  universities  with  regard 
to  this  controverted  point :  if  they  agreed  to  approve  of  the 
king's  marriage  with  Katharine,  his  remorse  would  naturally  cease ; 
if  they  condemned  it,  the  pope  would  find  it  difticult  to  resist  the 
solicitations  of  so  great  a  monarch,  seconded  by  the  opinion  of 
the  learned  men  in  Christendom.  When  the  king  was  infonned 
of  the  proposal,  he  was  delighted  with  it,  and  swore,  with  more 
alacrity  than  delicacy,  that  Cranmer  had  got  the  right  sow  by  the 
ear.  He  sent  for  that  divine,  engaged  him  to  write  in  defence  of 
the  divorce,  and,  in  prosecution  of  the  scheme  proposed,  employed 
his  agents  to  collect  the  judgments  of  all  the  universities  in 
Europe.  The  king's  money  was  freely  emi)loyed.  Several  gave 
sentence  in  the  king's  favour;  not  only  those  of  France,  Paris, 
Orleans,  Bourges,  Toulouse,  Angers,  which  might  be  supposed  to 
lie  under  the  influence  of  their  prince,  Henry's  ally;  but  also 
those  of  Venice,  Ferrara,  Padua,  and  even  Bologna.  Oxford  alone, 
and  Cambridge,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  Lutheranism,  made  some 
18 


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264  HENKY  VIII.  Chap,  xit 

difficulty.  Their  opinion,  however,  conformable  to  that  of  the 
other  univer^ties  of  Europe,  was  at  last  obtained,  though  not 
without  the  use  of  threats. 

Meanwhile  the  enemies  of  Wolsey,  and  Anne  Boleyn  in  par- 
ticular, had  persuaded  Henry  to  renew  the  prosecution  against  his 
ancient  fiEivourite.  The  caidinal  had,  by  the  Icing's  command, 
remoTed  to  his  see  of  Tork^  and  had  taken  up  his  residence  at 
Oawood,  in  Yorkshire,  where  he  rendered  himself  extremely  popular 
in  the  neighbourhood  by  his  affability  and  hospitality.  Here  he 
was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  high  treason  by  the  earl  of  Northumber- 
land, who  had  received  orders  to  conduct  him  to  London  in  order 
to  his  trial.  The  cardinal,  partly  from  the  fatigues  of  his  journey, 
partly  from  agitation  of  mind,  was  seized  with  a  disorder  which 
turned  into  a  dysentery ;  and  he  was  able  with  some  difficulty  to 
reach  Leicester  Abbey.  When  the  abbot  and  the  monks  advanced 
to  receive  him  with  much  respect  and  reverence,  he  told  them  that 
he  was  come  to  lay  his  bones  amongst  them ;  and  he  immediately 
took  to  his  bed,  whence  he  never  rose  more.  A  little  before  he 
expired  he  said,  among  other  things,  to  sir  William  Kingston, 
constable  of  the  Tower,  who  had  him  in  custody, — "  Had  I  but 
served  God  as  diligently  as  I  have  served  the  king,  he  would  not 
have  given  me  over  in  my  grey  hairs.  Let  me  advise  you,"  he 
added,  "  if  you  be  hereafter  one  of  the  privy  coimcil,  as  by  your 
wisdom  you  are  meet,  take  care  what  matter  you  put  into  the  king's 
head :  for  you  shall  never  put  it  out  again."  Thus  died  this  famous 
cardinal  (November  29,  1530),  whose  character  seems  to  have  con- 
tained as  singular  a  variety  as  the  fortune  to  which  he  was  exposed. 
Whatever  were  his  faults,  he  was  undoubtedly  a  minister  of  great 
capacity,  "  enlightened  beyond  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  diligent 
in  business,  a  good  sei*vant  to  the  king,"  whose  cruelty  was  re- 
strained and  whose  passions  and  caprices  were  kept  within  bounds 
by  Wolsey's  influence.  But  the  best  proof  of  the  excellence  of  his 
administration  is  to  be  found  in  the  comparison  of  the  king's  conduct 
when  the  cardinal  directed  his  council  and  after  his  fall. 


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Gold  medal  of  Heniy  VIU. 
Obrerae :  Hsmuovs  .  octa  .  amollb  .  vramci  .  st  .  htb  .  kbx  .  fidsi  .  DsnaraoK .  kt. 

EH  .  TERK  .  BCCLK  .  AMGU  .  ST  .  HIBB  .  8VB  .  CHBI8T .  OAPVT  .  SVPBKMVM. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

HENBT  Vin.— OONTINUBD.      FROM    THB    DEATH  OF  WOLBET  TO  THB 
DEATH  OF  THB  KING.      A.D.   1530-1547. 

§  1.  Proceedings  against  the  clergy  and  the  court  of  Rome.  Henry's  mar- 
riage with  Anne  Boleyn.  Katharine  divorced.  §  2.  The  Reformation. 
Establishment  of  the  succession  and  committal  of  Fisher  and  More. 
The  king  declared  supreme  head  of  the  church.  §  3.  State  of  parties. 
Tyndale*s  Bible.  Pei-secutions.  The  Holy  Maid  of  Kent.  §  4.  Exe- 
cution of  Fisher  and  More.  Henry  excommunicated.  Death  of  queen 
Katharine.  §  5.  Suppression  of  the  lesser  monasteries.  Trial  and 
execution  of  queen  Anne.  Henry  marries  Jane  Seymour.  Settlement 
of  the  succession.  §  6.  Discontents  and  insurrections.  Pilgrimage 
of  Grace.  Birth  of  prince  Edward  and  death  of  queen  Jane.  Sup- 
pression of  the  greater  monasteries.  §  7.  The  pope  publishes  his  bull 
of  excommunication.  Cardinal  Pole.  §  8.  Law  of  the  Six  Articles. 
Senrility  of  the  parliament  and  tyranny  of  the  king.  §  9.  Henry 
marries  Anne  of  Cleves.  §  10.  Fall  and  execution  of  Cromwell. 
Henry's  divorce  from  Anne  of  Cleyes.  §  11.  Religious  persecutions. 
Execution  of  the  countess  of  Salisbury.  Marriage,  trial,  and  execution 
of  queen  Katharine  Howard.  §  12.  War  with  Scotland  and  death  of 
James  V.  Henry's  marriage  with  Katharine  Parr.  War  with  France. 
Peace  concluded.  §  13.  Scotch  affairs.  Theological  dogmatism  of 
Henry.  His  queen  in  danger.  §  14.  Attainder  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk 
and  execution  of  the  earl  of  Surrey.     Death  and  character  of  the  king. 

§  1.  Ik  1531  a  new  session  of  parliament  was  held,  together  with 
a  convocation;  and  the  king  here  gave  strong  proofs  of  his  ex- 


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256  HENRT  Vin.  CttiP.  XX 

tensive  authc^ty,  as  well  as  of  his  intention  to  turn  it  to  the 
depression  of  the  church.  The  law  imder  which  Wulsey  had  been 
prosecuted  was  now  turned  against  the  clergy.  It  was  pretended 
that  every  one  who  had  submitted  to  the  legatine  court,  that  is, 
the  whole  church,  had  violated  the  Statute  of  Provisors,  and  been 
guilty  of  the  offence  of  prce7nunire,  and  the  attorney-general 
accordingly  brought  an  indictment  against  them.  The  convocation 
knew  that  it  would  be  in  vain  to  oppose  the  king's  arbitrary  wilL 
They  therefore  threw  themselves  on  his  mercy,  and  agreed  to  pay 
118,8402.  for  a  pardon.  A  confession  was  likewise  extorted  from 
them,  that  the  king  was  the  protector  cmd  the  supreme  head  of  the 
church  and  clergy  of  England ;  though  some  of  them  had  the  dexterity 
to  get  a  clause  inserted  which  invalidated  the  whole  submission,  and 
which  ran  in  these  terms :  in  so  far  as  is  permitted  by  the  law  of 
Christ,  By  this  strict  execution  of  the  Statute  of  Provisors,  a  great 
part  of  the  profit,  and  still  more  of  the  power,  of  the  court  of  Rome 
was  cut  off ;  and  the  connections  between  the  pope  and  the  English 
clergy  were,  in  some  measure,  dissolved.  The  next  session  found  both 
king  and  parliament  in  the  same  dispositions.  An  act  was  passed 
against  levying  annates  or  first-fi-uits  (1532).*  The  better  to  keep 
the  pope  in  awe,  the  king  was  intrusted  with  a  power  of  regulating 
these  payments,  and  of  enfoicing  or  relaxing  this  act  at  his  pleasure : 
and  it  was  voted  that  any  censures  which  should  be  passed  by  the 
court  of  Rome,  on  account  of  that  law,  should  be  entirely  disre- 
garded ;  and  that  the  mass  should  be  said,  and  the  sacraments 
administered,  as  if  no  such  censures  bad  been  issued.  After  the 
prorogation,  sir  Thomas  More,  the  chancellor,  foreseeing  that  all  the 
measures  of  the  king  and  i^rliament  led  to  a  breach  with  the 
church  of  Rome,  and  to  an  alteration  of  religion,  with  which  his 
principles  would  not  admit  him  to  concur,  desired  leave  to  resign 
the  great  seal ;  and  he  descended  from  his  high  station  with  more 
joy  and  alacrity  than  he  had  mounted  up  to  it.  The  king,  who 
entertained  a  high  opinion  of  his  virtue,  received  his  resignation 
with  some  difficulty ;  and  he  delivered  the  great  seal  soon  after  to 
sir  Thomas  Audley  (1532). 

During  these  transactions  in  England  the  court  of  Rome  was 
not  without  solicitude.  It  entertained  just  apprehensions  of  losing 
entirely  its  authority  in  England.  Yet  the  queen's  appeal  was 
received  at  Rome ;  the  king  was  cited  to  appear ;  and  several  con- 
sistories were  held  to  examine  the  validity  of  their  marriage. 
Henry  declined  to  plead  his  cause  before  this  court ;  and,  in  order 

*  These  were  a  year's  inoome  of  their  |  preforments.    They  were  one  of  the  mala 
aees.  gtren  by  all  bishops  and  archbishops  I  sonroes  of  tbe  papal  revenue 
to  the  pope,  upon  preaentation  to  their  ' 


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A.D.  1581-1584.      MARRIES  ANNE  BOLEYN.  257 

to  add  greater  security  to  his  intended  defection  from  Rome,  he 
I^ocured  an  interview  with  Francis  at  Boulogne  and  Calais,  where 
he  renewed  his  personal  friendship  as  well  as  public  alliance  with 
that  monarch,  and  concerted  measures  for  their  mutual  defence. 
And  now,  fully  determined  in  his  own  mind,  as  well  as  resolute 
to  abide  all  consequences,  he  privately  celebrated  his  marriage 
with  Anne  Boleyn  (January  26, 1533),  whom  he  had  previously 
created  marchioness  of  Pembroke.  In  the  next  parliament  an 
act  was  made  against  all  appeals  to  Rome  in  cases  of  matrimony, 
divorces,  wills,  and  other  suits  cognizable  in  ecclesiastical  courts. 
Cranmer,  who  had  been  created  archbishop  of  Canterbury  on  the 
death  of  Warham,  opened  his  court  at  Dunstable  for  examining  the 
validity  of  Elatharine's  marriage.  Katharine,  who  resided  at  Ampt- 
hill,  six  miles  distant,  refused  to  appear  either  in  person  or  by  proxy. 
Cranmer  pronounced  sentence,  and  annulled  the  king's  marriage 
with  Katharine  as  unlawful  and  invalid  from  the  beginning  (May 
28).  By  a  subsequent  sentence  he  ratified  the  marriage  with  Anne 
Boleyn,  who  soon  afterwards  was  publicly  crowned,  with  all  the 
pomp  and  dignity  suited  to  that  ceremony.  To  complete  the 
king's  satisfaction  on  the  conclusion  of  this  intricate  and  vexatious 
afiair,  she  was  safely  delivered  of  a  daughter  (September  7, 1533), 
who  received  the  name  of  Elizabeth,  and  afterwards  swayed  the 
sceptre  with  such  renown  and  felicity.  The  pope,  on  the  other  hand, 
formally  pronounced  the  judgment  of  Cranmer  to  be  illegal,  and 
declared  Henry  to  be  excommunicated  if  he  adhered  to  it. 

§  2.  The  quarrel  between  Henry  and  the  pope  was  nov  irrecon- 
cilable, and  the  year  1634  may  be  considered  as  the  era  of  the 
separation  of  the  English  church  from  Rome.  By  several  acts  of 
parliament  passed  in  this  year  the  papal  authority  in  England  was 
annulled;  and  persons  paying  any  regard  to  it  incurred  the  penalties 
of  prcBmunire.  Monasteries  were  subjected  to  the  visitation  and 
government  of  the  king  alone ;  bishops  were  to  be  appointed  by  a 
congS  cPelire  from  the  crown,  and,  in  the  event  of  the  dean  and 
chapter  refusing  to  elect,  they  were  subject  to  a  propmunire.  No 
recourse  was  to  be  had  to  Home  for  palls,  bulls,  or  provisions.  The 
law  which  had  been  formerly  made  against  paying  annates  or 
first-fruits,  but  which  had  been  left  in  the  king's  power  to  suspend 
or  enforce,  was  finally  established :  and  a  submission  was  exacted 
fix)m  the  clergy,  by  which  they  acknowledged  that  convocations 
ought  to  be  assembled  by  the  king's  authority  only.  The  ecclesias- 
tical courts,  however,  were  allowed  to  subsist.  Another  act  regu- 
lated the  succession  to  the  crown :  the  marriage  of  the  king  with 
Katharine  was  declared  invalid :  the  primate's  sentence  annulling 
it  was  ratified :  the  marriage  with  queen  Anne  was  established  and 


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268 


HENBY  Vin. 


Chap.  xt. 


confinned :  and  the  crown  was  appointed  to  descend  to  the  issue 
of  this  marriage.  All  persons  were  liable,  at  the  king's  pleasure, 
to  be  called  upon  to  swear  to  this  act;  and  whoever  refused  to 
do  so  was  held  to  be  guilty  of  misprision  of  treason*  (1534). 

The  oath  regarding  the  succession  was  generally  taken  throughout 
the  kingdom.  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester,  and  sir  Thomas  More 
were  the  only  persons  of  note  that  entertained  scruples  with  regard 
to  its  legality ;  and  both  were  committed  prisoners  to  the  Tower. 
At  the  close  of  the  year  the  parliament  passed  the  Act  of  Supre- 
macy, declaring  the  king  "the  only  supreme  head  in  earth  of  the 
church  of  England ; "  a  title  already  conferred  on  him  by  convoca- 
tion three  years  previously.  In  this  act  the  parliament  acknowr 
ledged  his  inherent  power  "to  visit,  repress,  redress,  reform,  order, 
correct,  restrain,  and  amend  all  errors,  heresies,  abuses*  contempts, 
and  enormities,  which  fell  under  any  spiritual  authority  or  juris- 
diction," stating  at  the  same  time  that  they  did  not  intend  to 
depart  from  the  Catholic  £euth.  This  act  was  followed  by  another 
declaring  all  persons  to  be  guilty  of  treason  who  denied  the  king's 
supremacy. 

§  3.  Though  Henry  haa  disowned  the  authority  of  the  pope,  he 
still  valued  himself  on  maintaining  the  catholic  doctrine,  and  on 
guarding,  by  fire  and  sword,  the  imagined  purity  of  its  tenets.  His 
ministers  and  courtiers  were  of  as  motley  a  character  as  his  conduct , 
and  seemed  to  waver,  during  his  whole  reign,  between  the  ancient 
and  the  new  religion.  The  queen,  engaged  by  interest  as  well  as 
inclination,  favoured  the  cause  of  the  reformers :  Cromwell,  who  was 
created  secretary,  embraced  the  same  views;  and  Cranmer,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  had  secretly  adopted  some  ot  the  protestant 
tenets.  On  the  other  hand,  the  duke  of  Norfolk  adhered  to  the 
ancient  faith ;  and  by  his  high  rank,  as  well  as  by  his  talents,  both 
for  peace  and  war,  he  had  great  authority  in  the  king's  council 
Gardiner,  created  bishop  of  Winchester  (1531),  had  enlisted  himself 
in  the  same  party.  All  these  ministers,  while  they  stood  in  the  most 
irreconcilable  opposition  of  principles  to  one  another,  pretended  to 
an  entire  agreement  with  the  sentiments  of  their  master.  CromweD 
and  Cranmer  still  carried  the  appearance  of  conformity  to  the  ancient 
speculative  tenets;  but  they  artfully  made  use  of  Henry's  resent- 
ment to  widen  the  breach  with  the  see  of  Rome.  The  duke  of  Nor- 
folk, and  Gardiner,  feigned  assent  to  the  king's  supremacy,  and  to 

*  **  Misprision   (a  term  derived  ftx>m  but  nearij  bordering  thereon.  .  .  .    The 

the  old  French  mesprit,  a  neglect  or  con-  punishment  of  misprision  of  treason  is  loM 

tempt)  is,  in  the  acoeptotion  of  onr  law,  of  the  profits  of  land  during  life,  fer- 

generally  understood  to  be  all  such  high  feitnre  of  goods,  and  imprisonment  daring 

offences  as  are  under  the  degree  of  capiUl,  life."— Kerr's  Blackstone.  Iv.  121, 133. 


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A.D.  1634.  THE   HOLY   MAID   OF   KENT.  259 

his  renunciation  of  the  sovereign  pontiff;  hut  they  encouraged  his 
passion  for  the  catholic  &ith,  and  instigated  him  to  punish  those 
daring  heretics  who  had  presumed  to  reject  his  theological  principles. 
The  amhiguity  of  the  king's  conduct,  though  it  kept  the  courtiers 
in  awe,  served  in  the  main  to  encourage  the  protestant  doctrine 
among  his  subjects.  The  books  composed  by  Tyndale  and  other 
reformers,  who  had  fled  to  Antwerp,  having  been  secretly  brought 
over  to  England,  began  to  make  converts  everywhere ;  but  it  was 
a  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  published  by  Tyndale  at 
Cologne  in  1526,  that  was  esteemed  the  most  dangerous  to  the 
established  faith.  Its  importation  into  England  was  forbidden,  and 
orders  were  given  for  destroying  all  the  copies  that  could  be  found. 
Such  precautions,  ic  is  needless  to  state,  were  wholly  ineffectual. 

Though  Henry  neglected  not  to  punish  the  protestant  doctrine, 
which  he  deemed  heresy,  his  most  formidable  enemies,  he  knew, 
were  the  zealous  adherents  to  the  ancient  religion,  chiefly  the 
monks  and  friars,  who,  having  their  immediate  dependence  on  the 
Roman  pontifi*,  apprehended  their  own  ruin  to  be  the  certain  conse- 
quence of  abolishing  his  authority  in  England.  In  1 533  a  dangerous 
conspiracy  was  detected.  Elizabeth  Barton,  of  Aldington,  in  Kent, 
commonly  called  the  Holy  Miid  of  Kent,  had  been  long  subject  to 
hysterical  fits,  which  threw  her  body  into  unusual  convulsions,  and, 
having  produced  an  equal  disorder  in  her  mind,  made  her  utter 
strange  sayings,  which  silly  people  in  the  neighbourhood  imagined 
to  be  supernatural.  Richard  Masters,  rector  of  the  parish,  having 
associated  with  him  Dr.  Booking,  a  canon  of  Canterbury,  resolved 
to  take  advantage  of  this  delusion.  They  were  accused  of  teaching 
their  penitent  to  declaim  against  the  new  doctrines,  which  she  de- 
nominated heresy;  against  innovations  in  ecclesiastical  government ; 
and  especially  against  the  king's  divorce  from  Katharine.  -A  few 
monks  and  ecclesiastics  entered  into  the  scheme ;  and  even  Fisher, 
bishop  of  Rochester,  though  a  man  of  sense  and  learning,  was 
carried  away  by  the  delusion.  The  Maid  of  Kent  had  continued 
her  course  for  some  years ;  but  after  the  king's  marriage  with  Anne 
Boleyn  she  predicted  his  death,  and  pronounced  him  to  be  in  the 
condition  of  Saul  after  his  rejection.  Henry  at  last  began  to 
think  the  matter  worthy  of  his  attention ;  and  Elizabeth  herself, 
Masters,  Booking,  and  some  others,  were  executed  at  Tyburn 
(1534). 

§  4.  Fisher  had  lain  in  prison  above  a  twelvemonth,  when 
Paul  III.,  who  had  now  succeeded  to  the  papal  throne,  willing  to 
recompense  the  sufferings  of  so  faithful  an  adherent,  created  him 
a  cardinaL  lliis  promotion  roused  the  indignation  of  the  king. 
Fisher  was  indicted  for  high  treason,  because  he  refused  to  acknow- 


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260  HENRY  VIIL  Chap,  jlh 

ledge  the  king's  supremacy,  was  tried,  condemned,  and  beheaded 
(June  22, 1535).  More  was  condemned  for  the  same  offence,  and 
was  executed  on  July  6.  He  had  long  expected  this  fate,  and 
needed  no  preparation  to  fortify  him  against  the  terrors  of  death. 
Not  only  his  constancy,  but  even  his  cheerfulness,  nay,  his  usual 
facetiousness,  never  forsook  him ;  and  he  made  a  sacrifice  of  his 
life  to  his  integrity,  with  the  same  indifference  that  he  maintained 
in  any  ordinary  occurrence.  When  he  was  mounting  the  scaffold, 
he  said  to  one,  "  Friend,  help  me  up :  when  I  come  down  again, 
I  can  shift  for  myself."  The  executioner  asked  him  forgiveness : 
he  granted  the  request,  but  told  him,  "  You  will  never  get  credit 
by  beheading  me,  my  neck  is  so  short."  Then,  laying  his  head  on 
the  block,  he  bade  the  executioner  stay  till  he  put  aside  his  beard : 
"For,"  said  he,  "it  never  com.nitted  treason."  Nothing  was 
wanting  to  the  glory  of  his  end,  except  a  better  cause. 

The  execution  of  Fisher,  a  cardinal,  was  regarded  by  the  pope 
as  so  capital  an  injury,  that  he  immediately  drew  up  his  celebrated 
bull  of  interdict  and  deposition.  The  bull  was  suspended  for  a 
time  through  the  interference  of  the  Fiench  king,  and  was  not 
issued  till  three  years  afterwards.  Meantime  an  incident  happened 
in  England  which  promised  a  more  amicable  conclusion  of  these 
disputes,  and  seemed  even  to  open  the  way  for  a  reconciliation 
between  Henry  and  Charles.  Queen  Katharine  was  seized  with  a 
lingering  illness,  which  at  last  brought  her  to  her  grave ;  she  died 
at  Kimbolton,  in  the  county  of  Huntingdon,  in  the  50th  year  of 
her  age  (January  7, 1536).  A  little  before  she  expired  she  wrote 
a  very  tender  letter  to  the  king :  "  The  hour  of  my  death  now 
approaching,  I  cannot  choose  but,  out  of  the  love  I  bear  you,  to 
advise  you  of  your  soul's  health,  which  you  ought  to  prefer  before 
all  considerations  of  the  world  or  flesh  whatsoever ;  for  which  you 
have  cast  me  into  many  calamities,  and  yourself  into  many 
troubles.  But  I  forgive  you  all,  and  pray  God  to  do  so  Hkewise." 
She  recommended  to  him  his  daughter,  the  sole  pledge  of  their 
loves,  and  craved  his  protection  for  her  maids  and  servants.  She 
concluded  with  these  words :  "  I  make  this  vow,  that  mine  eyes 
desire  you  above  all  things."  The  king,  it  is  said,  was  touched 
by  this  last  tender  proof  of  Katharine's  affection.  After  this  event 
the  emperor  sent  proposals  to  Henry  for  a  return  to  their  ancient 
amity.  Charles  was  now  engaged  in  a  desperate  war  with  France ; 
but  an  invasion  which  he  made  in  person  into  Provence,  and 
another  on  the  side  of  the  Netherlands,  were  repulsed :  and  Henry, 
findinti  that  his  own  tranquillity  was  fully  insured  by  these  violent 
wars  and  animosities  on  the  continent,  was  the  more  indifferent 
to  the  advances  of  the  emperor. 


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AJ>    1535-1636.     LESSER  MONASTERIES  SUPPRESSED.      261 

§  5.  Immediately  after  the  execution  of  More,  the  king  proceeded 
to  execute  a  design  he  had  formed  to  suppress  the  monasteries,  and 
to  put  himself  in  possession  of  iheir  ample  revenues,  a  practice  of 
which  Wolsey  had  first  set  the  example  by  suppressing  some  of  the 
smalliT  religious  houses,  in  order  to  found  his  colleges  at  Oxford 
and  Ipswich.  Cromwell,  secretary  of  state,  had  been  appointed 
vicar-general,  or  vicegerent  (1535);  a  new  office,  by  which  the  king's 
supremacy  was  delegated  to  his  minister.  Cromwell  employed  com- 
missioners, who  carried  on,  everywhere,  a  rigorous  inquiry  with 
regard  to  the  conduct  and  deportment  of  the  friars  and  nuns  in  the 
smaller  religious  houses.  A  report,  charging  them  with  all  kinds 
of  immorality,  was  laid  before  the  House  of  Commons  in  1536. 
The  larger  monasteries*,  which  had  not  been  guil  y  of  such  gross 
offences,  were  allowed  to  remain ;  but  the  parliament  passed  an  act 
suppressing  all  the  lesser  monasteries,  which  possessed  a  revenue 
below  2001,  a  year.  By  this  act  376  monasteries  were  suppressed, 
and  their  revenues,  amounting  to  32,000/.  a  year,  were  granted  to  the 
king ;  besides  their  goods,  chattels,  and  plate,  computed  at  100,000/. 
more.  To  manage  the  property  thus  acc^uired,  the  court  of  Aug- 
mentation was  established. 

In  this  year  also  Wales  was  incorporated  with  England  :  the 
separa  e  jurisdiction  of  the  several  great  lords,  or  marchers,  as  Ihey 
were  called,  which  obstructed  the  course  of  justice,  and  encouraged 
robbery  and  pillaging,  was  abolished;  and  the  authority  of  the 
king's  court  was  extended  everywhere.  This  parliament,  which 
had  sat  from  1529 — the  first  parliament  of  the  Reformation — was 
now  dissolved  (April  4,  1536). 

'llie  same  year  was  marked  by  the  tragic  fate  of  the  new  queen. 
She  had  been  delivered  of  a  dead  son,  to  Henry's  di>appointment. 
It  is  supposed  that  his  anger  was  further  inflamed  against  her  by  the 
insinuations  of  the  viscountess  of  Rochfort,  who  was  married  to  the 
queen's  brother,  but  who  lived  on  bad  terms  with  her  sister-in-law. 
Henry  had  already  transferred  Lis  affections  to  another  object.  Jane, 
daughter  of  sir  John  Seymour,  and  maid  of  honour  to  the  queen,  a 
young  lady  of  singular  beauty  and  merit,  had  obtained  an  entire 
ascendency  over  him ;  and  he  was  determined  to  facrifice  everything 
to  the  gratification  of  this  new  appetite.  The  queen  was  sent  to 
the  Tower  (May  2) ;  four  of  her  alleged  paramours,  Norris,  Brereton, 
Weston,  and  Smetot),  gentlemen  about  the  court,  were  tried  and 
executed.  Smeton  was  prevailed  on,  by  the  vain  hopes  of  Hfe, 
to  confess  a  criminal  correspondence  with  the  queen.  Her  own 
brother,  the  viscount  Rochfort,  was  accused  of  a  guilty  connection 
with  her.  The  queen  and  her  brother  were  tried  by  a  jury  of 
peers,  over  which  their  uncle,  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  presided  as  high 

Id* 


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262  HENRY  VUI.  Chap,  xv! 

steward.  Both  were  condemnecL  Not  satisfied  with  this  cruel 
yengeanoe,  Henry  was  resolved  to  annul  his  marriage  with  Anne 
Boleyn,  and  declare  her  issue  illegitimate.  On  the. ground  that 
before  her  marriage  with  the  king  she  had  been  contracted  to  lord 
Percy,  then  earl  of  Northumberland,  Cranmer  pronounced  the 
marriage  null  and  invalid,  although  Percy  solemnly  denied  that 
such  a  contract  had  ever  existed.  The  queen  now  prepared  for 
death,  having  spent  the  interval  in  alternate  moods  of  light-hearted- 
ness  and  profound  depression.  To  the  lieutenant  of  the  Tower, 
and  all  who  approached  her,  she  professed  1  :  innocence,  and  even 
her  readiness  to  die.  "The  executioner,"  she  said,  "is,  1  hear, 
very  expert ;  and  my  neck  is  but  a  small  one."  She  was  executed 
May  19.  Her  innocence  has  been  called  in  question.  Certain  it 
is  that  her  fate  excited  little  commiseration  at  the  time ;  nor  did 
it  impair  the  king's  popularity,  or  give  birth  to  any  of  those  un- 
ceremonious expressions  so  frequently  uttered  against  his  divorce. 
But  her  most  effectual  apology  is  the  nuirriage  of  Henry  with  Jane 
Seymour  on  the  day  after  Anne's  execution.*  These  events  ren- 
dered it  necessary  for  the  king  to  summon  a  parliament,  by  which 
his  divorce  from  Anne  Boleyn  was  ratified.  The  children  of  both  his 
former  marriages  were  declared  illegitimate ;  the  crown  was  settled 
on  the  king's  issue  by  Jane  Seymour,  or  any  subsequent  wife ;  and, 
in  case  he  should  die  without  children,  he  was  empowered,  by  his 
will,  or  letters  patent,  to  dispose  of  the  crown — an  enormous  autho- 
rity, especially  when  intrusted  to  a  prince  so  violent  and  capricious. 
§  6.  The  late  innovations,  particularly  the  dissolution  of  the 
smaller  monasteries,  and  the  imminent  danger  to  which  the  rest 
were  exposed,  had  bred  discontent  among  the  people,  and  disposed 
them  to  revolt.  The  first  rising  was  in  Lincolnshire,  and  was  put 
down  without  much  difficulty  (1530).  A  subsequent  insurrection 
in  the  northern  counties  was  more  formidable,  and  was  joined  by 
30,000  men.  One  Aske,  a  gentleman  of  Doncastcr,  had  taken 
the  command  of  them,  and  he  poshcssed  the  art  of  governing 
the  populace.  They  called  their  enterprise  the  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace.  Some  priests  marched  before  in  the  habits  of  their  order, 
carrying  crosses  in  their  hands;  in  their  banners  was  woven  a 
crucifix,  with  the  representation  of  a  chalice,  and  of  the  five  woumis 
of  Christ.  All  took  an  oath  that  they  entered  into  the  Pilgrimage 
of  Grace  from  no  other  motive  than  their  love  to  Oud,  their  desire 
of  driving  "base-born  councillors"  from  about  the  king,  of  restoring 
the  church,  and  suppressing  heresy.  They  seized  Hull  and  York, 
as  well  as  Ponifret  castle,  into  which  the  archbishop  of  York  and 

*  Jane  bad  retired  to  Wiltshire ;   and  I  of  the  Tower  gun  announcing  the  execQ- 
the  Idng,  ft  is  said,  only  waited  the  signal  |  tion  of  Anne  to  Join  his  intended  bride. 


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A.D.  1686-1687.  DEATH  OP  JANE  SEYMOUR.  263 

lord  Darcy  had  thrown  themselves;  and  the  prelate  and  noble- 
man, who  secretly  wished  success  to  the  Insurrection,  seemed  to 
yield  to  the  force  imposed  on  them,  and  joined  the  rebels.  The 
duke  of  Norfolk  was  despatched  against  them ;  but,  finding  them 
too  strong  in  the  open  field,  he  entered  into  negociations,  and  at 
length  induced  them  to  disperse,  on  promise  of  a  general  pardon. 
Early  in  the  next  year  the  rebellion  broke  out  afresh,  but  was 
promptly  suppressed.  Norfolk,  by  command  from  his  master, 
spread  the  royal  banner,  and,  wherever  he  thought  proper,  executed 
martial  law  in  the  punishment  of  offenders.  He  was  ordered  to 
show  little  mercy.  "You  shall  in  any  wise,"  writes  the  king, 
"cause  such  dreadful  execution  to  be  done  upon  a  good  number 
of  the  inhabitants  of  every  town,  village,  and  hamlet  that  have 
offended  in  this  rebellion,  as  well  by  hanging  of  them  up  in  trees, 
as  by  the  quartering  of  them  and  the  setting  of  their  heads  and 
quarters  in  every  town,  as  they  may  be  a  fearful  spectacle  to  all 
hereafter  that  would  practise  any  like  matter."  Many  abbots  and 
canons  were  "  tied  up."  Aske  and  his  associates  were  condemned 
and  executed.  Lord  Darcy,  though  he  pleaded  compulsion,  and 
appealed  for  his  justification  to  a  long  life  spent  in  the  service  of 
the  crown,  was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill  (1537).  Soon  after  this 
prosperous  success  an  event  happened  which  crowned  Henry's  joy 
— the  birth  of  a  son,  who  was  baptised  by  the  name  of  Edward 
(October  12).  Yet  his  happiness  was  not  without  alloy ;  for  Jane 
Seymour  died  a  few  days  after  (October  24). 

Henry's  success,  in  putting  down  the  great  rebellion  in  the  north 
strengthened  him  in  his  determination  of  suppressing  the  largei 
monasteries.  The  abbots  and  monks  knew  the  danger  to  which 
they  were  exposed,  and  having  learned,  by  the  example  of  the  lesser 
monasteries,  that  nothing  could  withstand  the  king's  will,  were 
most  of  them  induced,  in  expectation  of  better  treatment,  to  make 
a  voluntary  resignation  of  their  houses.  Where  promises  failed  of 
effect,  menaces,  and  even  extreme  violence,  were  employed ;  and  on 
tlie  whole  the  design  was  conducted  with  such  success  that  in  less 
than  two  years  the  king  had  got  possession  of  all  the  monastic 
revenues.  The  better  to  reconcile  the  people  to  this  great  innova- 
tion, stories  were  propagated  of  the  detestable  lives  of  the  inmates  of 
many  convents.  The  relics  also,  and  other  superstitions,  which 
had  so  long  been  the  object  of  the  people's  veneration,  were  exposed 
to  ridicule;  and  the  religious  spirit,  now  less  bent  on  exterior 
observances  and  sensible  objects,  was  encouraged  in  this  new 
direction.  Of  all  the  instruments  of  ancient  superstition,  none 
were  more  zealously  destroyed  than  the  shrine  of  Thomas  k  Becket, 
commonly  called  St  Thomas  of  Canterbury.      Henry  not  only 


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264 


HENBY  VIIL 


Chap.  xt. 


pillaged  his  rich  shrine,  but  ordered  his  name  to  be  struck  out  of  the 
calendar.  The  office  for  hia  festival  was  expunged  from  all  breviaries ; 
his  bones  were  burrn  d,  and  the  ashes  dispersed  to  the  wind.  On 
the  whole,  the  king  suppressed,  at  different  times,  645  monasteries, 
of  which  29  had  abbots  that  enjoyed  a  seat  in  parliament ;  90 
colleges  were  demolished  in  several  counties,  2374  chantries  and 
free  chapels,  110  hospitals.  The  whole  revenue  of  these  establish- 
ments amounted  to  161,100/.  Henry  settled  small  pensions  on  the 
abbots  and  priors;  he  erected  six  new  bishoprics — Westminster, 
Oxford,  Peterborough,  Bristol,  Chester,  and  Gloucester — of  which 
five  subsist  at  this  day ;  and  he  made  a  gift  of  the  revenues  and 
lands  of  some  of  the  convents  to  his  courtiers  and  fiavourites,  or 
sold  them  at  inadequate  prices.  Beside  the  lands  possessed  by  the 
monasteries,  the  regular  clergy  enjoyed  a  considerable  part  of  the 
best  benefices  in  England  and  of  the  tithes  annexed  to  them ;  and 
these  were  also  at  this  time  transferred  to  the  crown,  and  by  that 
means  passed  into  the  hands  of  laymen. 

§  7.  It  is  easy  to  imagine  the  indignation  with  which  the  intelli- 
gence of  all  these  acts  of  violence  was  received  at  Rome.  The  pope 
was  at  last  incited  to  publish  the  bull  which  liad  been  passed  against 
the  king;  and  publicly  delivered  over  his  soul  to  the  devil,  and  his 
dominions  to  the  first  invader  (December  17,  1538).  Henry's  kins- 
man, cardinal  Reginald  Pole,*  published  a  treatise  of  the  Unity  of 
the  Churchy  which  he  had  sent  privately  to  Henry  two  years  before. 
In  it  he  denounced  the  king's  supremacy,  his  divorce,  and  his 
second  marriage.  In  1537  he  headed  a  catholic  crusade,  and  even 
exhorted  the  emperor  to  revenge  on  Henry  the  injury  done  to  the 
imperial  family  and  to  the  catholic  cause.  Henry  seized  all  the 
members  of  Pole's  family  in  England,  together  with  other  persons 
of  high  rank.  They  were  accuseil  of  treason ;  and  several  were 
executed,  among  whom  was  lord  Montacute,  the  cardinal's  brother 
and  the  marquis  of  Exeter,  the  grandson  of  Edward  IV.f  (1638). 
Others  were  attainted  without  trial,  which  was  the  fate  of  the 
countess  of  Salisbury,  the  aged  mother  of  the  cardinal. 

§  8.  Although  Henry  had  gradually  changed  some  of  the  tenets 
of  that  theological  system  in  which  he  had  been  educated,  he  was 
no  less  positive  and  dogmatical  in  those  which  he  retained.  He 
attached  particular  imijortance  to  the  doctrine  of  the  real   pre- 


•  Reginald  Pblo  waa  the  fourth  son  of 
the  coonteaa  of  Sallsbaiy,  ildught«r  of  the 
dnke  of  Clarence  executed  by  Edward  IV. 
Her  only  brother,  the  earl  of  Warwick, 
'^M  put  to  death  by  Henry  VII.  (Sec 
P*  «8>.)  She  was  restored  in  1613,  and 
o«eame  coontesi  of  Salisbury  in  her  own 


right,  a  title  which  descended  to  her  fh>m 
her  grandfather,  the  earl  of  Warwick  and 
Salisbury,  the  celebrated  king-maker. 
After  her  brother's  death  she  married 
sir  Richard  Pole,  a  relation  of  Henry  VII. 
t  He  was  the  son  of  the  earl  of  Devoa 
and  of  Katharine,  a  daughter  of  lulward  IV- 


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AJ>,  1588-1689.      STATUTE  OF  THE  SIX   ARTICLES.  265 

sence;  and  he  informed  the  parliament,  siimmoned  in  1539,  that 
he  was  anxious  to  extirpate  from  his  kingdom  all  diversity  of 
opinion  on  matters  of  religion.  Subservient  as  usual  to  the 
wishes  of  the  king,  the  parliament  passed  an  act  for  this  purpose, 
usually  called  7 At-  Statute  of  the  Six  Articles,  or  the  Bloody  Bill, 
as  the  protestants  justly  termed  it  In  this  law  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation  was  insisted  on,  communion  in  one  kind,  the 
perpetuiil  obligation  of  vows  of  chastity,  the  utility  of  private 
masses,  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  the  necessity  of  auricular 
con  ession.  Whoever  denied  these  articles  uf  faith  was  liable  to  be 
burned.  Having  thus  resigned  their  religious  liberties,  parliament 
proceeded  to  surrender  the  most  important  of  their  civil.  They 
gave  to  the  king's  proclamation  the  force  of  a  statute,  provided  it 
did  not  touch  the  lives,  liberties,  goods,  and  offices  of  the  subject, 
or  infringe  the  established  laws. 

As  soon  as  the  act  of  the  Six  Articles  had  passed,  many  persons 
were  thrown  into  prison.  •  Latimer  and  Shaxton,  the  protestant 
bishops,  resigned  their  bishoprics,  and  were  committed  as  **  sacra- 
mentarian  heretics."  The  uncertainty  of  the  king's  humour  gave 
each  party  an  opportunity  of  triumphing  in  ts  turn.  Within  two 
years  after  Henry  had  passed  this  law,  which  seemed  to  inflict  so 
deep  a  wound  on  the  reformers,  the  king  ordered  a  copy  of  the 
Great  Bible,  commonly  called  Cranmer's  Bible,  to  be  set  up  in  all 
parish  churches,  under  a  penalty  of  forty  shillings — a  concession 
regarded  by  that  parry  as  an  important  victory.  It  is  from  this 
version  that  the  Psalms  in  the  Common  l^yer-book  of  the  church 
of  England  have  been  taken. 

§  9.  Immediately  after  the  death  of  Jane  Seymoiu",  the  most  be- 
loved of  all  his  wives,  Henry  began  to  think  of  a  new  marriage. 
Cromwell,  who  was  anxious  to  connect  Henry 'with  the  protestant 
princes  on  the  continent,  proposed  to  him  Anne  of  Cleves,  whose 
father,  the  duke  of  that  name,  had  great  interest  among  the  Lu- 
therans, and  whose  sister  Sibylla  was  married  to  the  elector  of 
Saxony,  the  head  of  the  protestant  league.  A  flattering  picture  of 
the  princess  by  Hans  Holbein  determined  Henry  to  apply  to  her 
father ;  and  after  some  negociation  the  marriage  was  concluded,  and 
Anne  was  sent  over  to  England.  The  king,  impatient  to  be  satisfied 
with  regard  to  the  person  of  his  bride,  came  privately  to  Rochester 
and  obtained  a  sight  of  her.  He  found  her  utterly  destitute  both  of 
beauty  and  grace,  vei-y  unlike  the  pictures  and  representations  which 
he  had  received,  and  he  swore  he  never  could  possibly  bear  her  any 
affection.  The  matter  was  worse  when  he  found  that  she  could 
speak  no  language  but  Qtjrman,  of  which  he  was  entirely  ignorant ; 
and  th'  t  the  charms  of  her  conversation  were  not  likely  to  corn- 


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266  HENBT  VIIL  CtaAP.  XY, 

pensate  for  the  Jiomeliness  of  her  person,  ft  was  the  subject  of  d& 
bate  among  the  king's  counsellors  whether  the  marriage  could  not 
yet  be  dissolved,  and  the  princess  be  sent  back  to  her  own  country ; 
but  as  a  cordial  union  had  taken  place  between  the  emperor  and  the 
king  of  France,  and  as  their  religious  zeal  might  prompt  them  to 
&11  with  combined  arms  upon  England,  an  alliance  with  the  German 
princes  seemed  now  more  than  ever  requisite  for  Henry's  interest 
and  safety.  He  knew  that,  if  he  sent  back  the  princess  of  Cleves, 
such  an  affront  would  be  highly  resented  by  her  friends  and  fomily. 
He  was  therefore  resolved,  notwithstanding  his  aversion,  to  complete 
the  marriage ;  and  he  told  OromweD  that,  siuce  matters  had  gone 
so  far,  he  must  put  Ms  neck  into  the  yoke  (January  6,  1540).  He 
continued,  however,  to  be  civil  to  Anne ;  he  even  seemed  to  repose 
his  usual  confidence  in  Cromwell,  who  received  soon  after  the  title 
of  earl  of  Essex,  and  was  installed  knight  of  the  garter ;  but,  though 
he  exerted  this  command  over  himself,  discontent  lay  lurking  in 
his  breast,  and  was  ready  to  burst  out  on  the  first  opportunity. 

§  10.  The  fall  of  Cromwell  was  hastened  by  other  causes.  Th© 
nobility  detested  a  man  who,  being  of  such  low  extraction,  had  not 
only  mounted  above  them  by  his  station  of  vicar-general,  but  had 
engrossed  many  considerable  offices  of  the  crown.  He  had  enriched 
himself  by  a  long  career  of  venality  and  corruption.  No  ministei 
ever  set  his  favours  to  sale  with  less  regard  to  decency.  As  he 
entirely  monopolized  the  king's  countenance,  and  as  vicar-general 
had  the  distribution  of  spiritual  promotions,  especially  of  the  reUgious 
houses,  he  had  amassed  enormous  riches.  In  1539  he  had  contrived 
to  secure  for  himself  some  thirty  monastic  manors  and  many  other 
considerable  estates.  The  people  r^arded  him  with  dislike  as  the 
supposed  author  of  the  violence  done  to  the  monasteries,  establish- 
ments which  were  still  revered  and  beloved  by  the  commonalty.' 
The  catholic  party  hated  him  as  the  concealed  enemy  of  their 
religion ;  the  protestants,  observing  his  external  concurrence  in  the 
persecutions  exercised  against  them,  were  inclined  to  bear  him  as 
little  fiftvour,  and  reproached  him  with  the  timidity,  if  not  treachery, 
of  his  conduct.  He  was  accused  of  treason  at  the  council-board 
by  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  was  instantly  committed  to  the  Tower. 
He  endeavoured  to  soften  the  king  by  the  most  humble  supplica- 
tions, but  all  to  no  purpose.  He  was  executed  on  a  bill  of  attainder 
charging  him  with  heresy,  oppression,  and  extortion,  July  28, 1540. 

The  measures  for  divorcing  Henry  from  Anne  of  Cleves  were  car- 
ried on  at  the  same  time  with  the  bill  of  attainder  against  CromwelL 
The  convocation  soon  afterwards  solemnly  annulled  the  marriage 
between  the  king  and  queen,  chiefly  on  the  futile  ground  of  a  jH'e- 
contract  between  Anne  and  the  marquis  of  Lorraine,  when  both  were 


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A.D.  1540-1642.  EXECUTION  OF  KATHARINE  HOWAKD.   267 

children ;  the  parliament  ratified  the  decision  of  the  clergy ;  and  the 
sentence  was  soon  after  notified  to  the  princess.  Anne  was  blessed 
with  a  happy  insensibility  of  temper,  and  willingly  hearkened  to 
terms  of  accommodation.  When  the  king  offered  to  adopt  her  as  his 
sister,  to  give  her  place  next  the  queen  and  his  own  daughter,  and 
to  make  a  settlement  of  3000/.  a  year  upon  her,  she  accepted  the 
conditions,  and  gave  her  consent  to  the  divorce  (July  11).* 

§  11.  Henry's  marriage  with  Katharine  Howard,  the  niece  of  the 
duke  of  Norfolk,  followed  soon  after  (July  28,  1540),  and  was 
regarded'  by  the  catholics  as  a  favourable  incident  to  their  party. 
The  king's  councils  were  now  directed  by  Norfolk  and  Gkkrdiner ; 
and  the  law  of  the  Six  Articles  was  executed  with  rigour.  But 
while  Henry  exerted  his  violence  against  the  protestants,  he  spared 
not  the  catholics  who  denied  his  supremacy ;  and  a  foreigner  at 
that  time  in  England  had  reason  to  say  that  those  who  were  against 
the  pope  were  burned,  and  those  who  were  for  him  were  hanged. 
The  king  even  displayed  in  an  ostentatious  manner  this  tyrannical 
impartiality,  which  reduced  both  parties  to  subjection.  Catholics 
and  protestants  were  carried  two  and  two  on  the  same  hurdles  to 
execution — Abel,  Featherstone,  and  Powell  for  denying  the  supre- 
macy ;  Barnes,  Gerard,  and  Jerome  for  denying  the  Six  Articles. 
In  the  following  year  an  inconsiderable  rebellion  broke  out  in  York- 
shire, but  was  soon  suppressed.  The  rebels  were  supposed  to  have 
been  instigated  by  the  intrigues  of  cardinal  Pole ;  and  the  king 
instantly  determined  to  make  the  coimtess  of  Salisbury,  who  had 
been  attainted  two  years  previously,  suffer  for  her  son's  offences. 
This  venerable  matron,  the  descendant  of  a  long  race  of  monarchs, 
was  executed  on  the  green  within  the  Tower  (May  27, 1541) . 

The  king  thought  himself  happy  in  his  new  marriage:  the 
agreeable  person  and  disposition  of  Katharine  had  entirely  capti- 
vated his  affections^  and  he  made  no  secret  of  his  devoted  attach- 
ment to  her ;  but  he  discovered  shortly  afterwards  that  she  had  led 
a  dissolute  life  before  her  marriage,  and  he  strongly  suspected  that 
she  had  since  been  guilty  of  incontinence.  Two  of  her  paramours, 
Culpejer  and  Dirham,  were  tried  and  executed  (December  10, 
1541) ;  and  a  bill  of  attainder  for  treason  was  forthwith  passed  against 
the  queen  and  the  viscountess  of  Rochfort,  who  had  been  privy  to 
her  misconduct.  They  were  both  beheaded  in  the  Tower  (February 
13,  1542).  As  lady  Rochfort  was  known  to  be  the  chief  instrument 
in  bringing  Anne  Boleyn  to  her  end,  she  died  unpitied.  Little 
doubt  can  exist  of  Katharine's  guilt. 

§  12.  Towards  the  close  of  1542  a  war  broke  out  between  Eng- 
land and  Scotland.  James  V.,  king  of  Scots,  was  under  the  influence 
•  Anne  of  Cloves  continued  to  live  in  England,  and  died  at  Chdtea  in  1&67. 


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268  HENRY  VIII.  Chap.  xv. 

of  the  catholic  party,  especially  of  cardinal  Beaton,  the  sworn  enemy 
of  the  li^nglish  monarch.  As  he  had  encouraged  his  subjects  to  make 
depredations  upon  the  English  border,  Henry  proclaimed  war  against 
his  nephew,  and  appointed  to  the  command  the  duke  of  Norfolk, 
whom  he  called  the  scourge  of  the  Scots.  It  was  too  late  in  the 
season  to  make  more  than  a  foray ;  and  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  after 
laying  waste  the  Scottish  border,  returned  to  Berwick.  James  sent 
an  army  of  10,003  men  into  Cumberland  to  revenge  this  insult ; 
but  on  a  sudden  attack  by  a  small  body  of  English,  not  exceeding 
500  men,  near  the  Solway  (November  25,  1542),  a  panic  seized  the 
Scots,  and  they  immediately  took  to  flight.  Few  were  killed  in  this 
rout,  but  many  were  taken  prisoners,  and  some  of  the  principal 
nobility.  The  king  of  Scots,  hearing  of  th  is  disaster,  was  astonished ; 
and,  being  naturally  of  a  melancholy  disposition,  he  abandoned 
himself  to  despair.  His  body  was  wasted  by  sympathy  with  his 
anxious  mind  :  he  had  no  issue  living ;  and  hearing  that  his  queen 
was  safely  delivered,  he  asked  whether  she  had  brought  him  a  male 
or  a  female  child.  Being  told  the  latter,  he  turned  himself  in  his 
bed  :  "  The  crown  came  with  a  lass,"  said  he,  "  and  it  will  go  with 
a  lass.**  A  few  days  after  he  expired  (December  14,  1542)  in  the 
flower  of  his  age. 

No  sooner  was  Henry  informed  of  his  death,  than  he  projected  the 
scheme  of  uniting  Scotland  to  his  own  dominions  by  marrying  his 
son  Edward  to  James's  infant  daughter,  the  heiress  of  that  kingdom, 
afterwards  celebrated  as  Mary  queen  of  Scots.  A  treaty  to  this 
efft  ct  was  nearly  concluded  with  the  regent,  the  earl  of  Arran,  but 
was  shortly  afterwards  rejected,  through  the  influence  of  cardinal 
Beaton,  the  head  of  th3  catholic  party,  and  Scotland  entered  into 
a  close  alliance  with  France.  This  confirmed  Henry  in  the  resolu- 
tion he  had  already  taken  of  breaking  with  France,  and  of 
uniting  his  arms  with  those  of  the  emperor.  A  league  was  formed 
by  which  the  two  raonarchs  agreed  to  enter  France  with  an  army, 
each  of  25,000  men  (February  1 1, 1543).  This  league  seemed  favour- 
able to  the  Roman  catholic  party ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Henry  soon 
afterwards  married  his  sixth  wife,  Katharine  Parr,  widow  of  lord 
Latimer,  a  woman  of  virtue,  and  .somewhat  inclined  to  the  new 
doctrine  (July  12).  The  confederacy  between  Henry  and  Charles 
led  to  no  important  results.  The  share  taken  by  the  English  in  the 
campaign  of  1543  was  quite  inconsiderable.  In  the  following  year 
the  two  princes  agreed  to  invade  Prance  with  large  armaments,  and 
to  join  their  forces  at  Paris.  Accordingly  Henry  landed  at  Calais 
with  30,000  men,  who  were  joined  by  14,000  Flemings,  whilst  the 
emperor  invaded  the  north-eastern  frontiers  of  France  with  an  army 
of  60,000  men ;  but  nothing  of  importance  was  effected.     Henry, 


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AJX  1542-1546.  WAR  WITH  FRANCE.  269 

instead  of  marching  to  Paris,  wasted  his  time  in  besieging  Boulogne 
and  Montreuil ;  whilst  Charles,  who  had  employed  himself  in  cap- 
turing some  towns  on  the  Meuse  and  the  Mame,  subsequently  ad- 
vanced towards  Paris.  The  season  was  thus  wasted ;  both  princes 
reproached  each  other  with  a  breach  of  engagement.  The  emperor 
concluded  a  separate  peace  with  Francis  at  Crfipy  (September  19, 
1544),  in  which  the  name  of  his  ally  was  not  even  mentioned ;  and 
Henry  was  obliged  to  retire  into  England,  with  the  small  success 
of  having  captured  Boulogne  (September  14).  The  war  was  pro- 
longed two  years  between  England  and  France.  In  1545  the  French 
made  great  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  England.  A  French 
fleet  appeared  ofiF  St.  Helen's,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  but  returned  to 
their  OMm  coasts  without  effecting  anything  of  importance.  In  1546 
Henry  sent  over  a  body  of  troops  to  Calais,  and  some  skirmishes  of 
small  moment  ensued.  But  both  parties  were  now  weary  of  a  war 
from  which  neither  could  entertain  much  hope  of  advantage;  and 
on  the  7th  of  June  a  peace  was  concluded.  The  chief  condition 
was  that  Henry  should  retain  Boulogne  during  ei.;ht  years,  or  till 
the  debt  due  by  Francis  should  be  paid;  thus  all  that  he  obtained 
was  a  bad  and  cbargt  able  security  for  a  debt  that  did  not  amount  to 
a  third  part  of  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

§  13.  Francis  took  care  to  comprehend  Scotland  in  the  treaty. 
In  that  country  the  indolent  and  incapable  Arran  had  gone  over  to 
Beaton's  party,  and  had  even  reconciled  himself  to  the  Romish  com- 
munion. The  cardinal  had  thus  acquired  a  complete  ascendency. 
The  opposition  was  now  led  by  the  earl  of  Lenox,  who  was  regarded 
by  the  protestants  as  the  head  of  their  party,  and  who,  after  an 
inefifectual  attempt  to  employ  force,  was  obliged  to  lay  down  his 
arms  and  await  the  arrival  of  English  succours.  In  1544  Henry  de- 
spatched a  fleet  and  army  to  Scotland.  Edinburgh  was  taken  and 
burned,  and  the  south-eastern  parts  of  the  country  devastated.  The 
earl  of  Arran  collected  some  forces,  but  found  that  the  English 
had  departed.  In  February,  1045,  he  caught  sir  Ralph  Evers 
returning  from  a  raid  on  Melrose,  and  defeated  him  at  Ancrum 
Muir.  The  war  was  conducted  feebly,  and  with  various  success, 
and  Henry  was  by  no  means  indisposed  to  conclude  a  peace. 

The  king,  now  freed  from  all  foreign  wars,  had  leisure  to  give  his 
attention  to  domestic  nfiairs,  parti*  ularly  to  the  establishment  of 
uniformity  of  opinion  in  religion.  Though  he  allowe<l  an  English 
translation  of  the  Bible,  he  had  hitherto  been  very  careful  to  retain 
the  service  in  Latin  ;  but  in  1545  he  set  forth  a  Primer  and  a  Litany 
in  the  vulgar  tongue,  with  a  collect  ion  of  English  prayers  f(»r  morning 
and  evening  use.  By  these  innovations  he  exciteil  anew  the  hopes 
>f  the  reformers;  but  the  pride  and  peevishness  of  the  king,  irritated 


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270  HENRY  Vin.  Chap.  xy. 

by  his  declining  state  of  health,  impelled  him  to  punish  with  fresh 
severity  all  who  presmned  to  entertain  a  different  opinion  from  him- 
self, particularly  in  the  capital  point  of  the  real  presence.  Anne 
Askew,  for  denying  it,  was  condemned  to  be  burned  alive;  and  others, 
for  the  same  crime,  were  sentenced  to  the  same  punishment  (July 
16,  1546).  The  queen  herself,  being  secretly  inclined  to  the.  prin- 
ciples of  the  reformers,  and  having  unwarily  betrayed  too  much  of 
her  mind  in  her  conversations  with  Henry,  fell  into  great  danger. 
At  the  in-^tigation  of  bishop  Gardiner,  seconded  by  the  chancellor 
Wriothesley,  articles  of  imi)eachment  were  actually  drawn  up  against 
her ;  but  Katharine,  having  by  some  means  learned  this  proceeding, 
averted  the  peril  by  her  address.  Henry  having  renewed  his  theo- 
logical arguments,  the  queen  gently  declined  the  conversation,  and 
reniarked  that  such  profound  speculations  were  ill  suited  to  the  im- 
l)ecility  ol  her  sex ;  that  the  wife's  duty  was  in  all  cases  to  adopt 
implicitly  the  sentiments  of  her  husband ;  and  as  to  herself^  it  was 
doubly  her  duty,  being  blessed  with  a  husband  who  was  qualified, 
by  his  judgment  and  learning,  not  only  to  choose  principles  for  his 
own  family,  but  for  the  most  wise  and  knowing  of  every  nation. 
*  Not  so  1  by  St.  Mary,"  replied  the  king ;  "  you  are  now  become  a 
doctor,  Kate ;  and  better  fitted  to  give  than  receive  instruction." 
She  meekly  replied  that  she  was  sensible  how  little  she  was  entitled 
to  these  praises;  and  declared  that  she  haa  ventured  sometimes  to 
feign  a  contrariety  of  sentiments  merely  in  order  to  give  him  the 
pleasure  of  refuting  her.  "  And  is  it  so,  sweetheart?"  replied  the 
king ;  "  then  are  we  perfect  friends  again.**  He  embraced  her  with 
great  affection,  and  sent  her  away  with  assurances  of  his  protection 
and  kindness.  When  the  chancellor  came  the  next  day  to  convey 
her  to  the  Tower,  the  king  dismissed  him  with  the  appellations  of 
knaveyfool^  and  heast* 

§  14.  Henry*s  tyrannical  disposition,  soured  by  HI  health,  vented 
itself  soon  afterwards  on  the  duke  of  Norfolk  and  his  son,  the  earl  of 
Surrey,  chiefly  through  the  prejudices  which  he  entertained  against 
the  latter,  on  the  pretext  that  they  were  meditating  to  seize  the 
crown  (154<>).  Surrey  was  a  young  man  of  the  most  promising 
hopes,  and  had  distinguished  himself  by  every  accomplishment 
which  became  a  scholar,  a  courtier,  and  a  soldier.  His  spirit  and 
ambition  were  equal  to  his  talents  and  his  quality ;  but  he  did  not 
always  regulate  his  conduct  by  the  caution  and  reserve  which  his 
situation  required.  The  king,  displeased  with  his  conduct  as  governor 
of  Boulogne,  had  sent  over  the  earl  of  Hertford  f  to  command  in  his 


•  It  Bhould  be  obeerved,  however,  that 
this  tale  rests  on  no  better  authority  than 
fWe. 

t  Edward  Seymoor.  carl  of  Hertford, 


was  the  brother  of  Jane  Seymour,  Henry's 
third  wife,  better  known  afterwards  as  ths 
protector  Somerset. 


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AJ).  1646-1647.  ms  DEATH.  271 

place  ;  and  Surrey  was  so  imprudent  as  to  drop  some  menacing  ex- 
presfflons  against  the  ministers  on  account  of  the  affront  thus  put 
upon  him.  He  and  his  father,  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  were  accused 
of  designs  upon  the  crown,  mainly  on  €ne  ground  that  they  had 
illegally  assumed  the  arms  of  £dward  tne  Confessor.  Orders  were 
given  to  arrest  them,  and  they  were  on  the  same  day  confined  to  the 
Tower  (December  7,  1546).  Siurey  being  a  commoner,  his  trial 
was  the  more  expeditious ;  he  was  condemned  for  high  treason,  and 
the  sentence  was  soon  i^ter  executed  (January  19,  1547).  The 
innocence  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk  was  still,  if  possible,  more  apparent 
than  that  of  his  son,  and  his  services  to  the  crown  had  been  greater ; 
yet  the  house  of  peers,  without  examining  the  prisoner,  passed  a 
bill  of  attainder  against  him,  without  trial  or  evidence,  and  sent  it 
down  to  the  commons.  The  king  was  now  fast  approaching  towards 
his  end ;  and  fearing  lest  Norfolk  should  escape  him,  he  sent  a 
message  to  the  commons,  by  which  he  desired  them  to  hasten  the 
bill ;  and,  having  affixed  the  royal  assent  by  commission  (January 
27),  issued  orders  for  the  execution  of  Norfolk  on  the  morning  of 
January  28, 1547.  But  news  being  carried  to  the  Tower  that  the 
king  himself  had  expired  that  morning,  the  lieutenant  deferred 
obeying  the  warrant ;  and  it  was  not  thought  advisable  by  the 
council  to  begin  a  new  reign  by  the  death  of  the  greatest  nobleman 
in  the  kingdom,  who  had  been  condemned  by  a  sentence  so  unjust 
and  tyrannical. 

Shortly  before  his  death  the  king  desired  that  Cranmer  might 
be  sent  for;  but  before  the  prelate  arrived  he  was  speechless, 
though  he  still  seemed  to  retain  his  senses.  Cranraer  desired  him 
to  give  some  sign  of  his  dying  in  the  faith  of  Christ :  he  squeezed 
the  prelate's  hand,  and  immediately  expired,  after  a  reign  of  37 
years  and  9  months,  and  in  the  66th  year  of  his  ago  (January  28, 
1547).  In  1544  the  king  had  caused  the  parliament  to  pass  a  law 
declaring  the  prince  of  Wales,  or  any  of  his  luale  issue,  first  and 
immediate  heirs  of  the  crown,  and  restoring  the  two  princesses, 
M:iry  and  Elizabeth,  to  their  right  of  succession.  As  the  act  made  no 
arrangement  in  case  of  the  failure  of  issue  by  Henry's  children, 
the  king,  by  his  will,  provided  that  the  next  heirs  to  the  crown 
should  be  the  descendants  of  his  sister  Mary,  the  late  duchess  of 
Suffolk,  omitting  entirely  the  Scottish  lime. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  a  just  summary  of  this  prince's  qualities :  he 
was  so  different  from  himself  in  different  parts  of  his  reign,  that,  as 
is  well  remarked  by  lord  Herbert,  his  history  is  his  best  character 
and  description.  He  possessed  great  vigour  of  mind,  which  qualified 
him  for  exercising  dominion  over  men ;  courage,  intrepidity,  vigilance, 
inflexibility ;  and  though  these  qualities  were  not  always  under  the 


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272  HENBT  VIIL  Chap.  xt. 

guidance  of  a  regular  and  solid  judgment,  tbey  were  acoompanied 
with  good  parts  and  an  excellent  capacity.  Every  one  dreaded  a 
contest  with  a  man  who  was  known  never  to  yield  or  to  forgive,  and 
who,  in  every  controversy,  was  determined  either  to  ruin  himself  or 
his  antagonist.  A  catalogue  of  his  vices  would  comprehend  many 
of  the  worst  qualities  incident  to  human  nature :  violence,  cruelty, 
profusion,  rapacity,  injustice,  obstinacy,  arrogance,  bigotry,  presump- 
tion, caprice ;  but  neither  was  he  subject  to  all  these  vices  in  the 
most  extreme  degree,  nor  was  he  at  intervals  altogether  destitute  of 
virtue :  he  was  sincere,  open,  gallant,  liberal,  and  capable  at  least 
of  temporary  friendship  and  attachment.  It  may  seem  a  little 
extraordinary  that,  notwithstanding  his  cruelty,  his  extortion,  his 
violence,  his  arbitrary  administration,  Henry  not  only  acquired 
the  regard  of  his  subjects,  but  never  was  the  object  of  their  hatred : 
and  seems  even,  in  some  degree,  to  have  possessed  to  the  last  their 
love  and  afifection.  His  exterior  qualities  were  advantageous,  and 
fit  to  captivate  the  multitude,  while  his  magnificence  and  personal 
bravery  rendered  him  illustrious  in  vulgar  eyes. 

As  Henry  possessed  some  talent  for  letters,  he  was  an  enoourager 
of  them  in  others.  He  founded  Trinity  College  in  Cambridge,  and 
gave  it  ample  endowments.  Wolsey  founded  Christ  Church  in 
Oxford,  and  intended  to  call  it  Cardinal's  College ;  but  upon  his 
fall,  which  happened  before  he  had  entirely  finished  his  scheme,  the 
king  seized  all  the  revenues,  part  of  which  he  afterwards  restored, 
and  only  changed  the  name  of  the  college.  The  cardinal  founded 
in  Oxford  the  first  chair  for  teaching  Oreek.  The  countenance 
^ven  to  letters  by  this  king  and  his  ministers  contributed  to  render 
them  fashionable  in  England.  Erasmus  speaks  with  great  satis* 
faction  of  the  general  regard  paid  by  the  nobility  and  gentry  to  mon 
of  learning. 


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ShUUngoflCdwudyi. 

Obr. :  WDWAMD  .  vi.  d  .  o  .  aql  .  wmx  .  z  .  h»  .  rbx.    Bott  to  ricbt. 

Bm,  i  Totom :  m>imn  :  fovb  :  mm  [tic]  m  :  d  .  xux.  Arms  of  EngUod.  In  field  m.  m. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

KDWARD  Yhf  b.  1537  ;  r.  a.d.  1547-1553. 

§  1.  SUt«  of  the  regency.  Hertford  protector.  §  2.  Reformation  estab- 
lished. Gardiner's  opposition.  §  3.  War  with  Scotland.  Battle  of 
Pinkie.  §  4.  Proceedings  in  parliament  Progress  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. Aflbirs  of  Scotland.  §  5.  Cabals  of  lord  Seymour.  His  exe- 
cution. §  6.  Ecclesiastical  affairs.  Protestant  persecutions.  Joan 
Bocher.  §  7.  Discontents  of  the  people.  Insurrections  in  Devonshire 
and  Norfolk.  War  with  Scotland  and  France.  §  8.  Factions  in  the 
council.  Somerset  deprived  of  the  protectorship.  §  9.  Peace  with 
France  and  Scotland.  Ecclesiastical  affairs.  §  10.  Ambition  of 
Northumberland.  Trial  and  execution  of  Somerset.  §  11.  Northum- 
berland changes  the  succession.     Death  of  the  king. 

S  1.  The  late  king  had  fixed  ihe  majority  of  the  prince  at  the 
completion  of  his  18th  year ;  and,  as  Edward  was  then  only  in  his 
10th  year,  his  lather  appointed  16  executors,  to  whom,  during 
the  minority,  the  government  of  the  king  and  kingdom  was  in- 
trusted. Among  them  were  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
Wriothesley,  lord  chancellor,  and  the  earl  of  Hertford,  chamber- 
lain. With  these  executors,  to  whom  was  intrusted  the  whole 
regal  authority,  were  appointed  12  counsellors,  who  possessed  no  im- 
mediate power,  and  could  only  assist  with  their  advice  when  any 
affair  was  laid  before  them.  But  the  first  act  of  the  executors  and 
counsellors  was  to  depart  from  the  destination  of  the  late  king, 
by  appointing  a  protector.  The  choice  fell  of  course  on  ihe  earl 
of  Hertford,  who,  as  he  was  the  king's  maternal  uncle,  was 
strongly  interested  in  his  safety ;  and,  possessing  no  claims  to 
inherit  the  crown,  he  could  never  have  any  separate  interest  which 
might  lead  him  to  endanger  Edward's  person  or  his  authority. 
All  those  who  were  possessed  of  any  office  resigned  their  former 
commissions,  and  accepted  new  ones  in  the  name  of  the  young 


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274  EDWARD  VL  Ohap.  xti. 

king.  The  bishops  themselyes  were  constrained  to  make  a  like 
submission.  Care  was  taken  to  insert  in  their  new  commissions 
that  they  held  their  offices  during  pleasure;  and  it  is  there  ex- 
pressly affirmed  that  all  manner  of  authority  and  jurisdiction,  as 
well  ecclesiastical  as  civil,  is  originally  derived  from  the  crown. 

The  late  king  had  intended,  before  his  death ^  to  make  a  new 
creation  of  nobility,  in  order  to  supply  the  place  of  those  peerages 
which  had  fallen  by  former  attainders,  or  the  failure  of  issue ;  and 
accordingly,  among  other  promotions,  Hertford  was  now  created 
duke  of  Somerset,  marshal,  and  lord  treasurer;  Wriothesley  earl 
of  Southampton,  Lisle  earl  of  Warwick,  and  mr  Thomas  Seymour, 
the  protector's  brother,  lord  Seymour  (March  6,  1647).  As 
Wriothesley  was  the  head  of  the  catholic  party,  and  had  always 
been  opposed  to  Somerset,  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  protector  was 
to  procure  the  removal  of  Southampton,  on  the  ground  that  he 
had,  on  his  own  private  authority,  put  the  great  seal  in  com- 
mission a  fine  was  also  imposed  upon  him,  and  he  was  confined 
to  his  own  house  during  pleasure.  Not  content  with  this  advan- 
tage, on  pretence  that  the  vote  of  the  executors,  choosing  him 
protector,  was  not  a  sufficient  foundation  for  his  authority, 
Somerset  procured  a  patent  from  the  young  king,  by  which  he 
entirely  overturned  the  will  of  Henry  VIIL,  named  himself  pro- 
tector with  full  regal  power,  and  appointed  a  council  consisting  of 
all  the  former  councillors,  and  all  the  executors,  except  Southamp- 
ton. He  reserved  a  power  of  naming  any  other  councillors  at 
pleasure,  and  he  was  bound  to  consult  with  such  only  as  he 
thought  proper.  This  was  a  plain  usurpation,  which  it  was  im- 
possible by  any  arguments  to  justify. 

§  2.  The  protector  had  long  been  regarded  as  a  secret  partisan  of 
the  reformers ;  and,  being  now  freed  from  restraint,  he  scrupled  not 
to  discover  his  intention  of  correcting  all  abuses  in  the  ancient 
religion,  and  of  adopting  still  more  of  the  protestant  innovations. 
He  took  care  that  all  persons  intrusted  with  the  king's  education 
should  be  attached  to  the  same  principles.  After  Southampton's 
fell  few  members  of  the  council  seemed  to  retain  any  attachment 
to  the  Romish  communion;  and  most  of  them  appeared  even 
sanguine  in  forwarding  the  progress  of  the  Reformation.  The 
riches  they  had  acquired  from  the  spoils  of  the  clergy  induced 
them  to  widen  the  breach  between  England  and  Rome ;  and,  by 
establishing  a  dififcrent  discipline  and  worship,  to  render  any  return 
to  the  ancient  faith  and  practice  impossible.  In  these  measures 
Somerset  found  a  zealous  supporter  in  archbishop  Cranmer. 

The  protector,  having  suspended,  during  the  interval,  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  bislioj)s,  appointed  a  general  visitation  of  all  the  dioceses 


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AJ).  1547-1648.        WAR  WITH  SCOTLAND.  275 

of  England  (1547).  The  visitors  consisted  of  clergy  and  laity,  and 
had  mx  circuits  assigned  them.  The  chief  purport  of  their  in- 
structions was — to  correct  immoralities  and  irregularities  in  the 
clergy,  remove  images  and  pictures  from  the  churches,  compel  the 
use  of  the  English  tongue  in  certain  parts  of  the  service,  and  enforce 
the  teaching  of  the  royal  supremacy.  To  check  abuses,  sermons 
were  regulated  or  restrained :  twelve  homilies  were  published,  which 
the  clergy  were  enjoined  to  read  to  the  people ;  and  all  of  them 
were  prohibited,  without  express  permission,  from  preaching  any- 
where but  in  their  parish  churches.  These  measures  were  opposed 
by  Chirdiner,  bishop  of  Winchester,  Bonner,  bishop  of  London,  and 
the  princess  Mary,  who  maintained  that  the  council  had  no  authority 
to  change  the  laws  they  had  sworn  to  observe  during  the  king's 
minority.  This  opposition  drew  on  the  two  bishops  the  indignation 
of  the  council,  and  they  were  sent  to  the  Fleet,  and  used  with  some 
severity.  ^ 

§  3.  As  soon  as  the  state  was  brought  to  some  composure,  the 
protector  prepared  for  war  with  Scotland ;  and  he  was  determined  to 
execute,  if  posdble,  that  project,  of  uniting  the  two  kingdoms  by 
marriage,  on  which  the  late  king  had  been  so  intent,  and  had  recom- 
mended with  his  dying  breath  to  his  executors.  The  Reformation 
had  now  made  considerable  progress  in  Scotland.  Cardinal  Beaton 
had  been  assassinated  (May  29,  1546)  in  revenge  for  the  burning  of 
Wishart,  a  zealous  protestant  preacher ;  and  Henry  had  promised  to 
take  the  murderers  under  his  protection.  Somerset  levied  an  army 
of  18,000  men,  and  equipped  a  fleet  of  60  sail,  with  which  he 
invaded  Scotland.  A  well-contested  battle  was  fought  at  Pinkie, 
near  Musselburgh  (September  10, 1547),  in  which  the  Scots  were 
defeated  with  immense  slaughter.  Had  Somerset  prosecuted  his 
advantages,  he  might  have  imposed  his  own  terms  on  the  Scottish 
nation;  but  he  was  impatient  to  return  to  England,  where  he 
heard  that  some  of  the  councillors,  and  even  his  own  brother, 
lord  Seymourj  the  admiral,  were  caballing  against  him.  Shortly 
after  his  return,  the  infant  queen  of  Scotland  was  sent  to  France, 
and  betrothed  to  the  dauphin  (August,  1548). 

§  4.  Parliament  met  after  Somerset's  return  (November  4).  It 
repealed  the  law  of  the  late  reign  by  which  the  king's  proclamation 
was  made  equivalent  to  a  statute ;  all  laws  extending  the  crime 
jf  felony ;  all  which  extended  the  crime  of  treason  beyond  the 
rtatute  of  the  25th  of  Edward  III. ;  all  laws  against  Lollardy  or 
heresy,  together  with  the  statute  of  the  Six  Articles.  It  secured 
the  king's  supremacy ;  directed  the  sacrament  of  the  altar  to  be 
administered  in  both  kinds.  To  repress  the  wandering  of  monks, 
whose  homes  had  been  destroyed  in  the  late  reign,  it  ordered  all 


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276  EDWARD  VI.  Ohap.  xtl 

vagabonds  to  be  branded,  and  on  repetition  of  the  offence  to  be 
adjudged  to  slavery.  In  the  following  year  (1548)  further  reforma- 
tions were  effected.  Orders  were  issued  by  the  council  that  candles 
should  no  longer  be  carried  on  Candlemas  Day,  ashes  on  Ash 
Wednesday,  palms  on  Palm  Sunday ;  and  that  all  images  should 
be  removed  from  the  churches.  As  private  masses  were  abolished 
by  law,  a  ^ew  communion  service  was  set  forth  in  English. 

§  5.  The  protector's  attention  was  now  wholly  engrossed  by 
the  cabals  of  his  brother,  lord  Seymour,  the  admiral  of  England. 
Seymour  had  so  insinuated  himself  into  the  good  graces  of  Katharine, 
the  queen-dowager,  that,  forgetting  her  usual  prudence,  she  married 
him  three  months  after  the  demise  of  the  late  king.  At  her  death 
in  childbirth  he  made  his  addresses  to  the  princess  Elizabeth,  then 
in  the  I6th  year  of  her  age  (1548).  He  openly  decried  his  brother's 
administration,  and  by  promises  and  persuasion  brought  over  to 
his  party  many  ol^  the  principal  nobility.  Somerset,  finding  his 
own  power  in  serious  peril,  committed  his  brother  to  the  Tower; 
the  parliament  passed  a  bill  of  attainder  against  him,  and  he  was 
executed  on  Tower  Hill  (March  20, 1649). 

§  6.  All  the  considerable  business  transacted  this  session,  besides 
the  attainder  of  lord  Seymour,  regarded  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The 
Act  for  Uniformity  of  Public  Worship  was  promulgated,  and  the 
first  Book  of  Common  Prayer  set  forth  in  English.  A  law  was  also 
enacted  permitting  priests  to  marry.  Thus,  the  principal  tenets 
and  practices  of  the  old  religion  were  abolished,  and  the  Reforma- 
tion was  almost  entirely  completed  in  England. 

But  the  doctrine  of  toleration  was  no  better  understood  on  one 
side  than  the  other.  A  commission,  by  act  of  council,  was  granted 
to  the  primate,  and  some  others,  to  examine  and  search  after  all 
anabaptists,  heretic^,  or  contemners  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  Some  tradesmen  in  London,  brought  before  the  commis- 
sioners, were  prevailed  on  to  abjure  their  opinions,  and  were  dis- 
missed. But  there  was  a  woman  accused  of  heretical  pravity,  called 
Joan  Bocher,  or  Joan  of  Kent,  who  was  so  pertinacious,  that 
the  commissioners  could  make  no  impression  upon  her,  and  it  was 
resolved  to  commit  her  to  the  flames*  (May  2,  1560).  Some 
time  after,  a  Dutchman,  called  Van  Paris,  accused  of  Arianismf  was 
condemned  to  the  same  punishment  (April  24, 1551). 

§  7.  These  reforms  excited  considerable  discontent,  which  was 
aggravated  by  other  causes.    The  new  proprietors  of  the  confiscated 

•  The  common  story,  that  the  young  i  importunity,  is  shown  Vy  Mr.  Bruce,  in 
Ung  long  refused  to  sign  the  warrant  for     the  Preface  to  Roger  Hutchinson's  Works 
the  execution  of  Joan  Bocbcr,  and  was  |  (Parker  Society,  1842),  to  be  apocryphai 
only  prwalled  upon  to  do  so  by  Cranmer's  i 


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JLD  1648-1551.  INSUKRECTIONa  277 

abbey  lands  demanded  exorbit  uit  rents,  and  often  spent  the  money 
in  London.  The  cottagers  vere  reduced  to  misery  by  the  en- 
closure of  the  commons  on  which  they  formerly  fed  their  cattle. 
The  general  increase  of  gold  and  silver  in  Europe  after  the  discovery 
of  the  West  Indies  had  raised  the  price  of  commodities ;  and  the 
debasement  of  the  coin  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  afterwards  by  the 
[protector,  had  occasioned  a  universal  distrust  and  stagnation  of 
commerce.  A  rising  b^^  at  once  in  several  parts  of  England,  as 
if  a  universal  conspiracy  had  been  formed  by  the  commonalty.  In 
most  parts  the  rioters  were  put  down,  but  the  disorders  in  Devon- 
shire and  Norfolk  threatened  more  dangerous  consequences  (1549). 
In  Devonshire  the  rioters  were  brought  into  the  form  of  a  regular 
army,  which  amounted  to  the  number  of  10,000.  Their  demands 
were,  that  the  mass  should  be  restored,  half  of  the  abbey  lands 
resumed,  the  law  of  the  Six  Articles  executed,  holy  water  and  holy 
bread  respected,  and  all  other  particular  grievances  redressed.  Lord 
Russell,*  who  had  been  despatched  against  them,  drove  them  from 
all  their  posts,  and  took  many  prisoners.  The  leaders  were  sent  to 
London,  tried,  and  executed ;  and  many  of  the  inferior  sort  were 
put  to  death  by  martial  law. 

The  insurrection  in  Norfolk  rose  to  a  still  greater  height,  and 
was  attended  with  greater  acts  of  violence.  One  Ket,  a  tanner, 
had  assumed  the  government  of  the  insurgents,  and  exercised  his 
authority  with  the  utmost  arrogance.  The  earl  of  Warwick,  at 
the  head  of  6000  men,  levied  for  the  wars  against  Scotland,  at  last 
made  a  general  attack  upon  the  rebels,  and  put  them  to  flight. 
Two  thousand  fell  in  the  action  and  pursuit :  Ket  was  hanged  at 
Norwich  castle,  and  the  insurrection  was  entirely  suppressed.  To 
guard  against  such  disturbances  in  future,  lords  lieutenant  were 
appointed  in  all  the  counties.  These  insurrections  were  attended 
with  bad  consequences  to  the  foreign  interests  of  the  nation.  The 
forces  of  the  earl  of  Warwick,  which  might  have  made  a  great 
impression  on  Scotland,  were  diverted  from  that  enterprise;  and 
the  French  general  had  leisure  to  reduce  that  country  to  some 
settlement  and  composure.  The  king  of  France  also  made  an 
attempt  to  recover  Boulogne,  but  without  success.  As  soon  as 
the  French  war  broke  out,  the  protector  endeavoured  to  fortify 
himself  with  the  alliance  of  the  emperor,  who,  however,  eluded 
the  applications  of  the  English  ambassadors.  Despairing  of  his 
assistance,  Somerset  was  inclined  to  conclude  a  peace  with  France 


*  Lord  Russell  bad  been  created  a  peer 

in   1S33.   and  received  large   granta  of 

drarcb  bnda.    He  was  made  earl  of  Bed- 

tad  in  lUa,  and  waa  the  anceator  of  Uie 

14 


present  dnke  of  Bedford.  The  descendant 
of  the  earl  of  Bedford  waa  first  created 
dnke  in  1694,  in  the  reign  of  William  III. 


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278  EDWARD  VL  Cha?.  xn. 

and  Scotland ;  but  he  met  with  strong  opposition  from  his  enemies 
in  the  council,  who,  seeing  him  unable  to  support  the  war,  were 
determined,  for  that  very  reason,  to  oppose  all  px^posals  for  a 
pacification. 

§  8.  The  factions  ran  high  in  the  court  of  England,  and  matters 
were  drawing  to  an  issue  fatal  to  the  authority  of  the  protector. 
After  obtaining  the  patent  investing  him  with  regal  authority,  he 
no  longer  paid  any  attention  tu  the  opinion  of  the  other  executors 
and  councillors;  and,  while  he  showed  a  resolution  to  govern 
everything,  his  capacity  appeared  not  in  any  respect  proportioned 
to  his  ambition.  He  had  disgusted  the  nobility  by  courting  the 
people ;  yet  the  interest  which  he  had  formed  with  the  latter  was 
in  no  degree  answerable  to  his  expectations.  The  catholic  party, 
who  retained  influence  with  the  lower  ranks,  were  his  declared 
enemies :  the  attainder  and  execution  of  his  brother  bore  an  odious 
aspect:  and  the  palace  which  he  was  building  in  the  Strand 
served,  by  its  magnificence,  to  expose  him  to  the  censiu^  of  the 
public,  especially  as  he  had  pulled  down  several  churches  for 
materials  to  complete  it.  All  these  acts  of  imprudence  were  remarked 
by  Somerset's  enemies,  who  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  them. 
Lord  St.  John,  president  of  the  council,  the  earls  of  Warwick, 
Southampton,  and  Arurfdel,  with  five  members  more,  assuming  to 
themselves  the  whole  power  of  the  council,  began  to  act  indepen- 
dently of  the  protector,  whom  they  represented  as  the  author  of 
every  public  grievance  and  misfortune.  Somerset,  finding  that  no 
man  of  rank,  except  Cranmer  and  Paget,  adhered  to  him,  that  the 
people  did  not  rise  at  his  summons,  that  the  city  and  Tower  had 
declared  against  him,  that  even  his  best  friends  had  deserted  him, 
lost  all  hopes  of  success,  and  began  to  apply  to  his  enemies  for 
pardon  and  forgiveness.  He  was,  however,  sent  to  the  Tower,  with 
some  of  his  friends  and  partisans,  among  whom  was  Cecil,  after- 
wards so  much  distinguished  (October  11,  1549).  Somerset  was 
prevailed  on  to  confess,  on  his  knees  before  the  council,  all  the 
articles  charged  against  him  ;  and  the  parliament  passed  a  vote 
by  which  they  deprived  him  of  all  his  offices,  and.fined  him  20002. 
a  year  in  land  (December  23).  St.  John  was  created  treasmrer 
in  his  place,  and  Warwick  earl  marshal.  The  prosecution  against 
him  was  carried  no  further.  His  fine  was  remitted  by  the  king ; 
he  recovered  his  liberty ;  and  Warwick,  thinking  that  he  was  now 
sufficiently  humbled,  re-admitted  him  into  the  council,  and  even 
agreed  to  an  alliance  between  their  families,  by  the  marriage  of  hia 
own  son,  lord  Lisle,  with  the  lady  Jane  Seymour,  daughter  <n 
Somerset  (1550).  The  catholics  were  extremely  elated  with  this 
revolution ;  and,  as  they  had  ascribed  all  the  late  innovations  to 


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AJD.  15«H1551.    REVISION  OF  THE  PRATEB-BOOK.  279 

Somerset's  authority,  they  hoped  that  his  fall  would  prepare  the 
way  for  the  return  of  the  ancient  religion.  But  Warwick,  who  now 
bore  chief  sway  in  the  council,  took  care  very  early  to  express  his 
intentions  of  supporting  the  Reformation.  Gardiner,  bishop  of 
Winchester,  who  hsd  been  again  sent  to  prison  in  1548,  was  deprived 
(1550).  The  sees  of  London  and  Westminster  were  given  to 
Nicholas  Ridley,  a  determined  protestant  Poynet,  formerly  chaplain 
to  Cranmer,  succeeded  to  Winchester  (March  23, 1551),  and  Hooper 
to  Gloucester. 

§  9.  When  Warwick  and  the  council  of  regency  b^^  to  exercise 
their  power,  they  found  themselves  involved  in  the  same  difficulties 
that  had  embarrassed  the  protector.  The  wars  with  France  and 
Scotland  could  not  be  supported  by  an  exhausted  exchequer; 
seemed  dangerous  to  a  divided  nation ;  and  were  now  acknowledged 
not  to  have  any  obji  ct  which  even  the  greatest  and  most  uninter- 
rupted success  could  attain.  Although  the  project  of  peace  enter- 
tained by  Somerset  haul  served  them  as  a  pretence  for  clnmour 
against  hisadniinlBtration,  they  fouud  themselves  obliged  tonegociate 
a  treaty  with  the  king  of  France.  Henry  II.  offered  a  sum  for  the 
immediate  restitution  of  Boulogne,  and  400,000  crowns  were  at  last 
agreed  on,  one-half  to  be  paid  immediately,  the  other  in  August 
following.  Six  hostages  were  given  for  the  performance  of  this 
article,  and  Scotland  was  comprehend^  in  the  treaty. 

llie  theological  zeal  of  the  council,  though  seemingly  fervent, 
went  not  so  far  as  to  make  them  neglect  their  own  temporal  con- 
cerns, which  seem  to  have  ever  been  uppermost  in  their  thoughta. 
Several  catholic  bishops  were  deprived,  and  some  were  obliged  to 
seek  protection  by  sacrificing  the  most  considerable  revenues  of  their 
see  to  rapacious  courtiers.  Durham  was  entirely  suppressed.  Though 
every  one  besides  yielded  to  the  authority  of  the  council,  the  lady 
Mary  could  never  be  brought  to  compliance ;  and  she  still  continued 
to  adhere  to  the  mass,  and  to  reject  the  new  liturgy.  It  was  with 
difficulty  that  the  young  king,  who  had  deeply  imbibed  the  principles 
of  the  Reformation,  could  be  prevailed  upon  to  connive  at  his 
sister's  obstinacy ;  but  her  relationship  to  the  emperor  proved  her 
best  protection.  In  1551  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  suffered  in 
England  a  new  revival,  and  some  rites  and  ceremonies,  which  had 
given  offence,  were  omitted.  The  doctrines  of  religion  were  also 
reducetl  to  42  articles.  These  were  intended  to  obviate  further 
divisions  and  variations. 

{  10.  Not  contented  with  the  eminence  he  had  attained,  Warwick 
carried  further  his  pretensions,  and  gained  partisans  who  were 
disposed  to  second  him  in  every  enterprise.  The  last  earl  of 
Northumberland  died  without  issue ;  and  as  sir  Thomas  Percy^  his 


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180  EDWARD  vr.  Chap  ivi 

brother,  had  been  attaint^,  the  title  was  at  present  extinct,  and  the 
estate  was  vested  in  the  crown.,  Warwick  now  procured  to  himself 
a  grant  of  the  honours  and  offices  of  that  house,  and  was  dignified 
with  the  title  of  duke  of  Northumberland  (1551).  But  these  new 
possessions  and  titles  he  regarded  as  steps  only  to  further  aoqnisi- 
tions.  Finding  that  Somerset  still  enjoyed  a  considerable  share  of 
popularity,  he  determined  to  ruin  the  mnn  whom  he  regarded  as  the 
chief  obstacle  to  his  ambition.  Somerset  was  therefore  accused'  of 
hii:h  treason  and  felony,  in  plotting  against  the  lives  of  certain  lords 
of  the  council:  he  was  acquitted  on  the  former  charge,  but  con- 
demned on  the  latter.  He  was  brought  to  the  scaffold  on  Tower 
Hill  (January  22,  1552),  amidst  great  crowds  of  spectators,  who 
bore  him  such  sincere  kindness  that  they  entertained,  to  the  last 
Dooment,  the  fond  hopes  of  his  pardon.  His  virtnes  were  better 
calculated  for  private  than  for  public  life;  and  by  his  want  of 
penetration  and  firmness  he  was  ill  fitted  to  extricate  himself  from 
those  cabals  and  violences  to  which  that  age  was  so  nmch  addicted.* 
Several  of  Somerset's  friends  were  also  brought  to  trial,  condemned, 
and  executed :  great  injustice  seems  to  have  been  used  in  their 
prosecution. 

§  11.  The  declining  state  of  the  young  king's  health  opened  out 
to  Northumberland  a  vaster  prospect  of  ambition.  He  endeavoured 
to  persuade  Edward  to  deprive  his  two  sisters  of  the  succession,  on 
the  ground  of  illegitimacy.  He  represented  that  the  certain  con* 
sequence  of  his  sister  Mary's  succession,  or  that  of  the  queen  of  Scots, 
was  the  re-establishment  of  the  usurpation  and  idolatry  of  the 
church  of  Rome ;  that,  though  the  lady  Elizabeth  was  liable  to  no 
such  objection,  her  exclusion  must  follow  that  of  her  elder  sister ; 
that,  when  these  princesses  were  set  aside  by  such  solid  reasons, 
the  succession  devolved  on  the  marchioness  of  Dorset,  elder  daughter 
of  Mary,  the  French  queen,  and  the  duke  of  Suffolk;  that  the 
next  heir  of  the  marchioness  was  the  lady  Jane  Ghrey,  a  lady 
every  way  worthy  of  a  crown ;  and  that,  even  if  her  title  by  blood 
were  doubtful,  which  there  was  no  just  reason  to  pretend,  the 
king  was  possessed  of  the  same  power  that  his  father  enjoyed,  and 
might  leave  her  the  crown  by  letters  patent.  Northumberland, 
finding  that  his  arguments  Wi  3  likely  to  operate  on  the  king, 
began  to  prepare  the  other  parts  of  his  scheme.  On  the  extinctiun 
of  the  dukedom  of  Sufiblk,  the  marquis  of  Dorset  had  been  raised 
to  this  title ;  and  the  new  duke  of  Sufiblk  and  the  duchess  were 
now  persuaded  by  Northumberland  to  give  their  daughter,  the 
lady  Jane,  in  marriage  to  his  fourth  son,  the  lord  Guilford  Dudley. 

*  He  was  the  ancestor  of  tbe  present  i  tainder.  was  restored  to  bis  great-grandaoB 
duke.     The  Utle.  forldted   by  his  at-  |  on  the  accession  of  Charles  11.  (1660). 


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Aj>.  1661-1553.  HIS  DEAXa  281 

The  languishing  state  of  Edward's  healthy  who  was  now  in  a  con* 
firmed  consumption,  made  Northumberland  the  more  intent  on  the 
execution  of  his  project.  He  removed  all  except  his  own  emissaries 
from  about  the  king ;  and  prevailed  on  the  young  prince  to  give 
his  consent  to  the  settlement  projected.  The  judges  hesitated  to 
draw  up  the  necessary  deed ;  but  were  at  length  brought  to  do  so 
by  Edward  himself,  and  the  menaces  of  Northumberland,  and  the 
promise  that  a  pardon  should  immediately  after  be  granted  them 
for  any  offence  which  they  might  have  incurred  by  their  compliance. 
After  this  settlement  Edward  declined  visibly  every  day.  To 
make  matters  worse,  his  physicians  were  dismissed  by  Northum- 
berland's advice  and  by  an  order  of  coimcil ;  and  he  was  put  into 
the  hands  of  an  ignorant  woman,  who  undertook  in  a  little  time  to 
restore  him  to  his  former  state  of  health.  After  the  use  of  her 
medicines  the  bad  symptoms  increased ;  and  he  expired  at  Green- 
wich (July  6,  1553),  in  the  16th  year  of  his  age,  and  the  7th  of 
his  reign.  Historians  dwell  with  pleasure  on  the  qualities  of  this 
young  prince,  whom  the  flattering  promises  of  hope  had  made  an 
object  of  tender  affection  to  the  public. 


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Medal  of  FhiUp  and  Mary. 
Obr. :  PHOUr .  d  .  o  .  map  .  rex  .  z.    Bust  of  Philip  to  right.    Rev. :  xabia  x  i 
AMQL  .  rsAVC .  ST  .  HiB  .  z.    BoBt  of  Mary  to  left. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
MART,  h,  1516;  r.  a.d.  1553-1558. 

§  1.  Lady  Jane  Grey  proclaimed.  Mary  acknowledged  qneen.  §  2. 
Northumberland  executed.  Roman  catholic  religion  restored.  §  3. 
The  Spanish  match.  Wyatt's  insurrection.  §  4.  Imprisonment  of 
the  princess  Elizabeth.  Execution  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.  §  5.  Mary's 
marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain.  England  reconciled  with  the  see  of 
Rome.  §  6.  Persecutions.  Execution  of  Cranmer.  7.  War  with 
France.     Loss  of  Calais.     §  8.  Death  and  character  of  the  queen. 

§  1.  Northumberland,  sensible  of  the  opposition  which  he  must 
expect,  had  carefully  concealed  the  destination  of  the  succession 
made  by  the  king ;  and,  in  order  to  bring  the  princess  Mary  into 
his  power,  had  desired  her  to  attend  on  her  dying  brother.  Mary 
was  at  Hoddesdon,  within  half  a  day's  journey  of  the  court, 
when  she  received  private  intelligence,  probably  from  the  earl  of 
Arundel,  both  of  her  brother's  death  and  of  the  conspiracy  formed 
against  her.  She  immediately  retired  into  Norfolk,  and  despatched 
a  message  to  the  council,  requiring  them  immediately  to  give 
orders  for  proclaiming  her  in  London.  Northumberland  found  that 
further  dissimulation  was  fmitless.  He  went  to  Sion  house,  accom- 
panied by  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  and  others  of 
the  nobility ;  and  he  approached  the  lady  Jane,  who  resided  there, 
with  all  the  respect  usually  paid  to  the  sovereign.  Jane  was,  in  a 
great  measure,  ignorant  of  these  transactions;  and  it  was  with 
equal  grief  and  surprise  that  she  received  intelligence  of  them. 
She  was  a  lady  of  an  amiable  person,  an  engaging  disposition,  and 
accomplished  parts.  She  had  attained  a  familiar  knowledge  of  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages,  besides  modem  tongues;  had 


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MX  1^3     MARY  ACKNOWLEDGED  QUEEN.        285 

most  of  her  time  in  an  application  to  learning ;  and  expressed  a 
great  indifference  for  other  occupations  and  amusements  usual  with 
her  sex  and  station.  Roger  Ascham,  tutor  to  the  lady  Elizabeth, 
having  one  day  paid  her  a  visit,  found  her  employed  in  reading 
Plato,  while  the  rest  of  the  family  were  hunting  in  the  park.  The 
intelligence  of  her  elevation  to  the  throne  was  nowise  agreeable  to 
her.  She  was  greatly  overcome,  but  at  last  submitted  to  their  will, 
and  even  accepted  the  crown  with  alacrity.  Orders  were  given  to 
proclaim  Jane  throughout  the  kingdom ;  but  these  orders  were  exe- 
cuted only  in  London  and  the  neighbourhood.  No  applause  ensued : 
the  people  heard  the  proclamation  with  silence  and  concern,  and  some 
.even  expressed  their  scorn  and  contempt.  The  people  of-  Norfolk, 
meanwhile,  paid  their  court  to  Mary,  and  the  nobility  and  gentry 
daily  flocked  to  her  with  reinforcements.  Northumberland,  hitherto 
blinded  by  ambition,  saw  at  last  the  danger  gather  round  him,  and 
knew  not  which  way  to  turn.  At  length  he  determined  to  march 
against  her;  but  he  found  his  army  too  weak  to  encounter  the 
queen's.  He  wrote  to  the  council,  desiring  them  to  send  him 
reinforcements ;  but  the  councillors  agreed  upon  a  speedy  return  to 
the  duty  which  they  owed  to  their  lawful  sovereign.  The  mayor 
and  aldermen  of  London  were  immediately  sent  for,  who  discovered 
great  alacrity  in  obeying  the  orders  they  received  to  proclaim  Mary. 
The  people  expressed  their  approbation  by  shouts  of  applause. 
Suffolk,  who  commanded  in  the  Tower,  finding  resistance  fruitless, 
opened  the  gates,  and  declared  for  Mary;  and  even  Northum- 
berland, being  deserted  by  all  his  followers,  was  obliged  to  do  the 
same.  The  people  everywhere,  on  the  queen's  approach  to  Lender, 
gave  sensible  expressions  of  their  loyalty  and  attachment.  And  the 
lady  Elizabeth  met  her  at  the  head  of  a  thousand  horse,  which  that 
princess  had  levied  in  order  to  support  their  joint  title  against  the 
usurper. 

S  2.  The  duke  of  Northumberland  was  seized  and  taken  to  the 
Tower:  at  the  same  time  were  committed  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  lady 
Jane  Grey,  lord  Guilford  Dudley,  and  several  of  the  nobility.  As  the 
councillors  pleaded  constraint  as  an  excuse  for  their  treason,  Mary 
extended  her  pardon  to  most  of  them.  But  the  guilt  of  North- 
umberland was  too  great,  as  well  as  his  ambition  and  courage  too 
dangerous,  to  permit  him  to  entertain  any  reasonable  hopes  of  life* 
When  brought  to  his  trial  he  attempted  no  defence,  but  pleaded 
guilty  (August  13)*  At  his  execution  he  made  a  profession  of 
the  catholic  religion,  and  told  the  people  that  they  never  would 
enjoy  tranquillity  till  they  returned  to  the  faith  of  their  ancestora ; 
either  because  these  were  his  real  sentiments,  which  he  ha<J 
formerly  disguised  from  interest  and  ambition,  or  that  he  hoped  by 


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284  MABT.  Ohap.  xtii. 

this  deolaiation  to  render  the  queen  more  favourable  to  his  family. 
Sir  Thomas  Palmer  and  sir  John  Ghktes  suffered  with  him  (August 
22,  1553);  and  this  was  all  the  blood  spilled  on  aooount  of  so 
dangerous  and  criminal  an  enterprise  against  the  rights  of  the 
sovereign. 

Mary  soon  showed  that  she  was  determined  to  restore  the  Roman 
catholic  religion.  Gardiner,  Bonner,  Tunstal^  and  others,  who  had 
been  deprived  in  the  preceding  reign,  uere  reinstated  in  their  sees. 
On  pretence  of  discouraging  controversy,  she  silenced,  by  an  act  of 
prerogative,  all  the  preachers  throughout  England,  except  such  as 
should  obtain  a  particular  licence.  Holgate,  archbishop  of  York, 
Coverdale,  bi-hop  of  Exeter,  Ridley  of  London,  and  Hooper  of 
Gloucester,  were  thrown  into  prison;  whither  Latimer  also  was 
sent  soon  after.  The  zealous  bishops  and  priests  were  encouraged 
in  their  forwardness  to  revive  the  mass,  though  contrary  to  the 
present  laws.  Cranmer,  the  primate,  had  reason  to  expect  little 
favour  during  the  present  reign ;  but  it  was  by  his  own  indiscreet 
zeal  that  he  brought  on  himself  the  first  violence  and  persecution. 
A  report  being  spread  that  in  order  to  pay  court  to  the  queen  he 
had  promised  to  officiate  in  the  Latin  service,  to  wipe  oflf  this  asper- 
sion, he  published  a  manifesto  in  his  own  defence,  in  whiih  he 
attributed  the  mass  to  the  invention  of  the  devil,  and  branded  its 
abuses  as  blasphemies.  On  the  publication  of  this  inflammatory 
pai^er,  Cranmer  was  thrown  into  piison,  and  was  tried  fbr  the  part 
which  he  had  acted  in  concurring  with  the  lady  Jane,  and  opposing 
the  queen's  acctssion  (November  13).  Sentence  of  high  treason 
was  pronounced  against  him,  and  by  the  same  court  against  Jane 
and  her  husband,  but  the  execution  of  it  did  not  follow ;  and  the 
primate  was  reserved  for  a  more  cruel  punishment.  In  opening 
parliament  (October  5),  the  court  showed  its  contempt  of  the  laws 
by  celtbrating,  before  the  two  houses,  a  mass  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  in 
the  Latin  tongue,  with  all  the  ancient  ceremonies.  The  first  bill 
passed  by  the  parliament  was  of  a  popular  nature,  and  abolished 
every  species  of  treason  not  contained  in  the  statute  of  Edward  III., 
and  every  species  of  felony  that  did  not  subsist  before  the  first  year 
of  Henry  VIII. ;  for  many  of  the  cruel  laws  of  that  monarch  had  been 
re-enacted  by  the  last  parliament  of  Edward  VI.  It  next  declared 
the  queen  to  be  legitimate,  ratified  the  marriage  of  Henry  with 
Katharine  of  Arragon,  and  annulled  the  divorce  pronounced  by 
Cranmer.  The  statutes  of  king  Edward  regarding  religion  were 
repealed  by  one  act,  and  the  old  form  of  service  restored.  The 
attainder  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  who  had  been  previously  liberated 
from  the  Tower,  and  admitted  to  Mary*s  confidence  and  favour,  was 
reversed.     The  queen  also  sent  assurances  to  the  pope,  then  Julius 


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A.V.  1568-1554.         WT ait's  INSURRECTION.  286 

UL,  of  her  earnest  deeire  to  reooncile  herself  and  her  kingdoms  to 
the  holy  see. 

f  3.  No  sooner  did  ihe  emperor  Charles  V.  hear  of  the  death  of 
Edward,  and  the  acoession  of  his  kinswoman  Mary  to  the  crown 
of  England,  than  he  sent  over  an  agent  to  propose  his  son  Philip 
as  her  husband.  Philip  was  a  widower,  and,  though  he  was  only 
27  years  of  age,  12  years  younger  than  the  queen ;  this  objection,  it 
was  thought,  would  be  overlooked,  and  there  was  no  reason  to 
despair  of  her  still  having  issue.  Norfolk,  Arundel,  and  Paget  gave 
their  advice  for  the  match ;  but  Grardiner,  who  had  now  become 
chancellor,  opposed  it  The  Commons,  alarmed  to  hear  that  Mary 
was  resolved  to  contract  a  foreign  alliance,  sent  their  speaker  to  re- 
.lonstrate  in  strong  terms  against  so  dangerous  a  measure ;  and,  to 
jteYetDi  further  applications  of  the  same  kind,  the  queen  thought 
proper  to  dissolve  the  parliament.  A  convocation  had  been  sum- 
moned at  the  same  lime  with  the  parliament ;  and  the  majority 
here  also  appeared  to  be  of  the  court  religion.  After  the  parliament 
and  convocation  were  dismissed,  the  new  laws  with  regard  to  religion 
were  still  more  openly  put  in  execution :  the  mass  was  everywhere 
re-established ;  marriage  was  declared  to  be  incompatible  with  any 
spiritual  office ;  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  clergy  were  deprived  of 
their  livings.  This  violent  and  sudden  change  of  religion  inspired  the 
protestants  with  great  discontent ;  whilst  the  Spanish  match  diffused 
universal  apprehensions  for  the  liberty  and  independence  of  the  nation. 
To  obviate  all  clamour,  the  articles  of  marriage  were  drawn  as  favour- 
ably as  possible  for  the  interest  and  security  and  even  grandeur 
of  England :  and,  in  particular,  it  was  agreed  that,  though  Philip 
should  have  the  title  of  king,  the.ar1ministratiou  should  be  entirely 
in  the  queen ;  and  that  no  foreigner  should  be  capable  of  enjoying 
any  office  in  the  kingdom.  But  these  articlfs  gave  little  satisfaction 
to  the  nation,  and  some  were  determined  to  resist  the  marriage 
by  arms.  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  piurposed  to  raise  Kent ;  sir  Peter 
Carew,  Devonshire ;  and  they  engaged  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  by  tho 
hopes  of  recovering  the  crown  for  the  lady  Jane,  to  attempt  raisin;^ 
the  midland  counties  (1554).  The  attempts  of  the  last  two  wer> 
speedily  disconcerted,  but  Wyatt  was  at  first  more  successful 
Having  dispersed  a  declaration  throughout  Kent,  against  the 
queen's  evil  counsellors,  and  against  the  Spanish  match,  without 
any  mention  of  religion,  he  raised  his  standard  at  Rochester.  He 
then  forced  his  way  into  London ;  but  his  followers,  finding  that  no 
person  of  note  joined  him,  insensibly  fell  off,  and  be  was  at  last 
seized  near  Temple  Bar  by  sir  Maurice  Berkeley  (February  7, 1554). 
About  30  persons  suffered  for  this  rebellion :  400  more  were  con- 
docted  before  the  queen  with  ropes  about  their  necks,  and,  fallii^ 
14* 


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286  ICABT.  Ohap.  rm 

OQ  their  knees,  receiyed  a  pardon  and  were  dismissed.  Wyatt  was 
condemned  and  executed. 

i  4.  This  rebellion  proTed  fatal  to  the  lady  Jane  Grey,  as  well  as 
to  her  husband ;  the  duke  of  Suffolk's  guilt  was  imputed  to  her, 
and  both  she  and  her  husband  were  beheaded  (February  12, 1554). 
On  the  scaffold  she  made  a  speech  to  the  bystanders,  in  which  the 
mildness  of  her  dis;  usition  led  her  to  take  the  blame  wholly  on 
herself,  without  uttering  a  single  complaint  against  the  severity 
with  which  sbe  had  been  treated.  She  then  caused  herself  to  be 
disrobed  by  her  women,  and  with  a  serene  countenance  submitted 
herself  to  the  executioner.  The  duke  of  Suffolk  was  tried,  con- 
demned, and  executed  soon  after.  The  princess  filizabeth,  suspected 
for  a  time  of  being  implicated  in  the  late  plot,  was  sent  to  the 
Tower ;  but  in  the  following  May  was  released  and  placed  under 
the  care  and  surveillance  of  sir  Ilenry  Bedingfield,  at  Woodstock. 
It  is  even  said  that  the  more  violent  party  uf  the  council  proposed 
capital  punishment,  but  were  opposed  by  Grardiner,  who  interceded 
in  her  favour.    The  story,  however,  requires  confirmation. 

§  5.  Philip  ot  Spain  arrived  at  Southampton  on  July  20, 1554, 
and  a  few  days  after  he  was  married  to  Mary  at  Winchester  (July 
25).  Having  made  a  pompous  entry  into  London,  where  Philip 
displayed  his  wealth  with  great  ostentation,  they  proceeded  to 
their  residence  at  Windsor.  The  prince's  behaviour  was  ill  calcu- 
lated to  remove  the  prejudices  which  the  English  nation  had  enter- 
tained against  him.  He  was  distant  and  reserved  in  his  address ; 
took  no  notice  of  the  salutes  even  of  the  most  considerable  noble- 
men ;  and  so  intrenche«l  himself  in  form  and  ceremony,  that  he 
was  in  a  manner  inaccessible.  The  zeal  of  the  catholics,  the  in- 
fluence of  Spanish  gold,  the  powers  of  prerogative,  the  discourage- 
ment of  the  gentry,  particularly  of  the  protestants,  procured  a 
House  of  Commons  which  was  in  a  great  measure  to  the  queen's 
satisfrtction.  Cardinal  Pole,  whose  attainder  had  been  reversed, 
came  over  to  England  as  legate  (November  20)  i  and,  nfter  being 
introduced  to  the  king  and  queen,  he  invited  the  parliament  to 
reconcile  themselves  and  the  kingdom  to  the  apostolic  see,  from 
which  they  had  been  so  long  and  so  unhappily  divided.  This 
message  was  taken  in  good  part:  both  houses  voted  an  address 
declaring  their  sorrow  for  their  past  proceediogs  agdnst  the  pope, 
and  professing  their  willingness  to  repeal  them,  provided  that  their 
purchases  of  abbey  and  chantry  lands  were  confirmed.  In  this 
stipulation  they  were  supported  by  the  clergy.  Thirty-three 
members,  however,  of  the  Commons  seceded  rather  than  bo  impli- 
cated in  these  proceedings.  The  legate,  in  the  nam?  of  his  holi- 
ness, then  gave  the  parliament  and  kingdom  absolution,  freed  them 


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AJ).  1654-1565.        THE   PROTESTANT  MARTYRS.  287 

from  al]  censures,  and  received  tbem  again  into  the  bosom  of  the 
church. 

The  parliament  revived  the  old  sanguinary  laws  against  heretics : 
they  also  enacted  several  statutes  against  seditious  words  an4 
rumours ;  and  they  made  it  treason  to  imagine  or  attempt  the  death 
of  Philip  during  his  marriage  with  the  queen.  But  their  hatred 
against  the  Spaniards,  as  well  as  their  suspicion  of  Philip's  preten^ 
sions,  i^till  prevailed;  and  though  the  queen  wished  to  l»ave  her 
husband  declared  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown,  and  the  adminis- 
tration to  be  put  into  his  hands,  she  failed  in  all  her  endeavours, 
and  could  not  so  much  as  procure  the  parliament's  consent  to  his 
coronation.  Philip,  sensible  of  the  prejudices  entertained  against 
him,  endeavoured  to  acquire  popularity  by  procuring  the  release 
of  several  prisoners  of  distinction ;  but  nothing  was  more  agreeable 
to  the  nation  than  the  protection  he  afforded  to  the  lady  Elizabeth. 
This  measiu-e  was  not  the  effect  of  any  generosity  in  Philip,  a 
sentiment  of  which  he  was  wholly  destitute,  but  of  a  refined  policy, 
which  made  him  foresee  that,  if  that  princess  were  put  to  death, 
the  next  lawful  heir  was  the  queen  of  Scots,  whose  succession  would 
for  ever  annex  England  to  the  crown  of  France. 

§  6.  By  the  revival  of  the  laws  against  heresy,  England  was  soon 
fiUed  with  scents  of  horror  which  have  ever  since  rendered  the 
Roman  catholic  religion  the  object  of  detestation.  Rogers,  pre- 
bendary of  St  Paul's,  Hooper,  bishop  of  Gloucester,  Taylor,  parson, 
of  Hadleigh,  and  others  were  condemned  to  the  flames  (1555). 
Gardiner,  who  had  vainly  expected  that  a  few  examples  would 
strike  a  terror  into  the  reformers,  finding  the  work  multiply  upon 
him,  devolved  the  invidious  office  on  others,  chiefly  on  Bonner, 
bishop  of  London,  who  was  however  rebuked,  nore  than  once,  for 
his  flagging  zeal,  by  the  council.  It  is  needless  to  be  particular  in 
enumerating  the  cruelties  practised  in  England  during  the  course  of 
three  years  that  these  persecutions  lasted :  the  savage  barbarity  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  patient  constancy  on  the  other,  are  so  similar  in  all 
these  martyrdoms,  that  the  narrative,  little  agreeable  in  itself,  could 
never  be  relieved  by  any  variety.  It  is  computed  that  in  this  reign 
277  persons  were  brought  to  the  stake;  besides  those  who  were 
punished  by  imprisonments,  fines,  and  confiscations.  Among  those 
who  suffered  by  fire  were  5  bishops,  21  clergymoi,  8  lay  gentlemen, 
84  tradesmen,  100  husbandmen,  servants,  and  labourers,  26  women, 
and  4  children.  Ridley,  bishop  of  London,  and  Latimer,  formerly 
bishop  of  Worcester,  two  prelates  celebrated  for  learning  and  virtue, 
perished  together  in  the  same  flames  at  Oxford,  and  supported  each 
other's  constancy  by  their  mutual  exhortations.  Latimer,  when 
tied  to  the  stake,  called  to  his  companion,  "  Be  of  good  comfort, 


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888  IfABT.  Chap.  xtii. 

Master  Bidley ;  we  shall  this  day  kindle  such  a  candle  in  England, 
as,  I  trust  in  God,  shall  never  be  extinguished."  Instances  of  bar- 
barity, so  unusual  in  the  nation,  excited  horror ;  the  constancy  of 
the  martyrs  was  the  object  of  admiration;  and  as  men  have  a 
principle  of  equity  engraven  in  their  minds,  which  even  &lse  re- 
ligion is  not  able  totally  to  obliterate,  they  were  shocked  to  see 
persons  of  probity,  of  honour^  of  pious  dispositions,  exposed  to 
punishments  more  severe  than  were  indicted  on  the  greatest  ruflSans 
for  crimes  subversive  of  civil  society.  Each  martyrdom,  therefore, 
was  equivalent  to  a  hundred  sermons  against  popery;  and  men 
either  avoided  such  horrid  spectacles,  or  returned  from  them  fall  of 
a  violent,  though  secret,  ind^^tion  against  the  persecutors. 

These  persecutions  had  now  become  extremely  odious  to  the 
nation ;  and  the  execution  of  Cranmer  rendered  the  government  still 
more  unpopular.  The  primate  had  long  been  detained  in  prison. 
The  year  before  he  had  been  condemned  fbr  heresy  with  BM^y 
and  Latimer.  But  whilst  they  were  burnt  immediately  after 
sentence,  Granmer's  case  was  remitted  to  Bome,  wherv  «  definite 
sentence  of  degradation  was  passed  against  him  in  the  Deovaber 
following  (1555).  When  the  sentence  arrived  in  England,  overcome 
by  the  fond  love  of  life,  terrified  by  the  prospect  of  those  tortures 
which  awaited  him,  he  allowed,  in  an  unguarded  hour,  the  senti- 
ments of  nature  to  prevail  over  his  resolution,  and  he  agreed  to  sub- 
scribe the  doctrines  of  the  papal  supremacy  and  of  transubstantiation. 
The  court,  however,  was  determined  that  this  recantation  should 
avail  him  nothing ;  and  they  sent  orders  that  he  should  be  required 
to  acknowledge  his  errors  in  public,  and  be  immediately  carried  to 
execution.  Cranmer,  whether  that  he  had  received  a  secret  intima- 
tion of  their  design,  or  had  repented  of  his  weakness,  surprised  his 
audience  in  St.  Mary's  church  by  a  contrary  declaration.  He 
bitterly  reproached  himself  for  the  weakness  of  which  he  had  been 
guilty  ;  and  when  brought  to  the  stake,  thrust  the  hand  which  had 
signed  his  recantation  into  the  flames,  exclaiming  aloud,  **  This  hand 
has  offended.''  He  suffered  at  Oxford  (March  21, 1556X  <^  ^^a^ 
succeeded  by  cardinal  Pole. 

These  severities,  so  far  from  achieving  the  purposes  they  were 
intended,  produced  the  opposite  effect  The  government  was  at- 
tacked with  unsparing  bitterness  at  home  and  abroad.  The  queen's 
death  was  prayed  for  in  secret  conventicles.  The  exiles  abroad 
circulated  an  address  denouncing  persecution  for  conscience  sake. 
Priests  were  exposed  to  personal  violence.  Even  those,  who  were 
indifferent  or  opposed  to  protestantism  before,  now  could  not  fail  of 
sympathizing  with  a  faith  of  which  the  reality  was  shown  in  the 
■oflTerings  and  constancy  of  its  professors.    But,  instead  of  taking 


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A.D.  155lr-155&  LOSS  OF  CALAia  289 

warning,  the  goyeniment  thought  to  oyeroome  opposition  by  re- 
donbliog  it«  measures  of  repression.  In  1557  a  commission  was 
issued,  of  unusual  powers,  to  Bonner  and  others,  for  a  rigorous 
inquiry  after  **  devilish  and  clamorous  persons,"  who  issued  seditious 
reports,  or  brought  in  heretical  or  seditious  books.  Those  who 
maligned  the  church  services  were  to  be  treated  as  vagabonds.  To 
render  their  proceedings  as  odious  as  possible,  no  limits  were  as- 
signed to  the  punishments  the  commissioners  were  empowered  to 
inflict 

i  7.  The  temper  of  Mary  was  soured  by  ill  health,  by  disappoint- 
ment in  not  having  offspring,  and  by  the  absence  of  her  husband, 
who,  finding  his  authority  extremely  limited  in  England,  had  gone 
over  to  the  emperor  in  Flanders.  But  her  affection  for  Philip  was 
not  cooled  by  his  indifference ;  and  she  showed  the  greatest  anxiety 
to  consult  his  wishes  and  promote  his  views.  Philip,  who  had 
become  master  of  the  wealth  of  the  new  world,  and  of  the  richest 
and  most  extensive  dominions  in  Europe,  by  the  abdication  of  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  (1556),  was  anxious  to  engage  England  in  the 
war  which  was  kindled  between  Spain  and  France.  His  views  were 
warmly  seconded  by  Mary,  but  opposed  by  her  council.  Her 
importunities  at  length  succeeded;  she  levied  an  army  of  7000 
men,  and  sent  them  over  to  the  Low  Countries,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  earl  of  Pembroke  (1557).  The  king  of  Spain  had 
assembled  an  army  which,  after  the  junction  of  the  English^ 
amounted  to  60,000  men,  conducted  by  Philibert,  duke  of  Savoy, 
one  of  the  greatest  captains  of  the  age.  Little  interest  would 
attend  the  narration  of  a  campaign  in  which  the  English  played 
only  a  subordinate  part,  and  which  resulted  in  their  loss  and 
disgrace.  By  Philibert's  victory  at  St.  Quentin  the  whole  king- 
dom of  France  was  thrown  into  consternation ;  and  had  the 
Spaniards  marched  to  the  capital,  it  could  not  have  foiled  to  fall 
into  their  hands.  But  Philip's  caution  was  unecjual  to  so  bold 
a  step,  and  the  opportunity  was  neglected.  In  the  following 
winter  the  duke  of  Quise  succeeded  in  surprising  and  taking 
Calais,  deemed  in  that  age  an  impregnable  fortress  (January  7, 
1658).  Calais  was  surrounded  with  marshes  which,  during  the 
winter,  were  impassable,  except  over  a  dyke  guarded  by  two 
castles,  St.  Agatha  and  Newnham  bridge.  The  English  were  of 
late  accustomed,  on  account  of  the  lowness  of  their  finances,  to 
dismiss  a  great  part  of  the  garrison  at  the  end  of  autumn,  and  to 
recal  them  in  the  spring,  at  which  time  alone  tlieir  attendance  was 
judged  to  be  necessary.  It  was  this  circumstance  that  insured  the 
suoceflB  of  the  French ;  and  thus  the  duke  of  Guise  in  eight  days, 
during  tlie  depth  of  winter,  made  himself  master  of  this  strong  for- 


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290 


MART. 


Ohap.  xtil 


tress,  that  had  cost  Edward  III.  a  tiege  of  eleren  months,  at  the 
head  of  a  numerous  army,  llie  English  had  held  it  ahove  200 
years ;  and,  as  it  gave  them  an  easy  entrance  into  France,  it  was 
regarded  as  the  most  important  possession  belonging  to  the  crown. 
Guisnes  fell  two  weeks  l^ter  (January  21),  and  thus  the  Eoglish 
lost  their  last  hold  on  French  soil.  The  people  murmured  loudly 
against  the  improvidence  of  the  queen  and  her  council ;  who,  after 
engaging  in  a  fruitless  war  for  the  sake  of  foreign  interests,  had 
thus  exposed  the  nation  to  so  severe  a  disgrace.  Philip  liad  indeed 
offered  his  aid  to  recover  it,  and  his  proposal  was  strongly  seconded 
by  Mary  in  person,  but  the  council  pleaded  inability  to  bear  the 
expense. 

§  8.  The  queen  had  long  been  in  a  declining  state  of  health ;  and, 
having  mistaken  her  dropsy  for  a  i>regnancy,  she  had  made  use  of 
an  improper  regimen,  and  her  malady  daily  augmented.  Appre- 
hensions of  the  danger  to  which  the  catholic  religion  stood  exposed, 
dejection  for  the  loss  of  Calais,  concern  for  the  ill  state  of  her  affairs, 
and,  above  all,  anxiety  for  the  absence  of  her  husband,  preyed  upon 
her  mind,  and  threw  her  into  a  lingering  fever,  of  which  she  died, 
after  a  short  and  unfortunate  reign  of  five  years  (November  17, 
1558).  It  is  not  necessary  to  employ  many  words  in  drawing 
the  character  of  this  princess.  She  was  obstinate  and  bigoted:  but, 
among  many  defects,  it  must  be  admitted  that  she  was  sincere  in 
her  religion,  high-spirited,  courageous,  and  resolute  in  danger.  Not 
naturally  cruel,  she  was  soured  by  a  sense  of  wrongs  done  to  herself 
by  her  father  and  by  the  remembrance  of  her  mother's  sufife rings. 
Extremely  beautiful  as  a  child,  she  had  lost  all  traces  of  beauty 
when  she  arrived  at  womanhood.  Like  all  the  Tudors,  she  was 
highly  accomplished;  an  excellent  linguist;  a  finished  musician, 
and  skilled,  like  her  mother,  in  all  sorts  of  embroidery. 

Cardinal  Pole  died  the  same  day  as  the  queen. 

A  passage  to  Archangel  had  been  discovered  by  the  English 
during  the  last  reign,  and  a  beneficial  trade  with  Muscovy  estab- 
lished. A  solemn  embassy  was  sent  by  the  tsar  to  Mary,  which 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  intercourse  which  that  empire  had 
with  any  of  the  western  potentates  of  Europe.* 


•  «« She  was  a  little,  slim,  delicate,  sickly 
woman,  with  her  hair  already  turning 
grey.  .  .  On  personal  acquaintance  she 
made  the  impression  of  goodness  and 
But  yet  there  was  something 


in  her  eyes  that  oonid  even  rouse  fear." 
— Kanke's  Hist,  of  Eng.  i.  208,  £.T.  He 
adds  that  Mary  had  a  loud  voice,  and  all 
her  sympathies  leaned  to  the  land  of  her 
mother. 


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Queen  Elizabeth. 

Omainent  fonned  of  bust  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  cut  from  a  medal  and  enclosed  Id  a 

border  of  goldsmith's  work  representing  Lancaster,  York,  and  Tudor  nam. 

CHAPTER  XVIir. 

ELIZABETH.   FROM  HER  ACCESSION  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  MARY  QUEEN 

OF  SCOTS.— 6. 1533 ;   r.  a.d.  1558-1603. 

f  1.  Acceseion  of  the  queen.  Re>e8t4iblishinent  of  protestantism.  §  2.  Peace 
with  France.  The  Reformation  in  Scotland :  supported  by  Elizabeth. 
I  3.  French  affairs.  Arrival  of  Mary  in  Scotland.  Her  administration. 
§  4.  Wise  government  of  Elizabeth.  Proposals  of  marriage.  §  5.  Civil 
wars  of  France.  Elizabeth  assists  the  Htiguenots.  §  6.  The  Thirty-nine 
Articles.  Scotch  affairs.  The  queen  of  Scots  marries  Darn  ley.  Hostility 
of  Elizabeth.  §  7.  Murder  of  Rizzio.  Murder  of  Darnley.  Bothwell 
marries  the  queen  of  Scots.  Battle  of  Carberry  Hill.  §  8.  Mary  confined 
in  Lochlcven  castle.  Murray  regent.  James  VI  proclaimed.  Mary's 
escape  and  flight  to  England.  §  9.  Proceedings  of  th»;  English  court. 
§  10.  Duke  of  Norfolk's  conspiracy.  Elizabeth  excommunicated  by  the 
Dope.  §  11.  Ri^  of  the  Puritans.  Their  proceedings  iu  parliament. 
^12.  Foreign  affairs.  France  and  the  Netherlands.  §  13.  New 
conspiracy  and  execution  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk.  §  14.  Ma.ssacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew.  Civil  war  in  France.  Affairs  of  the  Netherlands. 
§  15.  Elizabeth's  prudent  government.  Naval  enterprise  of  Drake 
§  16.  Negociations  of  marriage  with  the  duke  of  Anjou.  §  17.  Con- 
spiracies in  England.  The  High  Coinmistion  court.  Parry's  conspiracy. 
§  18.  Affairs  of  the  Low  Countries.  Hostilities  with  Spain.  Battle 
5f  Zutphen  and  death  of  Sidney.  §  19.  Babington's  conspiracy  §  20 
Trial  and  condemnation  of  the' queen  of  Soots.  §  21.  Her  ezecutioo. 
§  22.  Elizabeth's  sorrow.     Her  apologies  to  James. 


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292  ELIZABETH.  Crap,  mn 

§  1.  Elizabeth  was  at  Hatfield  when  she  heard  of  her  dftr^ 
death ;  and  after  a  few  days  she  went  to  London  ^November  24) 
through  crowds  of  people,  who  strove  with  each  other  in  giving  her 
the  strongest  testimony  of  their  affection.  With  a  prudence  and 
magnanimity  ti-uly  laudable,  she  buried  all  offences  in  oblivion, 
and  received  with  affability  even  those  who  had  taken  part  against 
her. 

Philip,  who  still  hoped,  by  means  of  Elizabeth,  to  obtain  domi- 
nion over  England,  immediately  made  her  proposals  of  marriage, 
and  offered  to  procure  from  Rome  a  dispensation  for  that  purpose ; 
but  Elizabeth  saw  that  the  nation  had  entertained  an  extreme 
aversion  to  the  Spanish  alliance  during  her  sister's  reign.  She 
was  sensible  that  her  affinity  with  Philip  was  exactly  similar  te 
that  of  her  father  with  Katharine  of  Arragon ;  and  that  her  marry- 
ing that  monarch  was  in  effect  declaring  herself  illegitimate,  and 
incapable  of  succeeding  to  the  throne.  She  therefore  gave  him  an 
obliging  though  evasive  answer ;  and  he  still  retained  such  hopes  of 
success  that  he  sent  a  messenger  to  Rome  with  orders  to  solicit  the 
dispensation. 

Elizabeth,  not  to  alarm  the  partisans  of  the  catholic  religion, 
retained  many  of  her  sister's  counsellors ;  but  in  order  to  balance 
their  authority,  she  added  others  who  were  known  to  be  inclined 
to  the  protestant  communion,  among  whom  were  sir  Nicholas  Bacon, 
created  lord  keeper,  and  sir  William  Cecil,  secretary  of  state. 
With  these  counsellors,  particularly  Cecil,  she  frequently  deliberated 
on  the  expediency  of  restoring  the  protestant  religion.  She  re- 
solved to  proceed  by  gradual  and  secure  'teps,  but  at  the  same 
time  to  discover  such  symptoms  of  her  intentions  as  might  give 
encouragement  to  the  protestants,  so  much  depressed  by  the  late 
violent  persecutions.  She  allowed  the  exiles  to  return,  and  gave 
liberty  to  the  prisoners  who  were  confined  on  account  of  religion. 
But  she  published  a  proclamation  forbidding  all  preaching,  and 
conBuiDg  all  teaching  to  the  epistle  and  gospel  for  the  day  and 
the  Ten  Conimandments,  without  any  exposition. 

As  the  primacy  was  vacant,  and  Heath  objected  to  officiate  at  the 
coronation,  Oglethorpe,  bishop  of  Carlisle,  was  prevailed  on  to  perform 
the  ceremony  (January  15,  1559).  In  the  parliament,  which  met 
soon  after,  the  validity  of  the.  queen's  title  was  declared.  A  bill  was 
passed  for  suppressing  the  monasteries  lately  erected,  and  for  restor- 
ing the  tentiisand  first-fruits  to  the  queen ;  and  another  for  restoring 
to  the  crown  the  supremacy  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.*  In  order  to 
exercise  this  authority,  the  queen,  by  a  clause  of  the  act,  was 
empowered  to  name  such  commissioners,  either  laymen  or  clergy- 

*  lostotd  of  Saprem«  Head,  Elisabeth  aMomed  the  title  of  Supreme  GovemM'. 


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AJX  11(56-1559.     PEACE  WITH  FRANCE.  29S 

men,  as  she  should  think  proper ;  and  on  this  clause  was  founded 
the  court  of  High  Commission.*  Whoever  refused  to  take  the  oath 
of  supremacy  was  incapacitated  from  holding  office,  and  whoever 
maintained  the  authori^  of  any  foreign  potentate,  by  word  or  deed, 
forfeited,  for  the  first  offence,  all  his  goods  and  chattels;  for  the 
second,  was  subjected  to  the  penalty  of  a  prcsrtiunire ;  but  the  third 
offence  was  declared  treason.  Lastly,  an  act  was  passed  for  establish- 
ing the  second  Prayer-book  of  Edward  VI.  (1552),  with  some  altera- 
tions, and  prohibiting  any  minister,  whether  beneficed  or  not,  from 
using  any  other  form,  undei'  pain  for  the  first  offence  of  forfeiting 
goods  and  chattels,  for  the  second  of  a  year's  imprisonment,  and  for 
the  third  of  imprisonment  during  life.  Thus  in  one  session,  without 
any  violence,  tumult,  or  clamour,  was  the  whole  system  of  religion 
altered.  The  laws  enacted  with  regard  to  religion  met  with  little 
opposition  from  any  quarter.  The  liturgy  was  again  introduced  in 
the  vulgar  tongue,  and  the  oath  of  supremacy  was  tendered  to  the 
clergy.  The  bishops  had  taken  such  an  active  part  in  the  restora- 
tion of  popery  under  Mary,  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  bishop 
of  I  landaff,  they  felt  themselves  bound  to  refuse  the  oath,  and 
were  accordingly  degraded :  but  of  the  inferior  clergy  tb  rough  all 
England,  amounting  to  nearly  10,000,  only  about  100  dignitaries 
and  89  parochinl  iriests  sacrificed  their  livings  to  their  religious 
principles.  The  archbishopric  of  Canterbury,  which  was  vacaut  by 
the  deiith  of  cardinal  Pole,  was  conferred  \i\iOn  Parker. 

The  two  statutes  above  mentioned,  usually  called  the  Act3  of 
Supremacy  and  Uniformity,  were  the  great  instruments  for  oppress- 
ing the  catholics  during  this  and  many  subsequent  reigns.  On 
the  10th  of  February  the  House  of  Commons  made  the  queen 
an  importunaie  hut  lespectful  address  that  she  should  fix  her  choice 
of  a  husband.  After  thanking  them  for  this  expression  of  their  love 
for  her,  she  told  them  that  if  ever  she  married  it  should  be  to  the 
contentment  of  the  realm ;  but  she  preferred  to  live  "  out  of  the 
state  of  marriage."  "  This,"  she  added,  **  shall  be  for  me  sufficient, 
that  a  marble  stone  shall  declare  that  a  queen,  having  reigned  such 
a  time,  lived  and  died  a  virgin." 

§  2.  llie  negociations  for  a  peace  with  France,  in  progress  at 
the  time  of  Mary's  death,  were  concluded  at  Cateau  Cambresis 
(Ai»ril  12,  1559).  By  thi^  treaty,  Calais  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  French  monarch,  who  promised  to  restore  it  at  the  end  of 
eight  years — a  stipulation,  however,  which  was  never  intended  or 
expected  to  be  executed.  A  peace  with  Scotland  was  a  neces- 
sary consequence  of  that  with  France.    But  notwithstanding  this 

*  The  flrsi  body  of  cominisflionere  was  appointed  in  1669,  bat  the  court  was  nol 
temaUy  ettubltsbed  uuUl  1583. 


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294  EUZABETH.  Chap.  XTm 

peace  there  soon  appeared  a  ground  of  quarrel  of  the  most  serious 
nature,  and  which  was  afterwards  attended  with  the  most  im- 
portant consequeuces.  The  next  heir  to  the  English  throne  was 
Mary  queen  of  Scots,  now  married  to  the  dauphin;  and  the 
king  of  France,  at  the  persuasion  of  the  duke  of  Guise  and  his 
brothers,  ordered  his  son  and  daughter-in-law  to  assume  openly  the 
arms  as  well  as  title  of  king  and  queen  of  England,  and  to  quarter 
these  arms  on  all  their  equipages,  furniture,  and  liveries.  When  the 
English  ambassador  complained  of  this  injury,  he  could  obtain 
nothing  but  an  evasive  answer;  and  Elizabeth  plainly  saw  that  the 
king  of  France  intended,  on  the  first  opportunity,  to  dispute  her 
legitimacy  aod  her  title  to  the  crown.  Alarmed  at  the  danger,  she 
determine<l,  as  far  as  possible,  to  incapacitate  Henry  from  the  exe- 
cution of  his  project.  Tiie  sudden  death  of  that  monarch,  who  was 
killed  in  a  tournament  at  Paris  ( 1559),  while  celebrating  the  espousals 
of  his  daughter,  Elizabeth,  with  Philip  of  Spain,  altered  not  her 
views.  Being  informed  that  his  successor  Francis  II.,  the  husband 
of  Mary,  still  continued  to  assume,  without  reserve,  the  title  of  king 
of  England,  she  began  to  consider  him  and  his  queen  as  her  mortal 
enemies ;  and  the  present  situation  of  alTdiro  in  Scotland  afforded  her 
a  favourable  opportunity  both  of  revenging  the  injury  and  providing 
for  her  own  safety. 

Since  the  murder  of  cardinal  Beaton  the  Reformation  had  been 
proceeding  with  rapid  steps  in  Scotland.  Some  of  the  leading 
reformers,  observing  the  danger  to  which  they  were  exposed,  and 
desirous  to  propagate  their  principles,  entered  privately,  in  1567, 
into  a  bond  or  association,  and  called  themselves  the  Lords  of  the 
Coiigregation,  The  zeal  and  fury  of  this  league  was  further  stimu- 
lated by  the  arrival  of  John  Rnox  from  Geneva,  vdiere  he  bad 
passed  some  years  in  exile,  and  had  imbibe.l,  from  his  commerce 
with  Calvin,  the  sternness  of  his  sect  (May  2,  1559).  Many  acts 
of  violence  were  committed  upon  the  clergy,  as  well  as  upon  the 
monasteries  and  churches,  which  produced  a  civil  war.  At  length 
the  leaders  of  the  Congregation,  encouraged  by  the  intelligence 
received  of  the  sudden  death  of  Henry  II ,  passed  an  act,  on  their 
own  authority,  depriving  the  queen-dowager  of  the  regency,  and 
ordering  all  the  French  troops  to  evacuate  the  kingdom.  To  put 
their  edict  into  execution  they  colltxjted  forces,  and  solicited  suc- 
cours from  Elizabeth.  The  council  of  Elizabeth  did  not  long 
delilxjrate  in  agreein?  to  this  request;  an  I  though  the  Scotch 
presbyterians,  and  esi>ecially  their  leader  Knox,  wore  hateful  to  the 
queen,  Cecil  at  len<ith  persuaded  her  to  support,  by  arms  and 
money,  the  Congregation  in  Scotlantl.  She  concluded  a  treaty  of 
mutual  defence  with  them,  and  she  promised  never  to  desist  till 


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A^.  1669-1661.        REFORMATION  IN  SCOTLAND.  295 

the  French  had  entirely  eyocuated  Scotland.  The  appearance  of 
Elizabeth's  fleet  in  the  Firth  of  Forth,  in  January,  1560,  discon- 
certed the  French  army,  who  shut  themselves  up  in  Leith  ;  whilst 
the  English  army,  reinforced  by  5000  Scots,  sat  down  before  it 
The  French  were  obliged  to  capitulate ;  and  plenipotentiaries  from 
France  s^ned  a  treaty  at  Edinburgh  with  Cecil  and  Dr.  Wotton, 
whom  Elizabeth  had  sent  thither  for  that  purpose.  It  was  there 
stipulated  that  the  French  should  instantly  evacuate  Scotland,  and 
that  the  king  and  queen  of  France  and  Scotland  should  thenceforth 
abstain  from  bearing  the  arms  of  England,  or  assuming  the  title  of 
that  kingdom  (July  6,  1560).  The  subsequent  measures  of  the 
Scottish  reformers  tended  still  more  to  cement  their  union  with 
England.  Being  now  entirely  masters  of  the  kingdom,  they  made 
no  further  ceremony  or  scruple  in  fully  effecting  their  purpose. 
Laws  were  passed  abolishiug  the  mass  and  the  papal  jurisdiction  in 
Scotland.  The  presbyterian  form  of  discipline  was  settled,  leaving 
only  at  first  some  shadow  of  authority  to  certcun  ecclesiastics  who 
were  called  superintendents. 

§  3.  Elizabeth  soon  found  that  the  house  of  Guise,  notwithstand- 
ing their  former  disappuintmonts,  had  not  laid  aside  the  design  of 
contesting  her  titie  an>^  subverting  her  authority.  But  the  progress 
of  the  Reformation  in  France,  as  well  as  the  sudden  death  of  Francis 
II.,  interrupted  the  prosperity  of  the  duke  of  Guise  (December  5, 
1560).  Catherine  de  Medici,  the  queen-mother,  was  appointed 
regent  to  her  son,  Charles  IX.,  now  in  his  minority  ;  and  the  king 
of  Navarre,  who  was  fi^vourable  to  the  protestants,  was  named 
lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom.  Catherine,  who  imputed  to 
Mary  all  the  mortifications  which  she  had  met  with  during  Francis's 
lifetime,  took  care  to  retaliate ;  and  the  queen  of  Scots,  finding  her 
abode  in  France  disagreeable,  resolved  to  return  to  Scotland,  and 
landed  at  Leith,  August  19, 1561.  This  change  of  abode  and  situa- 
tion was  very  little  agreeable  to  that  princess.  It  is  said  that  after 
she  had  embarked  at  Calais  she  kept  her  eyes  fixed  on  the  coast  of 
France,  and  never  turned  them  from  that  beloved  object  till  dark- 
ness feu  and  intercepted  it  from  her  view.  She  then  ordered  a  couch 
to  be  spread  for  her  in  the  open  air ;  and  charged  the  pilot,  that,  if 
in  the  morning  the  land  were  still  in  sight,  he  should  wake  her,  and 
afford  her  one  parting  view  of  that  country  on  which  all  her  aflfec- 
tions  were  centred.  The  weather  proved  cahn,  so  that  the  ship  made 
little  way  in  the  night-time ;  and  Mary  had  once  more  an  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  the  French  coast.  She  sat  up  on  her  couch,  and, 
still  looking  towards  the  land,  often  repeated  these  words :  "  Fare^ 
-well,  France,  farewell !  I  fear  I  shall  never  see  thee  more ! "  The 
first  aspect,  however,  of  things  in  Scotland  was  more  favourable,  if 


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296  ELIZABETH.  Ohap.  XTm. 

not  to  her  pleasure  and  happiness,  at  least  to  her  repose  and  her 
security,  than  she  had  reason  to  apprehend.  No  sooner  did  the 
Frendi  galleys  appear  off  Leith  than  peoi)le  of  all  ranks,  who  had 
long  expected  their  arriyal,  flocked  to  the  shore  impatient  to  behold 
their  youthful  soyereign<  She  had  now  reached  her  19th  year ;  and 
the  bloom  of  her  youth  and  the  beauty  of  her  person  were  farther 
recommended  by  her  address,  her  manners,  and  her  genius.  The 
first  measures  of  Mary  confirmed  the  prepossessions  entertained  in 
her  fiivour :  she  bestowed  her  confidence  entirely  on  the  leaders  of 
the  reformed  party,  who  had  greatest  influence  over  the  people,  and 
who  she  found  were  alone  able  to  support  her  government  But 
there  was  once  circumstance  which  blasted  all  these  promising 
appearances.  She  was  still  a  papist;  and  though  she  published, 
soon  after  her  arrival,  a  proclamauon  enjoining  every  one  to  submit 
to  the  established  religion,  the  preachers  and  their  adherents  could 
neither  be  reconciled  to  a  person  polluted  with  so  great  an  abomina- 
tion, nor  lay  aside  jealousies  of  her  future  conduct.  On  the  Sunday 
of  her  arrival,  while  mass  was  said  in  her  private  chapel,  the  mob 
threatened  to  force  the  door.  The  clergy  and  the  preachers  in  par- 
ticular took  a  pride  iu  vilifying  her,  even  to  her  face.  The  ring- 
leader in  these  insults  was  John  Knox,  who  possessed  an  uncontrolled 
authority  iu  the  church,  and  evin  in  the  civil  affairs  of  the  nation, 
and  who  triumphed  in  the  contumelious  usage  of  his  sovereign. 
Mary,  whose  ago,  condition,  and  education  invited  her  to  lilxjrty 
and  cheerfulness,  was  curl)ed  in  all  her  amusements  by  the  absurd 
severity  of  these  reformers ;  and  she  found  every  moment  reason 
to  r^ret  leaving  that  country  from  whose  manners  she  had  in  her 
early  youth  received  the  first  impresssions. 

§  4.  Meanwhile  Elizabeth  employed  herself  in  regulating  the 
affairs  of  her  own  kingdom.  She  made  some  progress  in  paying 
the  great  debts  which  lay  upon  the  crown  :  she  regulated  the  coin, 
which  had  been  much  debased  by  her  predecessors:  she  introduced 
into  the  kingdom  the  art  of  making  gunpowder  and  brass  cannon ; 
fortified  her  frontiers  on  the  side  of  Scotland ;  held  frequent  reviews 
of  the  militia ;  promoted  trade  and  navigation ;  and  so  much  in- 
creased the  shipping  of  her  kingdom,  both  by  building  vessels  of 
force  herself,  and  suggesting  like  undertakings  to  the  merchants, 
that  she  was  justly  styled  the  Restorer  of  Naval  Glory  and  the 
Queen  of  the  Northern  Seas.  It  is  easy  to  imagine  that  so  great  a 
l)rince88,  who  enjoyed  such  singular  felicity  and  renown,  would 
receive  proposals  of  marriage  from  several  foreign  princes — as  the 
archduke  Charles,  second  son  of  the  emperor ;  Casimir,  son  of  the 
elec'or  palatine ;  Eric,  king  of  Sweden  ;  Adolphus,  duke  of  Holstein ; 
and  the  earl  of  Ari-an,  heir-presumptive  to  the  crown  of  Scotland* 


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A.O.  1561-1562.        ASSISTS  THE  HUGUENOTa  297 

Even  some  of  her  own  sabjectB,  though  they  did  not  openly  declare 
their  pretensions,  entertained  hopes  of  success.  Among  the  latter, 
the  person  most  likely  to  succeed  was  a  younger  son  of  the  late 
duke  of  Northumberland,  lord  Robert  Dudley,  who,  by  the  graces  of 
his  person,  joined  to  address  and  flattery,  had  become  in  a  manner 
her  declared  £Eivourite,  and  had  groat  influence  in  all  her  councils. 
But  the  queen  gave  all  these  suitors  a  gentle  refusal,  which  still 
encouraged  their  pursuit;  and  she  thought  that  she  should  the 
better  attach  them  to  her  interests  if  they  were  still  allowed  to 
entertain  liopes  of  succeeding  in  their  pretensions. 

§  5.  The  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  France  threatened  not 
only  to  involve  that  country  in  a  civil  war,  but  also  to  embroil  other 
ni^tions  io  the  quarrel  The  change  produced  in  the  political  parties 
of  that  country  by  the  death  of  Francis  II.  has  been  ahready  men- 
tioned. The  queen-regent  had  formed  the  project  of  governing  both 
parties  by  playing  one  against  the  other ;  for,  though  religion  was 
the  pretence,  ambition  and  the  love  of  power  were  the  real  motives 
of  the  leaders.  But  faction, liirther  stimulated  by  religious  zeal  and 
hatred,  soon  grew  too  vMent  to  be  controlleti.  The  constable,  Mont- 
morencyyj(oi—rl  himself  to  the  duke  of  Guise :  the  king  of  Navarre 
embraced  the  same  party:  and  Catherine,  finding  herself  depressed 
by  this  combination,  had  recourse  to  Gond^  and  the  Huguenots,*  as 
the  French  protestants  were  called,  who  gladly  embraced  the  oppor- 
tunity of  strengthening  themselves  by  her  countenance  and  protec- 
tion. Omd^,  Coligny,  and  the  other  protestant  leaders,  assembled 
their  friends,  and  flew  to  arms :  Guise  and  Montmorency  got  posses- 
sion of  the  king's  person,  and  constrained  the  queen-regent  to  em- 
brace their  party :  armies  were  levied  and  put  in  motion  in  dififerent 
parts  of  France :  and  each  province,  each  city,  each  family,  was 
agitated  with  intestine  rage  and  animosity.  The  prince  of  Cond^ 
applied  to  Elizabeth  for  assistance,  and  offered  to  put  Havre  into  the 
hands  of  the  English  (1562).  This  offer  was  accepted  by  Elizabeth. 
An  English  army  took  possession  of  the  town,  and  rendered  important 
service  to  the  Huguenots.  But  the  captivity  of  Cqnde  and  Mont- 
morency, who  were  soon  afterwards  taken  prisoners  in  battle,  and 
the  assassination  of  the  duke  of  Guise,  made  both  parties  anxious 
for  peace ;  and  the  Huguenots  accordingly  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  queen-mother  without  consulting  Elizabeth  (March  19).  The 
English  queen,  however,  refused  to  surrender  Havre,  and  she  sent 
orders  to  the  earl  of  Warwick,  the  commander  of  the  town,  to 
prepare  himself  against  an  attack  from  the  now  united  power  of  the 
French  monarchy.    The  plague,  however,  crept  in  among  the  Eng- 

•  This  word  is  a  oorrnptlon  of  the  Oennan  Bidgemotmnt  1.6.  "bound  together  Iff 
OttUi." 


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298  ELIZABETH.  Chap.  xrm. 

Iwh  soldiers;  and,  'being  increased  by  their  iatigne  and  bail  diet,  it 
made  such  ravages  that  Warwick  found  himself  obli$;ed  to  capitulate, 
and  to  content  himself  with  the  liberty  of  withdrawing  his  garrison 
(July  28).  To  increase  the  misfortune,  the  infected  army  brought 
the  plague  with  them  into  England,  where  it  swept  off  great  mui* 
Utudes,  particularly  in  the  city  of  London.  About  20,000  persons 
there  died  of  it  in  one  year.  Elizabeth  was  glad  to  accommodate 
matters ;  and,  as  the  queen-regent  desired  to  obtain  leisure,  in  order 
to  prepare  measures  for  the  extermination  of  the  Huguenots,  a  treaty 
of  i)eace  was  concluded  between  the  two  countries  (April  1,  1564). 
§  6.  In  the  convocation  which  assembled  in  1563  the  last  hand 
was  put  to  the  Reformation  in  England^  by  the  establishment  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  in  the  form  in  which  they  now  exist.  But  it 
was  not  until  1571  that  the  clergy  were  required  to  subscribe 
them,  by  act  of  parliament.  The  peace  still  continued  with  Soot- 
land  ;  and  even  a  cordial  friendship  seemed  to  have  been  cemented 
between  Elizabeth  and  Mary.  These  princesses  made  profession 
of  the  most  entire  affection,  wrote  amicable  letters  to  each  other, 
and  adopted,  in  all  appearance,  the  sentiments  as  well  as  style  of 
sisters.  But  Mary's  close  connection  with  the  house  of  Guise,  and 
her  refusal  to  ratify  the  treaty  of  Edinburgh,  occasioned  just  and 
insurmountable  jealousy  to  Elizabeth.  She  recommended  Mary  to 
espouse  some  English  nobleman;  and  named  lord  Robert  Dudley, 
now  created  earl  of  Leicester,  as  the  person  on  whom  she  desired 
Mary's  choice  should  fall.  The  earl  of  Leicester,  the  great  and 
powerful  favourite  of  Elizabeth,  possessed  all  those  qualities  which 
are  naturally  alluring  to  the  fair  sex :  a  handsome  person,  a  polite 
address,  and  insinuating  behaviour.  But  he  was  insolent  and  am- 
bitious, without  honour  or  generosity ;  and  atoneil  not  for  these 
bad  qualities  by  such  abilities  or  coiurage  as  could  fit  him  for  that 
high  trust  and  confidence  with  which  the  queen  honoured  him. 
Her  partiality  had  naturally  emboldened  him  to  aspire  to  her  hand; 
and,  in  order  to  make  way  for  these  nuptials,  he  wan  thought  to 
have  murdered  his  wife,  the  heiress  of  sir  John  Robsart.*  The  pro- 
posal of  espousing  Mary  was  by  no  means  agreeable  to  him ;  and  he 
always  ascribed  it  to  the  contrivance  of  Cecil,  his  enemy.  After 
two  years  had  been  spent  in  evasions  and  artifices,  Mary  began  to 
think  it  full  time  some  marriage  were  concluded ;  and  lord  Dam- 
ley,  son  of  the  earl  of  Lenox,  was  the  person  she  selected  for  her 
consort.      He   was  Mary's  cousin-german,  by  the  lady  Margaret 


*  Dodley'B  marriage  with  Amy  Robeart 
took  place  in  1550,  and,  so  far  fVom  t>eiDg 
wHTct,  it  is  mentioned  in  Edi^'ard  VI/s 
•Hary.  ])n  iley  Icept  his  wife  in  rctire- 
I  :  !it  r.t  Camnor  VUce,  near  Oxford,  where 


she  was  found  dead  at  the  foot  of  a  staii^ 
case  in  1660,  three  years  before  be  was 
made  earl  of  Leicester,  and  fifteen  yean 
before  he  entertained  Elizabeth  at  Keail- 
worth. 


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k.T>.  156»-1565.      BfARRIAGE  OF  QUEEN   OF  SCOTS.  299 

Douglas,  niece  to  Henry  VI IL,  and  was,  after  Mary,  next  heir  to 
the  crown  of  England.*  He  had  been  born  and  educated  in  Eng- 
land, where  the  earl  of  Lenox  had  constantly  resided,  since  he  had 
been  banishe  I  by  the  prevailing  power  of  the  house  of  Hamilton. 
Alarmed  at  a  union  between  the  two,  each  of  whom  was  thought  by 
some  to  have  a  better  claim  to  the  throne  than  herself,  Elizabeth 
used  all  her  efforts  to  prevent  this  marriage.  She  ordered  Damhy 
and  Lenox  immediately,  upon  their  allegiance,  to  return  to  Eng- 
land. The  countess  of  Lenox  was  rigorously  confined  in  the  Tower. 
But  these  measures  proved  fruitless.  The  marriage  was  cekbi-atcd 
on  July  29, 1565.  It  gave  great  oflfence  to  the  Scotch  reformers, 
because  the  family  of  Lenox  was  believed  to  adhere  to  the  catholic 
faith ;  and,  though  Damley  went  often  to  the  protestant  church, 
he  could  not,  by  this  ostensible  compliance,  gfdn  the  confidence  and 
regard  of  the  ecclesiastics.  The  earl  of  Murray,  the  ha'f-brother  of 
Mary,  Mn%  an  illegitimate  son  of  James  V  ,  and  other  Scottish 
lords,  being  secretly  encouraged  by  Elizabeth,  had  recourse  to  arms. 
But  tiie  nation  was  in  no  disposition  for  rebellion.  As  the  king  and 
queen  advanced  to  Edinburgh  at  the  head  of  their  army,  the  rebels 
found  themselves  under  a  necessity  of  abandoning  their  country,  and 
of  taking  sheltiT  in  Enj^land.  When  Elizabeth  found  the  event 
so  contrary  to  her  expectations,  she  thought  proper  to  disavow 
all  connection  with  the  Scottish  malcontents ;  and  it  was  only  by 
a  sudden  and  violent  incident,  which,  in  the  issue,  brought  on  the 
ruin  ©f  Mary  her.-elf,  that  they  were  enabled  to  return  to  Scotland. 
§  7.  The  marriage  of  the  queen  of  Scots  with  Damley  was  so 
natural  and  so  inviting  in  all  its  circumstances,  that  it  had  been 
precipitately  agreed  to  by  that  princesaand  her  council.  While  Mary 
was  allured  by  his  youth  and  beauty,  she  had  overlooked  the 
qualities  of  his  mind,  which  nowise  corresponded  to  the  excellence 
of  his  person.  She  had  loatled  him  with  benefits  and  honours ; 
but,  having  leisure  afterwards  to  remark  his  weakness  and  vices,  she 
began  to  see  the  danger  of  her  profuse  liberality,  and  was  resolved 
thenoeforth  to  proceed  with  more  reserve  in  the  trust  which  she 
should  confer  upon  him,  and  withheld  from  him  the  crown  matri- 
monial. His  resentment  against  this  conduct  served  but  the  more 
to  increase  her  disgust;  and  the  young  prince,  enraged  at  her 
imagined  slights,  |X)inted  his  vengeance  against  one  whom  he  deemed 
to  be  the  cause  of  this  change  in  her  measures  and  behaviour. 
There  was  in  the  court  one  David  Rizzio,  a  Piedmontese,  who  had 
come  into  Scotland  in  the  train  of  the  Piedmontese  ambas.sador, 
and  had  entered  Mary's  sc  vice  as  a  musician.  Bfing  skilled  in 
languages,  he  had  become  her  secretary,  and  th's  office  j^ave  him 
*  See  the  0«nealogicftl  Table  of  the  Hofue  ot  Tudor  tX  the  end  of  the  TOlanM. 


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300  ELIZABETH.  Chap,  xthl 

frequent  opportunities  of  approaching  her  person  and  insinuating 
himself  into  her  good  graces. 

Rizzio  thus  drew  upon  himself  the  jealousy  of  Damley ;  and,  as  bi# 
interests  were  connected  with  the  Roman  catholics,  he  was  tbft 
declared  enemy  of  the  banished  lords.  By  \  romotiiig  the  violem 
persecutions  against  them,  he  hud  exposed  himself  to  the  animosity 
of  their  numerous  friends  and  retainers.  Morton,  the  chancelloi; 
insinuating  himself  into  Damley's  confidence,  employed  every  art 
to  inflame  his  discontent  and  jealousy  ;  and  he  persuaded  Damley 
that  the  only  means  of  freeing  himself  from  the  indignities  under 
which  he  laboured  was  to  bring  the  base  stranger  to  the  fate  he  had 
so  well  merited.  Ckorge  Douglas,  natural  brother  to  the  countess 
of  Lenox,  with  the  lords  Ruthven  and  Lindesey,  concurred  in  this 
advice.  A  messenger  was  despatched  to  the  banished  lords,  who 
were  hovering  near  the  borders ;  and  they  were  invited  by  the  king 
to  return  to  their  native  country.  The  design,  so  atrocious  in  itself, 
was  rendered  still  more  so  by  the  circumstances  which  attended  its 
execution.  Mary,  who  was  in  the  sixtli  month  of  her  picgnancy, 
was  supping  in  private  (March  9, 1566)  with  Rizzio  and  others  of 
her  servants.  The  king  entered  the  room  by  a  private  passage, 
and  sat  down  on  the  sofa  occupied  by  Mary.  Ruthven  followed  in 
complete  armour.  The  queen,  terrified  by  their  appearance,  de- 
manded the  reason  of  this  rude  intrusion.  Damley  told  her  that 
they  intended  no  violence  against  her  person,  but  meant  only 
to  bring  that  villain,  pointing  to  Rizzio,  to  his  deserved  punii^h 
ment.  Rizzio,  aware  of  the  danp^er,  clung  to  Mary's  robes,  calling 
aloud  to  her  for  protection ;  while  she  interpoBed  in  his  behalf, 
with  cries,  menaces,  and  entreaties.  Then  Douglas  and  the  other 
assassins,  regardless  of  h^-r  efforts,  mshed  u|x>n  their  prey.  Seizing 
Henry's  dagger,  Douglas  stuck  it  in  the  body  of  Rizzio,  who,  scream- 
ing with  fear  and  agony,  had  been  torn  from  Mary  by  the  other  con- 
spirators, and  pushed  into  the  ante-chamber,  where  he  was  despatched 
with  fifty-six  wounds.  The  unhappy  princess,  informed  of  his  fate, 
immediately  dried  her  tears,  and  said  she  would  weep  no  more,  but 
would  now  think  of  revenge.  The  insult  to  her  person,  the  stain 
attempted  to  be  fixed  on  her  honour,  the  danger  to  whic^  her  life 
was  exposed  on  account  of  her  pregnancy,  were  injuries  so  atrocious 
and  so  complicated,  that  they  scarcely  left  room  for  pardon,  even 
from  the  greatest  lenity  and  mercy. 

Mary  shortly  afterwards  brought  forth  a  son,  afterwards  James 
I.  of  England,  in  the  castle  of  Edinburgh  (June  19).  This  event 
caused  the  English  parliament  again  to  press  Elizabeth  for  her 
marriage  and  settlement  of  the  succession,  at  which  she  expressed 
her  high  displeasure,  and  eluded  the  application.     It  also  gave  addi- 


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^JX  1566-1567.         HUBDER  OF  DABNLET.  301 

tional  zoal  to  the  English  party  which  favoared  Mary*s  claims 
The  friends  of  the  queen  of  Scots  multiplied  eyery  day ;  and  most 
of  the  considerahle  men  in  England,  except  Cecily  seemed  coi> 
vinced  of  the  necessity  of  declaring  her  the  successor.  Tut  all 
these  flattering  prospects  were  blasted  by  subsequent  eyents,  when 
Mary's  egregious  indiscretions  threw  her  firom  the  height  of  her 
prosperity,  and  involved  her  in  iufamy  and  in  ruin. 

James  Hepburn,  earl  of  Bothwell,  a  man  of  considerable  family 
and  power  in  Scotland,  but  of  profligate  manners,  had  of  late  ac^ 
quired  the  favour  and  confidence  of  Mary.  All  her  measures  were 
directed  by  his  advice  and  authority  Reports  were  spread  of  more 
particular  intimacies  between  them;  and  these  reports  gained 
ground  from  the  continuance,  or  rather  increase,  of  her  hatred 
towards  her  husband.  Darnley  was  reduced  to  such  a  state  of 
desperation  by  thr  neglects  which  he  underwent  from  his  queen 
and  the  courtiers,  that  he  had  once  resolved  to  fly  secretly  into 
France  or  Spain,  and  had  even  provided  a  vessel  for  that  pur- 
pose. Suddenly,  however,  Mary  seemed  to  be  reconciled  to  him, 
on  occauon  of  his  dangerous  illness  (January,  1567).  She  lived 
in  the  palace  of  Holyrood  House,  but  for  the  sake  of  purer  air  an 
apartment  was  assigned  him  in  a  solitary  house  at  some  distance, 
called  the  Kirk  of  Field.  Mary  here  gave  him  many  marks  of 
kindness  and  attachment;  she  cmversed  cordially  with  him,  and 
she  lay  some  nights  in  a  room  below  his ;  but  on  the  9th  of  February 
she  told  him  that  she  would  pass  that  night  in  the  palace,  because 
the  marriage  of  one  of  her  servants  was  to  be  celebrated  there  in 
her  presence. .  About  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  the  whole  town 
was  much  alarmed  at  hearing  a  great  noise,  and  was  still  more 
astonished  when  it  was  discovered  that  the  noise  came  from  the 
king's  house,  which  was  blown  up  by  gunpowder.  Darnley'a  dead 
body  was  found  at  some  distance  in  a  neighbouring  field.  No 
marks,  either  of  fire,  contusion,  or  violence,  appeared  upon  it. 

No  doubt  could  be  entertained  that  Darnley  had  been  murdered ; 
and  general  conjecture  soon  pointed  towards  the  earl  of  Bothwell 
ai  the  author  of  the  crime.  But  as  his  favour  with  Mary  was 
visible,  and  his  power  great,  no  one  ventured  to  declare  oienly  his 
sentiments.  Mary's  subsciiuent  conduct  justified  these  suspicions. 
The  earl  of  Lenox  demanded  speedy  justice  on  his  son's  assassins. 
Mary  took  his  demand  very  literally,  assigned  only  15  days  for  the 
examination  of  the  matter,  and  cited  Lenox  to  appear  and  prove 
his  charge.  But  that  nobleman  was  afraid  to  trust  himself  in 
Edinburgh ;  and,  as  neither  accuser  nor  witness  appeared  at  the 
trial,  Bothwell  was  acquitted  (April  12).  In  the  parliament  which 
met  two  davs  after,  he  was  the  prrson  chosen  to  carry  the  royal 
15 


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302  ELIZABETH.  Chap.  ZTm. 

scoptrc;  and  no  notice  was  tnken  of  the  king's  murtler.  On  its 
dissolution,  several  of  the  nobility  s'gned  a  psper  ])romising  their 
support  to  Bothwell,  in  general  teniis  (April  19).  Shortly  after- 
wanls,  Mary  having  gone  to  Stirling  to  pay  a  visit  to  her  son, 
Bothwell  assembled  a  body  of  800  horse,  on  pretence  of  pursuing 
some  robbers  on  the  borders,  and,  having  waylaid  her  on  her 
return,  he  seized  her  p  rson  near  Edinburgh  and  carried  her  to 
Dunbar,  with  an  avowed  deuign  of  forcing  her  to  yield  to  his  purpose 
(Aiiril  24).  Sir  James  Melvill,  one  of  Irt  retinue,  was  carried  along 
with  her,  and  stiys  that  he  ^aw  no  si^^ns  of  reluctance  or  constraint: 
he  was  even  informed,  as  he  tells  us,  by  Both  well's  officers,  that  the 
whole  transaction  was  mana;;od  in  concert  with  her.  Bothwell, 
who  was  married  to  Lady  Jane  Gordon,  sister  of  the  earl  of  Huntley, 
had  been  divorced  from  his  wife,  a  short  time  before,  on  the  plea 
of  consanguinity.  The  suit  was  prosecuted  at  the  same  instant 
in  two  different  or  rather  opposite  courts — one  popish,  the  other 
protestant;  was  pleaded,  examined,  and  decided  in  four  days.  A 
prisoner  in  Both  well's  hands  and  surrounded  by  his  audacious  as- 
sociates, some  say  by  compulsion,  others  of  her  own  free  will,  Mary 
consented  to  marry  her  captor.  The  marriage  was  solemnized 
(May  15)  by  the  chief  minister  of  Orkney,  a  protestant,  who  was 
afterwards  deposed  for  this  scandalous  compliance. 

The  protestant  ministers,  who  bad  |>reat  authority,  had  long  borne 
an  animosity  to  Mary,  and  the  opinion  of  her  guilt  was,  by  her 
conduct,  more  wid<  ly  diffused,  and  made  the  deeper  impression  on 
the  people.    Some  attempts  of  Bothwell,  with  her  consent,  as  it  was 
suspected,  to  get  the  young  prince  into  his  power,  excited  serious 
attention.    The  principal  nobihty  met  at  Stirling,  and  formed  an 
association  for  protecting  the  prince  and   punishing  the  king's 
murderers.     Having  levied  an  army,  they  met  the  forces  of  the 
queen  and  Bothwell  at  Carberry  Hill,  about  six  miles  from  Edin- 
burgh (June  15).     Mary  soon  Iwcame  sensible  that  her  own  troops 
disapproved  of  tier  cause,  and  she  saw  no  resource  but  that  of 
putting  herself,  upon  some  general  promises,  into  the  hands  of  the 
confederates.     She  was  conducted  to  Edinburgh,  amidst  the  insults 
r  the  populace,  who  reproached  her  with  her  crimes,  and  even  held 
efore  her  eyes  a  banner,  on  which  wore  painted  the  murder  of  her 
usband,  and  the  distress  of  her  infant  son.     Meanwhile  Bothwell 
ed  unattci.ded   to  Dunbar;  and  eventually  made  his  escape  to 
Denmark,  where  he  died  (1578). 

§  8.  The  queen  of  Scots  was  sent  under  a  guard  to  the  castle 
f  Lochleven,  situated  in  the  lake  of  that  name.  Touched  with 
Dm  passion  towards  the  unfortunate  queen,  Elizabeth  sent  sir 
[icholas  Throgniorton  anilmssador  to  Scotland,  in  order  to  remon- 


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A.D.  1667-166a  JAMES  VL   PROCLAIMED.  303 

strate  both  with  Mary  and  the  associated  lords.  He  was  instructed 
to  express  to  her  Elizabeth's  high  dissatisfaction  at  her  conduct, 
but  at  the  same  time  to  declare  that  the  late  events  had  touched 
Elizabeth's  heart  with  sympathy^  and  that  she  was  determined  not 
to  see  her  oppressed  by  her  rebellious  subjects.  At  the  saiue  time 
he  was  to  demand  tliat  the  punishment  of  Darnley's  assassins 
should  be  intrusted  to  Elizabeth,  and  that  Mary's  infant  son  should 
be  sent  into  Eiiglan  I  to  be  educated.  But  the  associated  lords  were 
determined  to  pruceel  with  severity,  and  they  thought  proper, 
after  several  affected  delays,  to  refuse  the  English  ambassador  all 
access  to  Mary.  Some  were  even  of  opinion  that  the  captive  queen 
should  be  publicly  tried  and  imprisoned  for  life,  or  capitally  punished. 
Having  selected  tlie  earl  of  Murray  for  regent,  who  possessed  the 
confidence  of  the  more  zealous  reformers,  three  instruments  were 
sent  to  Mary,  by  one  of  which  she  was  to  resign  the  crown  in  flBivour 
of  her  sou,  by  another  to  appoint  Murray  regent,  by  the  third  to 
make  a  council  which  should  administer  the  government  until  his 
arrival  in  Scotland.  The  queen  of  Scots,  seeing  no  prospect  of  relief, 
was  prevailed  on,  after  a  plentiful  effusion  of  tears,  to  sign  these  three 
instruments  (July  24) ;  and,  in  consequence  of  this  forced  resigna- 
tion, the  young  prince  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  name  of 
James  VI.  He  was  soon  after  crowned  at  Stirling  (July  29, 1567), 
and  the  earl  of  Morton  took,  in  his  name,  the  coronation  oath ;  in 
which  a  iTomise  to  extirpate  heresy  was  not  forgotten.  The  earl 
of  Murray  arrived  soon  after  from  France,  and  took  possession  of 
his  high  office.  He  paid  a  visit  to  the  captive  queen,  in  which  he 
treated  her  with  great  harshness;  and  the  parliament  which  he 
assembled,  after  voting  that  she  was  undoubtedly  an  accomplice  in 
her  husband's  murder,  condemned  her  to  imprisonment,  ratified  her 
resignation  of  the  crown,  and  acknowledged  her  son  for  king,  and 
Murray  for  regent.  But  many  of  the  principal  nobility,  from  various 
motives,  and  all  who  retained  any  propensity  to  the  Boman  catholic 
religion,  formed  a  party  in  favour  of  the  queen.  Meanwhile  Mary 
had  induced  a  young  gentleman,  Gleorge  Douglas,  brother  to  the 
laird  of  Lochleven,  to  assist  her  in  escaping.  She  contrived  to  slip 
through  the  gates  and  cross  to  the  opposite  shore  (May  2,  15G8). 
Escorted  by  Douglas,  she  hastened  to  Hamilton,  where  her  adherents 
had  already  assembled ;  and  in  a  few  days  an  army  of  6000  men 
was  ranged  under  her  standard.  The  regent  also  assembled  his 
forcts;  and,  notwithstanding  that  his  army  was  inferior  in  number 
to  that  of  the  queen  of  Scots,  he  took  the  field  against  her.  A  battle 
was  fought  at  Langside,  near  Glasgow  (May  13),  which  was  entirely 
decisive  in  favour  of  the  regent,  and  was  followed  by  a  total  dis- 
persion of  the  queen's  i>arty.    That  unhappy  princess  fled  south- 


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304  ELIZABETH.  Chap,  xtiil 

wards  from  the  field  of  battle  with  great  precipitation,  and  at  last 
embraced  the  resolution  of  taking  shelter  in  England.  She  em- 
barked on  board  a  fishing-boat  in  GhiUowaj  and  landed  the  same 
day  at  Workington,  in  Cumberland,  about  thirty  miles  from  Carlisle 
(May  16);  whence  she  immediately  despatched  a  messenger  to 
London,  notifying  her  arrival,  desiring  leave  to  visit  Elizabeth,  and 
craving  protection,  in  consequence  of  her  former  professions  of 
friendship. 

§  9.  Elizabeth  now  found  herself  in  a  situation  when  it  was 
become  necessary  to  take  some  decisive  resolution  with  regard  to 
her  treatment  of  the  queen  of  Scots ;  and  upon  the  advice  of  Cecil 
it  was  determined  that  Mary  should  be  detained  in  custody,  and 
brought  to  trial  for  her  husband's  murder.  A  message  was  accord- 
ingly sent  to  her  at  Carlisle,  expressing  the  queen's  sympathy  with 
her  in  her  late  misfortunes,  but  stating  that  her  request  of  being 
allowed  to  visit  Elizabeth  could  not  be  complied  with,  till  she  had 
cleared  herself  of  her  husband's  murder,  of  wliich  she  was  so  strongly 
accused.  So  unexpected  a  check  threw  Mary  into  tears ;  and  the 
necessity  of  her  situation  extorted  from  her  a  declaration  that  phe 
would  willingly  justify  herself  to  her  sister  from  all  imputations, 
and  would  submit  her  cause  to  the  arbitration  of  so  good  a  friend. 
This  concession,  which  Mary  could  scarcely  avoid  without  an 
acknowledgment  of  guilt,  was  the  point  expected  and  desired  by 
Elizabeth :  she  immediately  despatched  a  message  to  the  r^ent  of 
Scotland,  requiring  him  to  desist  from  the  further  prosecution  of 
Mary's  party,  and  to  send  some  persons  to  London  to  justify  his 
conduct  with  regard  to  her.  Murray  might  justly  be  startled  at  so 
violent  and  imperious  a  message ;  but  as  his  domestic  enemies  were 
numerous  and  powerful,  and  England  was  the  sole  ally  which  he 
could  expect  among  foreign  nations,  he  found  it  prudent  to  reply 
that  he  would  willingly  submit  the  determination  of  the  cause  to 
Elizabeth. 

As  the  queen  of  Scots  had  subsequently,  as  well  as  before,  dis- 
covered great  aversion  to  the  trial  proposed,  and  as  Carlisle,  by  its 
'tuation  on  the  borders,  afforded  her  great  opportunities  of  con- 
iving  her  escape,  she  was  removed  to  Bolton,  a  seat  of  lord  Scroj^'s 
Yorkshire.     The  commissioners  appointed  by  the  English  court 
r  the  examination  of  this  great  cause  were  the  duke  of  Norfolk,* 
le  earl  of  Sussex,  and  sir  Ralph  Sadler,  who  were  met  at  York  by 
veral  of  Murray's  partisans.     It  would  be  impossible  within  our 
nits  to  enter  into  the  details  of  this  important  trial.    After  it  had 
oceeded  some  time  it  was  transferred  to  Hampton  Court;  and 
r  Nicholas  Bacon,  lord-keeper,  the  earls  of  Arundel  and  Leioeeter, 
*  Soo  of  tbe  etirl  of  Surrey  executed  by  Heoxy  YIII. 


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A.D.  1568.  PROCEEDINGS  AGAINST  THE  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS.  305 

lord  Clinton,  admiral,  and  sir  W.  Cecil,  secretary,  were  added  to  the 
English  commissioners.  The  regent  Murray,  alarmed  at  first  by 
reports  of  Elizabeth's  partiality  for  the  queen  of  Scots,  had  kept 
back  the  most  grievous  part  of  the  accusation  against  her;  but, 
being  encouraged  by  the  assurances  of  Elizabeth,  he  at  length  accused 
her  in  plain  terms  of  being  an  accomplice  with  Bothwell  in  the 
assassination  of  the  king.  The  earl  of  Lenox  too  appeared  before 
the  commissioners,  and,  imploring  vengeance,  repeated  Murray's 
charga  To  this  public  and  distinct  accusation  Mary's  commis- 
sioners refused  to  reply ;  and  they  groimded  their  silence  on  very 
extraordinary  reas'.ins.  They  had  ordei-s,  they  said,  from  their 
mistress,  if  anything  were  advance  that  might  touch  her  honour, 
not  to  make  any  defence,  as  she  was  a  sovereign  princess,  and  could 
not  be  subject  to  any  tribunal ;  and  they  required  that  she  should 
previously  be  admitted  to  Elizabeth's  presence,  to  whom,  and  to 
whom  alone,  she  was  determined  to  justify  her  innocence.  Not 
satisfied  with  this  reply,  the  English  commissioners  demanded  from 
Murray  more  satisfactory  proofs  of  Mary's  guilt,  and  reproved 
him,  in  the  queen's  name,  for  the  atrocious  imputations  which 
he  had  the  temerity  to  throw  upon  his  sovereign.  Thus  urged, 
Murray  made  no  difficulty  in  producing  the  proofs;  among  the 
rest  he  sent  copies  of  certain  love-letters  without  signature  or 
address,  assumed  to  be  written  by  Mary  to  Bothwell.  These 
papers,  known  as  the  Casket  Letters,  were  said  to  have  been  inter- 
cepted by  Morton,  and  taken  from  a  servant  of  Bothwell  on  his  way 
to  Dunbar  (June  20,  1567).  They  contained  incontestable  proofs 
of  Mary's  criminal  correspondence  with  Bothwell,  of  her  consent 
to  the  king'fl  murder,  and  of  her  concurrence  in  the  violence  which 
Bothwell  pretended  to  commit  upon  her.  Their  authenticity  was 
denied  by  Mary,  and  has  been  greatly  disputed.  It  is  ceitain  thnt 
the  {ffofessetl  originals  were  never  produced  before  the  English  com- 
missioners— an  omission  (if  such  originals  existed)  which  throws 
over  the  whole  proceeding  a  great  air  of  suspicion.  As  no  satis- 
factory conclusion  was  arrived  at,  the  conference  removed  to  London. 
The  conference  lingered  on,  but  with  no  better  result.  Elizabeth 
refused  to  admit  the  queen  of  Scots  to  her  presence  until  she  had 
received  positive  proof  of  her  innocence.  She  condemned  Mary's 
oomniissioners,  who  had  been  instructed  to  make  no  reply,  urging 
that  they  could  never  be  deemed  her  friends  who  advised  her  to  this 
methotl  of  proceeding.  1'he  queen  of  Scots,  as  a  sovereign,  refused 
to  justify  herself  before  the  subjects  of  another  sovereign ;  for  that 
would  be  equivalent  to  the  aflmission  of  a  foreign  jurisdiction  over 
her,  which  all  her  predecessors  had  refused,  and  Elizabeth  in  her 
own  case  would  have  vehemently  repudiated.    She  still  in>isted  on 


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306  ELIZABETH.  Ghap.  XYm. 

a  ])ersonal  interview  with  Elizabeth,  and  as  she  refused  all  other 
concessions,  orders  were  given  for  her  removal  from  Bolton,  a  place 
surrounded  with  catholics,  to  Tutbury,  in  the  county  of  StafRxd, 
where  she  was  put  under  the  custody  of  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury 
(1569).  Eliza^ieth  promised  to  bury  everything  in  oblivion,  pro- 
vided Mary  would  agree,  either  voluntarily  to  resign  her  crown,  or 
to  associiite  her  son  with  her  in  the  government ;  the  administration 
to  remain,  during  his  minority,  in  the  hands  of  the  earl  of  Murray. 
But  that  hi^h-spirited  princess  refused  all  treaty  upon  such  terms, 
and  declared  that  her  last  words  should  be  those  of  a  queen  of  Scotland. 

§  10.  Soon  after  the  trial  of  the  queen  of  Scots,  the  ambition 
and  imprudence  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk  engaged  him  in  a  scheme  lor 
marrying  her,  which  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  to  him  l>y  the 
regents  Mary  expressed  no  aversion  to  the  proposal;  but,  as  the 
opposition  of  Elizabeth  was  anticipated,  Norfolk,  previously  to 
applying  for  her  consent,  gained  the  approbation  of  the  most  con- 
siderable of  the  nobility  to  his  scheme.  Even  the  earl  of  Leicester 
pretended  to  enter  zealously  into  Norfolk's  interests,  and  joined 
with  other  nobles  in  submitting  a  letter  to  Mary,  recommending 
Norfolk  for  her  husband,  and  stipulating  conditions  for  tbe  advan- 
tage of  both  kingdoms.  Mary  returned  a  favourable  answer  to  this 
application,  and  Norfolk  employed  himself  with  new  ardour  in  the 
execution  of  his  project.  And,  though  Elizabeth's  consent  was  always 
supposed  as  a  previous  condition  to  tbe  finishing  of  this  alliance,  it 
was  apparently  Norfolk's  intention,  when  he  proceeded  to  such 
lengths  without  consulting  her,  to  render  his  party  so  strong  that  it 
should  no  longer  be  in  her  power  to  refuse.  She  was  acquainted 
with  the  conspiracy  through  Leicester,  and  warned  the  duke  to 
beware  on  what  pillow  he  reposed  his  head ;  but  he  never  had  the 
prudence  or  the  courage  to  open  to  her  his  full  intentions. 

Norfolk  was  a  protestant ;  but  among  the  nobility  and  gentry 
who  seemed  to  enter  into  his  views  there  were  many  who  were 
zealously  attached  to  the  catholic  religion,  and  who  would  gladly, 
by  a  combination  with  foreign  powers,  or  even  at  the  expense  of  a 
civil  war,  have  placed  Mary  on  the  throne  of  England.  The  earls 
of  Northumberland  and  Westmorland,  who  possessed  great  power 
in  the  north,  were  leaders  of  this  party,  and,  with  other  noblemen, 
formed  a  plan  for  liberating  Mary  (1569).  Norfolk  in  appearance, 
discouraged  these  conspiracies ;  and,  in  order  to  repress  the  surmises 
spread  against  him,  spoke  contemptuously  to  Elizabeth  of  the  Scot- 
tish alliance.  But  the  suspicions  of  the  government  t)eing  awakened, 
he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  several  other  noblemen  were 
taken  into  custody  (October  11).  The  queen  of  Scots  herself  was 
removed  to  Coventry  ;  all  access  to  her  was,  during  some  time,  more 


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A.i>.  1669-1570.      EXCOMMUNICATED  BY  THE  POPE.  307 

strictly  prohibited ,  aud  viscount  Hereford  was  joined  to  the  earls 
of  Shrowsburj  and  Huntingdon  in  the  offioe  of  guarding  her. 

The  earls  of  Northumberland  and  Westmorland  now  attempted 
a  rising,  which  was  put  down  without  striking  a  blow ;  and  the 
leaders  fled  into  Scotland  (December,  1569).  Great  seyerity  was 
exercised  against  such  as  had  taken  part  in  this  rash  enterprise. 
Norfolk,  on  his  promise  to  the  queen  **  to  deal  no  further  in  the 
matter  of  the  queen  of  Scots,**  was  released  from  the  Tower,  and 
allowed  to  live,  though  under  some  show  of  confinement,  in  his 
own  house,  under  the  surveillance  of  sir  Henry  Neville  (August  3, 
1570). 

Elizabeth  soon  found  that  ehe  kid  reason  to  expect  little  tran- 
quillity so  long  as  the  Scottish  queen  remained  a  prisoner  in  her 
hands;  and  she  entered  into  a  nec;ociation  with  Murray  respecting 
her  liberation.  It  is  probable  that  she  would  have  been  pleased,  oti 
any  honourable  or  safe  terms,  to  rid  herself  of  ii  prisoner  who  gave 
her  so  much  disquietude.  But  all  these  projects  vanished  by  the 
sndden  death  of  the  regent,  who  was  assassinated,  iu  revenge  of  a 
private  injury,  by  a  gentleman  of  the  name  of  Hamilton  (January 
23,  1570).  By  the  death  of  the  regent,  Scotland  relapsed  into 
anarchy.  Mnry's  party  assembled  themselves  together,  and  made 
themselves  masters  of  Edinburgh ;  but  Elizabeth  despatched  an 
army  into  Scotland  to  check  their  progress.  Her  subse  |uent  policy 
was  full  of  duplicity.  She  played  off  one  i^rty  against  the  other, 
and  seemed  sometimes  to  favour  Mary,  8-»metimes  those  who  had 
set  up  the  young  king ;  allowing  thcni  to  choose  his  grandfather, 
Lenox,  as  regent.  The  queen  of  Scuts  could  not  but  perceive 
Elizabet'i's  insincerity;  and,  finding  all  her  ho|H8  eluded,  was  more 
strongly  incited  to  make,  at  all  hazards,  every  possible  attempt  for 
her  liberty.  An  incident  also  happened  about  this  time  which 
tended  to  widen  the  breach  between  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  and  to 
increase  the  vij^ilance  and  jealousy  of  the  latter.  Pope  Pius  V., 
who  had  succeeded  Paul,  issued  a  bull  of  excommun  cation  against 
Elizabeth,  deprived  her  of  her  title  to  the  crown,  and  absolved  her 
subjects  from  their  oaths  of  allegiance  (April  27,  1570).  John 
Felton  affixed  this  bull  to  the  gates  of  the  bishop  of  London's  palace 
(May  25).  He  was  seized,  and  condemned  (August  4),  and  receive*  1 
the  crown  of  martyrdom,  for  which  he  seems  to  have  entertained  so 
violent  an  ambition. 

§  11.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  sect  of  the  puritans,  who  were 
afterwards  to  play  so  great  a  part  in  the  affairs  of  England,  first 
began  to  make  themselves  considerable.  It  is  computed  that  during 
the  Marian  persecutions  800  protestants  sought  an  asylum  in  Ger« 
many  and  Switzerland.    Among  them  were  niany  who,  like  Hoopen 


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808  ELIZABETH.  Ohap.  xthl 

had  been  desirous  of  carrying  reforms  in  the  church  of  England, 
especially  in  the  matter  of  ceremonies  aud  vestments,  further  than 
Cranmer  had  done;  and  disputes  upon  these  points  broke  out  in 
1554  among  the  Marian  exiles  settled  at  Frankfort  The  exiles 
carried  their  quarrels  back  with  them  into  England  after  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth ;  and  these  controversies  excited  such  ferment  among 
the  people,  that  in  some  places  they  refused  to  frequent  the  churches 
where  the  habits  and  ceremonies  were  used.  They  would  not 
salute  the  conforming  clergy.  They  proceeded  so  far  as  to  revile  them 
in  the  streets,  to  spit  in  their  faces,  and  to  use  them  with  all  manner 
of  contumely.  But  there  was  another  set  of  opinions  adopted  by 
these  innovators,  which  rendered  them  in  a  peculiar  manner  the 
object  of  Elizabeth's  aversion.  The  same  bold  and  daring  spirit 
which  accompauied  them  in  their  addresses  to  the  Divinity, 
appeared  in  their  political  speculations;  and  the  principles  of 
civil  liberty,  which,  during  some  reigns,  had  been  little  avowed  in 
the  nation,  and  were  totally  incompatible  with  the  royal  preroga- 
tive, had  been  strongly  adopted  by  this  new  sect.  They  denied 
the  supremacy  of  the  queen  in  matters  of  religion.  Elizabeth 
neglected  no  opportunity  of  depressing  these  innovators;  and, 
while  they  were  secretly  countenanced  by  some  of  her  most 
favoured  ministers,  Cecil,  Leicester,  Knolles,  Bedford,  Walsing- 
ham,  she  was  never,  to  the  end  of  her  life,  reconciled  to  their 
principles  and  practices. 

§  12.  The  affairs  of  religion  were  in  that  age  not  only  the  cause 
of  internal  seditions  and  rebellions  in  various  states,  but  also  played 
a  great  part  in  the  foreign  policy  of  kingdoms.  The  cause  of  the 
queen  of  Scots  was  identified  with  that  of  the  Roman  catholic  party 
in  Europe,  and  was  secretly  favoured  by  the  courts  of  France  and 
Spain  and  Elizabeth  therefore  could  not  regard  \^ith  indifference 
the  events  that  were  passing  in  those  countries.  In  France  the 
wars  of  religion  had  already  broken  out,  and  the  respective  heads  of 
the  Roman  catholic  and  Huguenot  parties  had  fallen  in  the  open 
field ;  the  constable  Montmorency  on  the  plains  of  St.  Denis,  the 
duke  of  Cond6  at  the  battle  of  Jamac.  But  their  places  were 
supplied  by  leaders  of  equal  zeal  and  ability.  The  young  duke  of 
Guise  was  destined  to  eclipse  the  fame  of  his  father ;  while,  on  the 
other  side,  the  indomitable  admiral  Coligny  had  placed  the  yoimg 
Cond^  and  the  prince  of  Navarre,  then  only  16,  at  the  head  of 
the  Huguenots.  To  the  latter  party  Elizabeth  had  secretly  lent 
assistance ;  but  in  1570  the  court  of  France  concluded  a  short-lived 
and  hollow  peace  with  them.  Charles  IX.  of  France  affected  to  enter 
into  close  connection  with  Elizabeth.  Proposals  were  offered  for  her 
marriage  with  the  king's  brother,  the  duke  of  Anjou ;  the  terms  of 


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AJ>.  1570.  FOREIGN  AFFAIBa  809 

the  contract  were  submitted,  difficultiee  were  started  and  removed, 
and  the  two  courts  seemed  to  approach  every  day  nearer  to  each  other 
in  their  demands  and  concessions.  The  queen  had  several  motives 
for  her  conduct  Besides  the  advantage  of  discouraging  Mary's 
partisans  by  the  prospect  of  an  alliance  between  France  and  Eng- 
land, her  situation  with  Philip  demanded  the  utmost  vigilance  and 
circumspection.  It  was  to  Philip  that  Mary  and  her  partisans  were 
now  driven  to  look  for  assistance,  and  the  violence  of  his  proceedings 
ill  the  Low  Countries  made  Elizabeth  desirous  of  fortifying  herself 
even  with  the  appearance  of  a  new  confederacy. 

Philip  had  left  the  duchess  of  Parma  governess  in  this  portion  of 
his  dominions ;  and  the  plain  good  sense  and  good  temper  of  that 
princess,  had  she  been  intrusted  with  the  sole  power,  would  have 
preserved  the  sulmission  of  those  opulent  provinces,  which  were 
lost  from  that  refinement  of  suspicious  and  barbarous  politics  on 
which  the  king  of  Spain  so  highly  valued  himself.  The  cruelties 
exercised  in  the  name  of  religion,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Inquisition,  had  excited  a  disposition  to  revolt ;  and  Philip  deter- 
minetl  to  lay  hold  of  the  popular  disorders  as  a  pretence  for  entirely 
abolishing  the  privileges  of  the  Low  Countries,  and  for  ruling 
them  thenceforth  with  military  and  arbitrary  authority.  In  the 
execution  of  this  violent  design  he  employed  the  duke  of  Alva,  a 
proper  instrument  in  the  hands  of  such'  a  tyrant  (1567).  All  the 
privileges  of  the  provinces,  the  gift  of  so  fhany  princes,  and  the  in« 
heritance  of  so  many  ages,  were  openly  and  expressly  abolished  by 
edict ;  arbitrary  and  sanguinary  tribunals  were  erected ;  the  counts 
Egmont  and  Horn,  in  spite  of  their  great  merits  and  past  services, 
were  brought  to  the  scaffold;  multitudes  of  all  ranks  were  thrown 
into  confinement,  and  thence  delivered  over  to  the  executioner;  and, 
notwithstanding  the  peaceable  submission  of  all  men,  nothing  was 
heard  of  but  confiscation,  imprisonment,  exile,  torture,  and  death. 
Elizabeth  gave  protection  to  all  the  Flemish  exiles  who  took 
shelter  in  her  dominions ;  and,  as  many  of  these  were  the  most 
industrious  inhabitants  of  the  Netherlands,  and  had  rendend  that 
country  celebrated  for  its  arts,  she  reaped  the  advantage  of  intro- 
ducing into  England  useful  manufactures  formerly  unknown  in 
her  kingdom.  She  also  seized  some  Genoese  vessels  wliich  were 
carrying  a  large  sum  of  money  to  Alva,  and  which  had  been  obliged 
to  take  refuge  in  Plymouth  and  Southampton,  'ihese  measures 
led  to  retaliations;  but  nothing  could  repair  the  loss  which  so 
well-timed  a  blow  inflicted  on  the  Spanish  government  in  the  Low 
Countries. 

§  13.  Alva  resolved  to  revenge  the  insult  by  exciting  a  rebellion 
in  England,  and  by  procuring  the  marriage  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk 
16* 


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310  ELIZABETH.  Chap.  XTm 

with  the  queen  of  Scots.  Norfolk,  finding  that  he  had  lost  the 
confidence  and  favour  of  Elizabeth,  was  tempted  to  violate  his 
wordy  and  to  open  anew  bis  correspondence  with  Mary.  A  promise 
of  marriage  was  renewed  between  them.  Through  the  scheming  of 
one  Kidolphi,  an  Italian  money-changer,  the  duke  was  drawn  into 
an  enterprise  still  more  criminal.  Ridolphi  undertook,  in  his  behalf, 
that  if  the  Spaniards  landed  in  England,  the  duke  should  join  them 
with  all  his  friends,  and  oblige  the  queen  to  submit  to  whatever 
terms  he  and  his  friends  should  please  to  dictate.  The  conspiracy, 
however,  was  discovered  by  means  of  a  merchant,  who,  being  in- 
trusted with  a  bag  of  gold  and  a  letter  for  transmission  to  Scotland, 
became  suspicious,  and  carried  the  letter  to  Cecil  (now  lord  Bur- 
leigh). Of  three  of  the  duke's  agents  who  were  arrested,  one  was 
put  to  the  torture;  the  others  confessed  the  whole  truth  at  once. 
The  duke  was  brought  to  trial,  and  was  condemned  of  treason  by 
27  of  his  peers  (January  16,  157:^).  The  queen  long  hesitated  to 
sign  his  death- warrant,  but  at  last,  at  the  urgent  entreaty  of  the 
commons,  he  was  executed  (June  2,  1572).  The  earl  of  Northum- 
berland, being  delivered  up  to  the  queen  by  the  regent  of  Scotland, 
was  also,  a  few  months  after,  brought  to  the  scaffold  for  his  re- 
bellion (August  22). 

The  queen  of  Scots  was  either  the  occasion  or  the  cause  of  all 
these  disturbances ;  but  as  she  was  a  sovereign  princess,  Elizabeth 
durst  not,  as  yet,  take  aity  resolution  of  proceeding  to  extremities 
against  her.  In  parliament  the  advisableness  of  severe  measures 
against  Mary  and  the  duke  of  Norfolk — for  he  was  not  then  exe- 
cuted—was canvassed  with  no  little  earnestness.  On  the  28th  of 
May,  Elizabeth  was  attended  by  (he  committees  of  both  houses^ 
urging  that  it  was  not  only  ct»nsistent  with  justice,  but  with  the 
queen's  honour  and  safety,  "  to  proceed  ci  iminally  against  the  pre- 
tended Scottish  queen."  But  Elizabeth,  satisfied  with  this  indi- 
cation of  the  zeal  of  her  subjects,  thought  good  for  the  time  to 
defer,  but  not  absolutely  to  reject,  the  course  thus  proposed  to  her. 

§  14.  Shortly  afterwards  there  was  perpetrated  at  Paris  (August 
24,  1572)  that  inhuman  slaughter  of  the  protestants  which,  from 
the  day  of  its  execution,  has  been  called  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bar 
tholomew.  The  admiral  CJoligny,  together  with  about  500  noble- 
men and  gentlemen,  and  nearly  10,000  persons  of  inferior  rank, 
were  butchered  on  this  occasion.  Charles,  in  order  to  cover  this 
barbarity,  pretended  that  a  conspiracy  of  the  Huguenots  to  seize  his 
person  had  been  suddenly  detected,  and  that  he  had  been  neces- 
sitated, for  his  own  defence,  to  proceid  to  this  severity  against 
them.  He  sent  orders  to  F^n^lou,  his  ambassador  in  England,  to 
ask  an  audience,  and  to  give  Elizabeth  this  account  of  the  late 


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A.D.  1672-1674.         CIVIL  WAR   IN   FRANCE.  311 

transaction.  The  queen  heard  his  apology  without  discovering  any 
visible  symptoms  of  indignation.  She  blamed  the  conduct  of 
Charles,  but^  being  sensible  of  the  daugerous  situation  in  which  she 
now  stood,  she  did  not  think  it  prudent  to  reject  all  intercourse 
with  him.  She  therefore  allowed  the  rumour  to  be  renewed 
Af  her  marriage  with  the  duke  of  Alecon,    Charles's  third  brother : 


Medal  of  Pope  Oregory  XTII.  ooramemoratiiig  the  MaMacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
Obr. :  OREOORiTS  .  xnz  .  pokt  .  max  .  ah  .  i  :  bust  to  left.  Ber. :  ygohorortm  , 
iTEAGis  .  1572 :  an  angel  slaying  the  Huguenots. 

that  with  the  duke  of  Anjou,  never  seriously  intended  on  either 
side,  had  already  been  broken  oflF.  But  her  best  security  lay 
in  the  strength  of  the  Huguenots  themselves.  The  sect  which 
Charles  had  hoped  at  one  blow  to  exteflninate  had  soon  an  army 
of  18,000  men  on  foot,  and  possessed  in  different  parts  of  France 
above  100  cities,  castles,  or  fortresses.  By  the  death  of  Charles 
(May  30,  1574)  without  issue,  at  the  age  of  25,  the  crown 
devolved  on  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  now  Henry  III. ; 
but  his  counsels  were  directed  by  the  duke  of  Guise  and  his  famiJy. 
Henry  was  desirous  of  increasing  his  power  by  acting  as  umpire 
between  the  two  parties.  Guise,  however,  having  formed  the 
famous  League,  which,  without  paying  any  regard  to  the  royal 
authority,  aimed  at  the  entire  suppression  of  the  Huguenots,  the 
king  was  forced  to  declare  himself  the  head  of  it.  Elizabeth 
secretly  supported  the  Huguenots ,  but  it  was  some  yeara  before 
any  important  transactions  took  place  between  her  and  France. 

The  affairs  of  the  Netherland8  were  in  as  diHtiirl*ed  a  state  as 
those  of  France.  In  1572  the  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand 
revoltt'd  from  the  Spaniards  and  the  tyranny  of  Alva.  William, 
prince  of  Orange,  who  had  been  declared  a  rebel,  and  whose  ample 
possessions  in  the  Low  Countries  had  been  confiscated,  emerged  from 
his  retreat  in  Germany  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurgents. 
By  uniting  the  revolted  cities  in  a  league,  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
that  illustrious  commonwealth,  the  offs;  ring  of  industry  and  liberty, 


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812  ELIZABETH.  Chap.  XTin. 

whose  arms  and  .policy  long  made  so  signal  a  figure  in  every  trans- 
action of  Europe.  The  Hollanders,  anxious  to  secure  the  assistance 
of  Elizabeth,  offered  her  the  possession  and  sovereignty  or  their 
provinces,  if  she  would  exert  her  power  in  their  defence.  But  as  an 
open  war  with  the  Spanish  monarchy  was  the  apparent  consequence 
of  her  accepting  this  offer,  she  refused,  in  positive  terms,  the 
sovereignty  thus  proffered  her.  At  present  she  confined  her  efforts 
in  their  favour  to  an  attempt  at  a  mediation  with  I  hilip  (1576). 
But  a  few  years  afterwards  (1585),  Eliznbeth,  seeing  from  the  union 
of  all  the  proviuces  a  fair  prospect  of  their  making  a  long  and 
vigorous  defence  against  Spain,  no  longer  scrupled  to  embrace  the 
protection  of  their  liberties.  She  concluded  a  treaty  with  them, 
in  which  she  stipulated  to  assist  them  with  5000  foot  and  1000 
horse,  and  to  lend  them  100,000/.,  on  receiving  the  bonds  of  the 
most  considerable  towns  of  the  Netherlands,  for  repayment  within 
the  year. 

§  15.  During  these  years,  while  Europe  was  almost  everywhere 
in  great  commotion,  England  enjoyed  profound  tranquillity^wing 
chiefly  to  the  prudence  and  vigour  of  the  queen's  administration, 
and  to  the  wise  precautious  which  she  employed  in  all  her  measures. 
By  means  of  her  rigid  economy  she  paid  all  the  debts  due  from  the 
crown,  with  full  interest,  though  some  of  these  debts  had  been  con- 
tracted during  the  reign  of  her  father.  Loans  exacted  by  her  at  the 
commencement  of  her  reign  were  repaid — a  practice  in  that  age 
somewhat  unusual.  During  this  peaceable  and  uniform  government 
England  furnishes  few  materials  for  history ;  and,  except  the  small 
part  which  Elizabeth  took  in  foreign  trausactionn,  there  scarcely 
passed  any  occurrence  which  requires  a  particular  detail 

Thouj^h  Philip  had  npt  yet  come  to  an  open  rupture  with  the 
queen,  he  grew  every  day  more  exasperated  against  her,  both  by 
the  injuries  which  he  committed  and  those  he  suffered.  With 
the  connivance,  if  not  the  aid,  of  the  Spaniards,  a  body  of  troops 
landed  in  Ireland,  for  the  purpose  of  fomenting  a  rebellion  (1580). 
When  the  English  ambassador  complained  of  this  invasion,  he  was 
answered  by  like  comphiints  of  the  piracies  committed  by  Francis 
Drake,  a  bold  seaman,  who  had  assaulted  the  Spaniards  in  the  New 
World,  where  they  deemed  themselves  most  secure.  Drake,  with 
the  queen's  consent  and  approbation,  had  set  sail  from  Plymouth 
in  December,  1577,  with  four  ships  and  a  pinnace,  on  board  of  which 
were  164  able  sailors.  He  passed  into  the  South  Sea  by  the  Straits 
of  Magellan,  and,  attacking  the  Spaniards,  who  expected  no  enemy 
in  those  quarters,  he  took  many  rich  prizes,  and  prepared  to  return 
with  the  booty  which  he  had  acquired.  Apprehensive  of  being 
intercepted  by  the  enemy  if  he  took  the  same  way  homewards  by 


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AJK  1575— 158a      KEQOOIATIONS  OF  MARRIAOE.  318 

which  he  had  reached  the  Pacific  Ocean,  he  attempted  to  find  a 
passage  by  the  north  of  CaUfornia ;  and  fsdling  in  that  enterprise,  he 
set  sail  for  the  East  Indies,  and  returned  safely  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  (1580).  He  was  the  first  Englishman  who  sailed  round  the 
globe,  and  the  first  commander-in-chief:  for  Magellan,  while  accom- 
plishing the  same  feat,  died  on  the  passage.  His  name  became 
celebrated  lor  so  bold  and  fortunate  an  attempt ;  but  many,  appre- 
hending the  resentment  of  the  Spaniards,  endeavoured  to  persiiade 
the  queen  that  it  would  be  more  prudent  to  disavow  the  enterprise, 
to  punish  Drake,  and  to  restore  the  treasure — a  proceeding  more 
strictly  just  than  popular,  for  England  at  that  time  was  at  peace 
with  Spain.  Elizabeth,  who  admired  valour,  determined  to  coun- 
tenance the  gallant  sailor ;  she  conferred  on  him  the  honour  of 
knighthood,  and  accepted  of  a  banquet  from  him  at  Deptford,  on 
board  the  ship  which  had  achieved  so  memorable  a  voyage. 

§  16.  The  duke  of  Alen^on,  now  created  duke  of  Anjou,  had 
never  entirely  dropped  his  pretensions  to  Elizabeth;  and  that 
l»incess,  though  her  suitor  was  nearly  25  years  younger  than  her- 
self, and  had  no  knowledge  of  her  person  but  by  pictures  or 
descriptions,  affected  to  be  pleased  with  his  attentions.  Encouraged 
by  the  accounts  sent  him  of  the  queen's  prepossessions  in  his 
favour,  the  duke  paid  her  secretly  a  visit  at  Greenwich ;  and  after 
some  conference  with  her,  the  purport  of  which  is  not  known,  he 
departed  (1579).  Though  his  figure  was  not  advantageous,  he 
had  lost  no  ground  by  becoming  personally  known  to  her.  Soon 
after  she  commanded  her  ministers  to  draw  up  the  terms  of  a 
contract  of  marriage,  which  was  to  be  celebrated  six  weeks  after 
the  ratification  of  the  articles.  But,  though  Elizabeth  had  pro- 
ceeded thus  far,  she  betrayed  a  constant  vacillation  of  purpose. 
She  was  well  aware  how  much,  in  her  sister's  case,  a  foreign  marriage 
had  been  distasteful  to  the  nation.  A  union  with  a  Roman  catholic 
was  looked  upon  with  the  greatest  alarm  by  her  protestant  subjects; 
and  seemed  to  lend  currency  to  the  disafifected  puritans,  who 
charged  the  queen  with  being  a  catholic  in  her  heart  already.  She 
had  resolved  never  to  marry ;  and  this  resolution  was  strengthened 
in  her  by  experience  of  the  unhappy -consequences  attending  such 
connections  in  her  own  family.  But  she  could  not  afibrd  to  ofiend 
the  duke  or  alienate  France  at  this  conjuncture.  Spain  was  for- 
midable ;  Scotland  was  imcertain ;  Ireland  was  prepared  for 
rebellion.  Seminary  priests  and  Jesuits  were  everywhere  dm- 
seminating  treason  and  disaffection  throughout  her  dominions. 
Her  vacillation  was  not  the  result  of  her  love — a  passion  she  pro- 
bably never  experienced — but  of  her  policy ;  and  one  great  object 
of  Uxat  policy  was  to  prevent  a  closer  union  with  France  and 


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314  ELIZABETH.  Chap.  xviu. 

Spain.  Meanwhile  the  duke  continue<l  to  press  Lis  suit  In  the 
midst  of  the  pomp  which  attended  the  anniversary  of  her  accession 
(November  17, 1581),  she  was  seen,  after  long  and  intimate  dis- 
course with  him,  to  take  a  ring  from  her  finger  and  place  it  on  his. 
The  spectators  concluded  that  in  this  ceremony  she  had  given  him 
a  promise  of  marriage,  and  was  even  desirous  of  signifying  her  in- 
tentions to  all  the  world.  In  1582  the  States  of  the  Neiherlaiids 
chose  the  duke  for  their  governor ;  and,  having  been  successful  in 
raising  the  siege  of  Cambray,  he  put  his  army  into  winter  quarters, 
and  came  over  to  England,  in  order  to  prosecute  his  suit.  Elizabeth 
still  hesitated;  she  was  observed  to  pass  several  nights  without 
sleep  or  repose.  This  struggle  in  her  breast  is  attributed  by  some 
to  the  difficulties  of  her  position ;  by  others,  less  probably,  to  a 
tenderer  passion.  At  last  her  settled  habits  of  prudence  and  am- 
bition prevailed.  She  sent  for  the  duke,  and  had  a  long  conference 
with  him  in  private.  He  left  her  in  disgust,  threw  away  the  ring 
which  she  had  given  him,  cursing  the  mutability  of  women  and 
of  the  English  in  particular*  (1582). 

§  17.  As  several  conspiracies,  real  and  imaginary,  in  which  the 
Jesuits  were  active,  had  excited  the  suspicion  of  the  government, 
and  were  imputed  to  the  intrigues  of  the  queen  of  Scots,  an 
association  was  set  on  foot  by  the  earl  of  Leicester  and  others  to 
defend  Elizabeth,  to  revenge  her  death  or  any  injury  committed 
against  her,  and  to  exclude  from  the  throne  all  claimants,  by  whose 
suggestion,  or  in  whose  behalf,  any  violence  should  be  offered  to 
her  majesty.  The  proposal  was  received  with  acclamation.  Sen- 
sible that  this  association  was  levelled  against  herself,  Mary,  to 
remove  all  suspicion,  desired  to  subscribe  it;  but  her  offer  was 
declined.  Elizabeth,  that  she  might  the  more  discourage  malcon- 
tents by  showing  them  the  concurrence  of  the  nation  in  her  favour, 
summoned  a  new  parliament,  and  she  met  with  that  dutiful  attach- 
ment which  she  expected  (Nnvember  23, 1584).  The  association 
was  confirmed  by  parliament,  and  a  clause  was  added,  by  which 
the  queen  was  empowered  to  name  24  commissioners  to  make  in- 
quisition after  all  such  **a8  should  invade  the  kingdom,  raise 
rebellion,  attempt  to  hurt  or  destroy  the  queen's  person,  by  whuw- 
soever  employed,  that  might  lay  claim  to  the  crown  of  England. 
And  that  the  person  for  whom  or  by  whom  they  should  attempt  the 
same  should  be  utterly  incapable  of  any  title  to  the  crown,  and 
be  prosecu'ed  to  death  by  all  faithful  subjects."  A  severe  law 
was  also  passed,  that  all  Jesuits  and  popish  priests  should  depart 
the  king'lom  within  40  days.  The  exercise  of  the  catholic  religion, 
which  had  formerly  been  prohibited  under  lighter  penaltity,  au«i 
*  But  he  wisely  pidced  it  up  again 


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A.D.  1681-1684.      COURT  OF  HIOH  COMMISSION.  315 

which  was  in  many  instances  connived  at,  was  totally  suppressed. 
In  IfiOS  a  popish  seminary  for  refugee  priests  had  been  established 
at  Douay  by  doctor  Allen,  under  the  auspices  of  Philip.  Priests 
continually  passed  from  this  and  other  colleges  into  England,  to 
keep  alive  the  expiring  faith,  and  sometimes  to  excite  sedition. 
Thus  Parsons  and  Campion,  two  Jesuits,  had  made  themselves 
busy  in  England  in  1581,  by  carrying  out  the  sentence  of  excom- 
munication launched  by  Pius  Y.  against  the  queen  and  all  who 
adhered  to  her. 

But  the  most  material  subject  agitated  in  this  session  was  the 
ecclesiastical  court  of  High  Commission,  and  the  oath  ex  officio,  as  it 
was  called,  exacted  by  that  court  This  is  a  subject  of  such  im- 
portance as  to  merit  some  explanation.  The  first  primate  after  the 
queen's  accession  whs  Parker,  who,  in  consequence  of  the  dis- 
f^ection  to  the  church  of  England  exhibited  by  the  exiles  from 
Frankfort,  had  grown  more  rigid  in  exacting  conformity.  He  died 
in  1575,  and  was  succeeded  by  Grindal,  who,  an  he  himself  was  in- 
clined to  the  new  sect,  was  with  great  difficulty  brought  to  execute 
the  laws  against  them,  or  to  punish  the  clergy  for  nonconformity. 
He  declined  obeying  the  queen's  orders  for  the  suppression  of  pro- 
phesyingsy  or  the  assemblies  of  the  zealots  in  private  houses ;  and 
fcHT  this  oflence  she  had,  by  an  order  of  the  Star-chamber,  sequestered 
him  from  his  archiepiscopal  function,  and  confined  him  to  his  own 
house.  Upon  his  death^  in  1583,  she  determined  not  ti)  fall  again 
into  the  same  error ;  and  she  named  Whitgift,  a  zealous  church- 
man, who  had  already  signalized  his  pen  in  controversy  with  the 
puritans.  At  his  advice  the  queen  issued  a  new  commission  more 
arbitrary  than  any  of  the  former,  and  conveying  more  unlimited 
authority.  She  appointed  44  commissioners,  12  of  whom  were 
bishops :  three  commissioners  made  a  quorum ;  and  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  court  extended  over  the  whole  kingdom,  and  over  all  orders  of 
men,  but  was  particularly  directed  against  the  clergy.  The  com- 
missioners were  empowered  to  visit  and  reform  all  errors,  heresies, 
schisms;  they  were  directed  to  make  inquiry,  not  only  by  the  legal 
methods  of  juries  and  witnesses,  but  by  all  other  moans,  and  ways 
they  could  devise.  Where  they  foimd  reason  for  suspicion,  they 
might  administer  an  oath  called  ex  officio^  by  which  the  accus*  d 
was  bound  to  answer  all  questions,  and  might  thereby  be  oblig.  d 
to  betray  himself  or  his  most  intimate  friend.  Censure  and  de- 
I^vation  were  their  usual  punishments.  Sometimes  they  resorted 
to  fine  and  imprisonment.  Their  proceedings  were  regarded  with 
great  jealousy  by  the  courts  at  Westminster,  and  often  led  to 
serious  collisions.  In  a  speech  from  the  throne  at  the  end  of  the 
session,  the  queen  reproved  the  commons  for  touching  upon  this 


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816  ELIZABETH.  Obap.  xyul 

grieyanoe  in  their  petitiou.  But  she,  so  far  from  yielding  to  the 
displeasure  of  the  parliament,  granted,  before  the  end  of  her  reign, 
a  new  commission,  in  which  she  enlarged,  rather  than  restrained, 
the  powers  of  the  commissioners. 

The  act  against  Jesuits  and  seminary  priests  was  violently 
opposed  by  doctor  William  Parry,  member  for  Queenboroiigh,  who 
was  consequently  placed  under  arrest  by  the  commons,  but  at  the 
interposition  of  the  queen  was  set  at  liberty.  He  had  acted  as  a 
spy  and  informer  on  the  continent  for  the  English  government, 
and  had  entrapped  English  priests  and  others  into  treasonable 
discussions  against  the  queen,  with  the  purpose  of  betraying  them. 
Having  obtained  permission  to  travel,  he  retired  to  Milan,  where, 
according  to  his  own  confession,  he  was  persuaded  by  a  Jesuit  that 
he  could  not  perform  a  more  meritorious  action  than  to  take  away  the 
life  of  his  sovereign  and  benefactress ;  and  his  design,  having  been 
communicated  to  the  pope  through  cariiinal  Como,  received  the 
approbation  of  the  holy  father.*  On  his  return  to  England  Parry 
communicated  his  intention  to  Neville,  his  associate  and  a  catholic, 
by  whom  it  was  betmyel  fo  the  ministers,  and  he  was  condemned 
and  executed  as  a  traitor  (1585).    (Supplement,  Note  II.) 

§  18.  These  bloody  projects  now  appeared  everywhere.  In  the 
year  1584  Baltazar  Gerard,  a  Burgtmdian,  undertook  and  executed 
a  similar  design  against  William  the  Silent^  prince  of  Orange ;  and 
that  great  man  (•erished  at  Delft,  by  tlie  hands  of  an  assassin.  The 
States  of  the  Netherlands  now  renewed  their  ofifer  to  Elizabeth,  of 
acknowledj^ing  her  for  their  sovereign,  on  condition  of  obtaining 
her  protection  and  assistance.  Elizabeth  declined  this  proposal ;  but 
being  determined  not  to  permit,  without  opposition,  the  total  sub- 
jection of  the  revolted  provinces,  she  accepted  the  protectorate,  and 
agreed  to  send  over  an  army  to  their  assistance  (1585).  The  earl 
of  Leicester  was  sent  over  to  Holland,  at  the  head  of  the  English 
auxiliary  forces.  Elizabeth,  finding  that  an  open  breach  with 
Philip  was  unavoidable,  resolved  not  to  leave  him  unmolested  in 
America.  A  fleet  of  20  sail  was  equipped  to  attack  the  Spaniards 
in  the  West  Indies,  of  which  sir  Francis  Drake  was  appointed 
admiral.  They  made  several  conquests;  and,  sailing  along  the 
coast  of  Virginia,  they  found  the  small  remains  of  a  colony  which 
had  been  planted  there  two  years  before  by  sir  Walter  Raleigh. 
This  was  the  first  attempt  of  the  English  to  form  such  settlements ; 
and  though  they  have  since  surpassed  all  European  nations,  both 
in  the  situation  of  their  colonies,  and  in  the  noble  principles  of 
liberty  and  industry  on  which  they  are  founded,  they   had  here 

*  Such  was  the  interpreUtton  pat  upon-  I  correctness ;  and  there  to  nothing  in  the 
th«  caidinal's  letter.    Bat  Parrj  denied  its  |  letter  expUdtty  approving  such  a  ( 


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A.D.  1584-1686.  BATTLE  OP  ZUTPHEN.  817 

been  so  unsuccessful,  that  the  miserable  planters  abandoned  their 
settlements,  and  prevailed  on  Drake  to  carry  them  with  him 
to  England.  He  returned  with  so  much  riches  as  encouraged 
volunteers,  and  with  such  accounts  of  the  Spanish  weakness  in  those 
countries  as  served  to  inflame  the  spirits  of  the  nation  to  future 
enterprises. 

Leicester's  operations  were  much  less  successful  than  those  of 
Drake.  He  possessed  neither  the  courage  nor  capacity  required  for 
the  trust  reposed  in  him.  Instead  of  remaining  in  his  post,  as^ 
commauder  merely  of  the  English  forces,  to  which  the  queen  had 
appointed  him,  the  estates  of  the  Netherlands  conferred  upon  him 
supreme  command  and  absolute  authority,  under  the  title  of 
his  Excellency,  to  Elizabeth's  great  displeasure.  He  gained  indeed 
advantages  at  first,  but  fiEdled  in  an  attempt  which  he  made  upon 
Zut|>hen.  In  a  skirmish  under  the  walls  of  this  town,  his  nephew, 
sir  Philip  Sidney,  was  mortally  wounded,  and  soon  after  died 
(October  7,  1586).  This  person  is  described  by  the  writers  of 
that  age  as  the  most  i^erfect  model  of  an  accomplished  gentleman 
that  could  be  formed  even  by  the  wanton  imagination  of  poetry  or 
fiction.  Virtuous  conduct,  polite  conversation,  heroic  valour,  and 
love  of  learning,  all  concurred  to  render  him  the  ornament  and 
delight  of  the  English  court ;  and,  as  the  credit  which  he  possessed 
with  the  queen  and  the  earl  of  Leicester  was  wholly  employed  in 
the  encouragement  of  genius  and  literature,  his  praises  have  been 
transmitted  with  advantage  to  posterity.  After  this  last  action, 
while  he  was  lying  on  the  field  mangled  with  wounds,  a  bottle  of 
water  was  brought  him  to  relieve  his  thirst;  but,  observing  a 
soldier  near  him  in  a  like  miserable  condition,  he  said,  "This 
man's  necessity  is  still  greater  than  mine : "  and  resigned  the  water 
to  him. 

§  19.  Some  priests  of  the  English  seminary  at  Rheims  had 
wrought  themselves  up  to  a  high  pitch  of  zeal  and  animosity 
against  the  queen.  The  assassination  of  heretical  sovereign:*,  and 
of  Elizabeth  in  particular,  was  represented  as  the  most  meritorious 
of  all  enterprises ;  and  they  were  taught  that  whosoever  (lerished  in 
such  an  attempt  enjoyed,  without  dispute,  the  glorious  and  never- 
fading  crown  of  martyrdom.  By  such  doctrines,  John  Savage,  a 
man  of  desperate  courage,  who  had  served  some  years  in  the  Low 
Countries,  was  induced  to  attempt  the  life  of  Elizabeth ;  and  this 
assassin,  having  made  a  vow  to  prosecute  his  design,  was  sent  over 
to  England,  and  recommended  to  the  confidence  of  the  more  zealous 
catholics.  About  the  same  time  John  Ballard,  a  priest  of  that 
seminary,  when  on  a  mission  in  England  and  Scotland,  had  observed 
a  sprit  of  mutiny  and  rebellion  to  be  very  prevalent  among  the 


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318  ELIZABETH.  Ohap.  XTm. 

Roman  catholic  devotees  in  these  countries,  and  had  founded  on  thai 
disposition  the  project  of  dethroning  Elizabeth,  and  of  restoring, 
by  force  of  arms,  the  exercise  of  the  ancient  religion.  Mendoza, 
the  Spanish  -ambassador  at  Paris,  encouraged  Ballard  to  hope  for 
succours.  He  accordingly  returned  to  England  in  the  disguise  oi 
a  soldier,  and  assumed  the  name  of  captain  Fortescue ,  and  he  bent 
his  endeavours  to  effect  at  once  the  project  of  an  assassination,  an 
insurrection,  and  an  invasion  (1586).  With  this  view  he  addressed 
himself  to  Anthony  Babington,  a  young  gentleman  of  good  family  and 
fortune,  who  liad  discovered  an  excellent  capacity,  and  was  accom- 
plished in  literature  beyond  most  of  iiis  years  or  station.  Babingtou 
had  before  been  engaged  with  one  Morgan  in  a  secret  correspondence 
with  the  queen  of  Scots;  but  after  she  was  placed  und^r  the  custody 
of  sir  Amyas  Poulet,  and  reduced  to  a  more  rigorous  confinement, 
he  had  desisted  from  every  attempt  of  that  nature.  When  Ballard 
began  to  open  his  intentions  to  Babington,  he  found  his  zeal  sus- 
pended, not  extinguished :  his  former  ardour  revived  on  the  mention 
of  any  enterprise  which  seemed  to  promise  success  in  the  cause  of 
Mary  and  of  the  catholic  religion.  Ballard  proceeded  to  discover  tc 
him  the  design  undertaken  by  Savage,  and  was  well  pleased  to 
observe  that,  instead  of  being  shocked  with  the  project,  Babington 
only  thought  it  not  secure  enough  when  entrusted  to  one  single 
hand,  and  proposed  to  join  five  others  with  Savage  in  this  desperate 
enterprise.  In  prosecution  of  these  views,  Babington  employed 
himself  in  increasing  the  number  of  his  associates,  as  he  aimed  at 
the  deliverance  of  the  queen  of  Scots  at  the  very  same  instant  when 
Elizabeth  should  be  assassinated;  and  he  ^'ecretly  drew  into  the 
conspiracy  many  catholic  gentlemen  discontented  \%ith  the  present 
government  (Septemt)er,  1586). 

These  desperate  projects  had  not  escaped  the  vigilance  of  Eliza- 
beth's council,  particularly  of  Walsingham,  secretary  of  state,  who 
by  means  of  his  spies  had  got  a  hint  of  the  designs  entertained  by  the 
fugitives.  He  was  not  sorry  to  hear  of  a  pi  t,  which  might  involve 
the  destmction  of  Mary,  and  get  rid  of  a  sovereign  whose  succession 
to  the  crown  would  prove  fatal  to  himself  and  his  associates.  To 
control  the  measures  of  the  conspirators  he  employed  one  Gifford,  a 
seminary  priest,  who  professed  his  approval  of  their  intentions  in  order 
to  betray  them.  Gifford  communicated  with  a  brewer  who  supplied 
Poulet*8  family  with  ale,  and  bribed  him  to  convey  letters  to  the 
captive  queen.  The  letters  were  placed  in  a  box  concealed  in  a 
beer-barrel,  and  answers  were  returned  by  the  same  conveyance. 
Ballard  and  Babington,  deceived  by  Gifford's  professions  of  fidelity, 
laid  aside  all  further  scruple,  and  conveyed  to  Mary  by  his  hands 
the  particulars  of  the  whole  conspiracy.    -According  to  their  indict- 


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AJ).  1586.       TEIAL  OF  THE  QUEEN  OP  SCOTS.  319 

ment,  which  mast  not,  however,  be  implicitly  trusted,  Mary  replied 
that  she  approved  highly  of  the  design ;  that  the  gentlemen  might 
expect  all  the  rewards  which  it  should  ever  be  in  her  power  to 
confer ;  and  that  the  death  of  Elizabeth  was  a  necessary  circum- 
stance, before  any  attempts  were  made,  either  for  her  own  deliver- 
ance or  an  insurrection.  These  and  other  letters  were  carried  by 
Gifibrd  to  Phillipps,  secretary  to  Walsingham,  and  copies  taken  of 
them.  At  length  Ballard  was  seized;  and  Babington,  observing 
that  he  was  watched,  made  his  escape,  and  gave  the  alarm  to  the 
other  conspirators.  They  all  took  to  flight,  covered  themselves 
with  several  disguises,  and  lay  concealed  in  St.  John's  wood  and 
other  places,  but  were  soon  discovered  and  thrown  into  prison.  In 
their  examinations  they  contradicted  each  other,  and  the  leaders 
were  obliged  to  make  a  full  confession  of  the  truth.  Fourteen 
were  condemned  and  executed,  of  whom  seven  pleaded  guilty  on 
their  trial.;  the  rest  were  convicted  by  evidence  (September  20,  21). 
§  20.  The  lesser  conspirators  being  despatched,  measures  were 
taken,  after  much  deliberation,  for  the  trial  and  conviction  of  the 
queen  of  Scots.  She  was  conducted  to  Fotheringay  castle,  in  the 
county  of  Northampton,  which  it  was  determined  to  make  the  last 
stage  of  her  trial  and  sufferings.  Her  two  secretaries,  Nau,  a 
Frenchman,  and  Curie,  a  Scot,  were  immediately  arrested:  her 
papers  were  sent  up  to  the  council,  among  which  were  found  many 
letters  from  persons  beyond  sea,  and  several  also  from  English  noble- 
men, containing  expressions  of  respect  and  attachment.  It  was 
resolved  to  try  Mary,  not  by  the  common  statute  of  treasons,  but  by 
the  act  which  had  passed  two  years  before  with  a  view  to  this  very 
event ;  and  the  queen,  in  the  terms  of  that  act,  appointed  a  com- 
mission, consisting  of  47  noblemen  and  privy  councillors,  and  em- 
powered them  to  examine  and  pass  sentence  on  Mary,  whom  she 
denominated  the  late  queen  of  Scots  and  heir  to  James  V.  of 
Scotland.  Mary  at  first  refused  to  answer,  pleading  her  royal 
dignity ;  but  the  commissioners  would  not  admit  her  objection.  At 
length,  by  a  well-timed  speech  of  sir  Christopher  Hatton,  the  vice- 
chamberlain,  she  was  persuaded  to  answer  before  the  court,  though, 
on  her  first  appearance  before  the  commissioners,  she  renewed  her 
protestation  against  the  authority  of  her  judges.  She  admitted 
negociating  with  foreign  powers  to  obtain  her  liberty,  but  earnestly 
disclaimed  any  intention  on  the  life  of  Elizabeth.  This  article, 
indeed,  was  the  most  heavy,  and  the  only  one  that  could  fully 
justify  the  queen  in  proceeding  to  extremities  against  her.  In  order 
to  prove  the  accusation,  the  crown  lawyers  produced  the  following 
evidence :  copies  taken  in  secretary  Walsingham*s  ofiBce  of  the  in- 
tercepted letters  between  her  and  Babington,  in  which  her  appro- 


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820  ELIZABETH.  Chap.  xvm. 

bation  of  the  murder  was  clearly  expressed ;  *  the  evidence  of  her 
two  secretaries,  Nau  and  Curie;  the  confession  of  Babinjicton  that 
he  had  written  the  letters  and  received  the  answers;  and  the  con- 
fession of  Ballard  and  Savage  that  Babiogton  had  showed  them 
these  letters  of  Mary  written  in  the  cipher  which  had  been  settled 
between  them.  In  reply  she  charged  Walsingham  with  forging  the 
letters  (which  he  denied),  and  desired  to  be  confronted  with  Nau, 
one  of  her  secretaries,  whom  she  accused  of  treachery.  But  her 
request  was  refused  (October  15).  Ten  days  after,  the  commis- 
sioners re-assembled  in  the  Star-chamber,  and  pronounced  her  guilty 
of  death.  It  was  declared  ''  that  Babington's  conspiracy  was  with 
Mary's  privity  ** — that  she  had  compassed  divers  matters,  tending 
to  the  hurt,  death,  and  destruction  of  the  queen.  That  she  was 
privy  to  Babington's  conspiracy  is  admitted  by  all ;  but  whether 
Babington  contemplated  more  than  the  libecation  of  Mary,  or  if 
he  did,  whether  Mary  herself  wan  cognizant  of  those  intentions  or 
any  such  treasonable  design  as  was  imputed  to  her,  has  been  greatly 
disputed.  The  inferior  agents  in  all  these  conspiracies  were  so 
utterly  fiadse,  worthless,  and  unscrupulous,  that  no  reliance  can  be 
put  on  their  most  solemn  asseverations. 

Parliament  met  four  days  after  Mary's  condemnation  (October 
29).  Elizabeth  was  not  present;  she  probably  anticipated  their 
intentions.  The  great  business  was  opened  by  sir  Christopher 
Hatton,  who,  after  insisting  with  great  emphasis  on  ''  the  execrable 
treacheries  and  conspiracies "  of  the  queen  of  Soots,  concluded  his 
speech  with  demanding  her  execution  *.  Ne  pereat  Israel  perecU 
Abialon,  It  is  needless  to  state  that  the  debate  was  unanimous, 
every  orator  enlarging  on  the  horrors  of  popery,  its  wicked  and 
detestable  treacheries,  of  which  Mary  "was  a  principal  branch." 
Both  houses  joined  in  petition  to  the  queen  that  sentence  should  be 
executed,  insisting  that  there  was  no  other  possible  means  of  pro- 
viding for  the  queen's  safety ;  and  that  the  neglect  of  it  would 
**  procure  the  heavy  displeasure  and  punishment  of  Almighty  God, 
as  appeared  by  sundry  examples  in  Holy  Scripture."  But  Elizabeth 
was  more  wise  and  considerate  than  her  parliaments.  She  fore- 
saw the  invidious  colours  in  which  this  example  of  extraordinary 
jurisdiction  would  be  represented  by  the  numerous  partisans  of 
Mary,  and  the  reproach  to  which  ^e  herself  might  be  exposed 
with  all  foreign  princes,  perhaps  with  all  posterity.  She  gave  an 
embarrassed  and  ambiguous  answer ;  and  begged  of  them  to  think 
once  again,  whether  it  were  not  possible  to  find  some  other  ex- 

*  It  has  been  urged  that  these  copies  |  capable,  without  Walstngham's  prlraqjr. 
were  manipuUted  by  Walsingham's  |  None  of  the  letters  were  In  Uvrft  owm 
aBBUta— a  crime  of  which  they  were  tally  j  hand. 


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▲J>.  1586.    JAMES  REMONSTRATES  WITH  ELIZABETH.       821 

pedient  for  securing  the  public  tranquillity,  besides  the  death  of 
the  queen  of  Soots.  Parliament  declared  it  could  find  no  other. 
The  queen  then  published  the  sentence  by  proclamation.  This 
act  was  attended  with  the  unanimous  and  hearty  rejoicings  of  the 
people,  "ringing  of  bells,"  and  "making  of  boirfires"  (Decem- 
ber 6).  When  the  senteuce  was  notified  to  her,  Mary  was  nowise 
dismayed  at  the  iDtelligence ;  and,  as  she  was  told  that  her  death 
was  demanded  by  the  protestants  for  the  establishment  of  their 
faith,  she  insisted  that  she  was  a  martyr  for  her  religion.  In  her 
last  letter  to  Elizabeth,  which  was  full  of  dignity,  without  depart- 
ing from  that  spirit  of  meekness  and  of  chanty  which  appeeured 
suitable  to  this  concluding  scene  of  her  unfortunate  life,  elie  pre- 
ferred no  petition  for  averting  the  &tal  sentence ;  on  the  contrary, 
she  expressed  her  gratitude  to  Heaven  for  thus  bringing  to  a  speedy 
period  her  sad  and  lamentable  pilgrimage.  She  merely  desired  to 
be  buried  in  France,  and  made  some  requests  in  favour  of  her 
servants.  The  king  of  France  sent  an  ambassador  to  intercede  for 
her.  The  object  of  his  mission  was  regarded  by  the  people  with 
the  greatest  possible  aversion.  It  was  even  proposed  in  the  com- 
mons that  he  should  not  be  allowed  access  to  her  majest}  's  person. 
The  interposition  of  the  young  king  of  Scots,  though  not  able 
to  change  Elizabeth's  determination^  seemed,  on  every  account,  to 
merit  more  regard.  As  soon  as  James  heard  of  the  trial  and  con- 
demnation of  his  mother,  he  sent  sir  William  Keith,  a  gentleman 
of  his  bed-chamber,  to  London,  and  wrote  a  letter  to  the  queen,  in 
which  he  remonstrated,  in  very  severe  terms,  against  the  indignity 
of  the  procedure.  Soon  after,  James  sent  the  Master  of  Gray 
and  sir  Robert  Melvil  to  enforce  the  remonstrances  of  Keith,  and 
to  employ  with  the  queen  every  expedient  of  argument  and  menaces. 
Elizabeth,  however,  still  retained  her  resolution  of  executing  the 
sentence  against  Mary ;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  Masler  of  Gray, 
gained  by  the  enemies  of  that  princess,  secretly  gave  his  advice 
not  to  spare  her,  and  undertook,  in  all  events,  to  pacify  his  master. 
S  21.  Christmas  had  passed,  the  New  Year  had  come,  yet  Mary 
still  remained  at  Fotheringay  expecting  her  execution.  Ail  sorts  of 
rumours  were  dispersed  respecting  invasions  fi-om  France,  Spain, 
and  Scotland,  and  of  attempts  and  projects  against  the  queen's  life. 
Popular  preachers  in  the  London  pulpits  excited  the  apprehensions 
and  passions  of  their  audience  by  violent  harangues  against  the 
unfortunate  queen  and  the  religion  of  which  she  was  supposed  to 
be  the  chief  maintainer  in  England.  But  Elizabeth  continued 
undecided.  She  could  not  be  ignorant  that  the  whole  nation 
passionately  desired  Mary's  death,  and  regarded  it  as  the  triumph 
of  protestantism.    She  was  observed  to  git  silent,  pensive,  and  alone; 


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32i  ELIZABETH.  Chap.  xvm. 

to  mutter  to  benelf  half  sentences  importing  the  difficulty  and 
distress  to  which  she  was  reduced.  At  length  she  signed  the 
warrant  for  Mary's  execution  (February  1),  and  entrusted  it  to 
secretary  Davison.  But  next  day  she  enjoined  him  to  delay ;  and 
when  Davison  told  her  that  the  warrant  had  already  passed  the 
great  seal,  she  seemed  to  be  somewhat  moved,  and  blamed  him  for 
his  precipitation.  But  the  council  persuaded  him  to  send  oflf  the 
warrant,  and  promised  to  justify  his  conduct,  and  to  take  on  them- 
selves the  whole  blame  of  tiiis  measure.  The  warrant  was  accord- 
ingly despatched  to  the  earls  of  Shrewsbury  and  Kent,  and  some 
others,  ordering  tbem  to  see  the  sentence  executed  upon  the  queen 
of  Scots. 

The  two  earls  came  to  Fotluringay  castle  (February  7),  and, 
being  introduced  to  Mary,  informed  her  of  their  commission,  and 
desired  her  to  prepiire  for  death  next  morning  at  eight  o'clock.  She 
seemed  nowise  terrified,  though  somewhat  surprised,  with  the 
intelligence.  She  said,  with  a  cheerful  and  even  a  smiling  counte- 
nance, that  she  did  not  think  the  queen,  her  sister,  would  have 
consented  to  her  death,  or  have  executed  the  sentence  against  a 
person  not  subject  to  the  laws  and  jurisdiction  of  England.  '*  But 
as  such  is  her  will,"  said  she,  "  death,  which  puts  an  end  to  all  my 
miseries,  shall  be  to  me  most  welcome ;  nor  can  I  esteem  that  soul 
worthy  the  felicities  of  heaven  which  cannot  support  the  body  under 
the  horrors  of  the  last  passage  to  those  blissful  mansions.*'  When 
the  earls  had  left  her,  she  ordered  supper  to  be  hastened,  that  she 
might  have  the  more  leisure  after  it  to  finish  the  few  aflfairs  which 
remained  to  her  in  this  world,  and  to  prepare  for  her  passage  to 
another.  She  supped  sparingly,  as  her  manner  usually  was,  and 
her  wonted  cheerfulness  did  not  even  desert  her  on  this  occasion. 
She  comforted  her  servants  under  the  affliction  which  overwhelmed 
them,  as  it  was  too  violent  for  them  to  conceal  it  from  her.  Towards 
morning  she  arose  and  dressed  herself  in  a  rich  habit  of  silk  and 
velvet,*  the  only  one  which  she  had  reserved  to  herself.  Before  she 
passed  into  the  hall,  where  the  scaffold  was  erected  covered  with 
black,  she  took  an  afiecting  leave  of  her  old  servant,  sir  Andrew  Mel  vil. 
With  an  undismayed  countenance  she  looked  round  on  the  execu- 
tioners and  all  the  preparations  of  death.  The  warrant  for  her 
execution  was  then  read  to  her ;  she  heard  it  attentively,  but  showed 
in  her  behaviour  an  indifference  and  unconcern  as  if  the  business 
had  nowise  regarded  her.  Before  the  executioners  performed  their 
office,  the  dean  of  Peterborough  stepped  forth ;  and,  though  the 


*  It  wu  ruaal  for  noble  crimliulfl  to 
Appear  at  their  execution  in  their  best 
drm    of  which  the  vest,  or  cotillon,  at 


in  Mary's  case,  was  red  or 
very  obvious  reatonn 


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AJ).  1587.      EXECUTION  OF  THE  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS.  328 

queen  frequently  told  hun  that  he  needed  not  concern  himself 
about  her,  that  she  was  settled  in  the  ancient  catholic  and  Roman 
religion,  and  that  she  meant  to  lay  down  her  life  in  defence  of  that 
faith,  he  still  thought  it  his' duty  to  persist  in  his  lectins  and 
exhortations.  She  now  began,  with  the  aid  of  her  two  women,  to 
disrobe  herself;  and  the  executioner  also  lent  his  han«l  to  assist 
them.  She  smiled,  and  said  that  she  was  not  accustomed  to  undress 
herself  before  so  large  a  company,  nor  to  be  served  by  such  grooms. 
Her  servants,  seeing  her  in  this  condition  ready  to  lay  her  head 
upon  the  block,  burst  into  tears  and  lamentations.  She  turned 
about  to  them,  put  her  finger  upon  her  lips  as  a  sign  of  imposing 
silence  upon  them,  and,  having  kissed  them  and  signed  her  male 
attendants  with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  she  desired  them  to  pray  for  her. 
Jane  Kennedy,  one  of  her  maids,  whom  she  had  appointed  for  that 
purpose,  covered  her  eyes  with  a  linen  handkerchief.  Then,  laying 
herself  down  at  the  block  without  any  sign  of  fear  or  trepidation, 
as  she  repeated  the  words,  "  In  Thee,  0  Lord,  do  I  put  my  trust : 
let  me  never  he  confounded**  her  head  was  severed  from  her  body 
at  two  strokes  by  the  executioner.  He  instantly  held  it  up  to  the 
spectators,  streaming  with  blood  and  agitated  with  the  couvulsions 
of  death.  Fletcher,  dean  of  Peterborough,  alone  exclaimed,  "  So 
let  queen  Elizabeth's  enemies  perish!"  The  earl  of  Kent  alone 
replied,  "  Amen ! "  The  attention  of  all  the  other  spectators  was 
fixed  on  the  melancholy  scene  before  them,  and  zeal  and  flattery 
alike  gave  place  to  present  pity  and  admiration  of  the  expiring 
princess  (February  8,  1587). 

Thus  perished,  in  the  45th  year  of  her  age  and  19th  of  her  cap- 
tivity in  England,  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  a  woman  of  great  accom- 
plishments both  of  body  and  mind,  natural  as  well  as  acquired,  but 
unfortunate  in  her  life,  and  during  one  period  very  unhappy  in  her 
conduct.  It  is  difficult  to  form  a  just  idea  of  her  character — to 
determine  how  much  of  what  was  condemnatory  is  to  be  ascribed 
to  human  frailty,  how  much  to  imperious  circumstances.  "We 
princes,"  remarked  queen  Elizabeth,  "are  set  as  It  were  upon 
stages,  in  the  sight  and  view  of  all  the  world ;  the  least  spot  is  soon 
spied  in  our  garments,  the  soiallest  blemish  presently  observed  in 
us  at  a  great  distance."  As  men  fix  their  exclusive  attention  or 
not  on  such  blemishes  they  are  apt  to  determine  their  judgment. 
The  estimate  of  Mary*s  character  by  the  contemporary  historian 
Camden  is,  on  the  whole,  both  considerate  and  candid.  "  She  was  a 
lady,"  he  says,  "  fixed  and  constant  in  her  religion  A  singular  piety 
towards  Gk)d,  invincible  magnanimity  of  mind,  wisdom  above  her 
sex,  and  admirable  beauty.  By  Murray,  her  base  brother,  and  others 
of  her  ungrateful  and  ambitious  subjects,  she  was  much  tossed  aol 


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824  ELIZABETH.  Chap,  zno 

diaqaieted,  deposed  from  her  throne,  and  driveii  into  England.  By 
some  Englishmen  who  were  careful  for  preseriing  their  religion  and 
providing  for  the  queen's  safety,  she  was,  as  indifferent  (impartial) 
censurers  have  thought,  circumveDted ;  and  by  others  that  were 
desirous  to  restore  the  Romish  relig^ion,  thrust  forward  to  dangerouf 
^indertakings,  and  overborne  by  the  testimonies  of  ber  secretaries, 
who  seemed  to  have  been  bribed  and  corrupted  with  money.*' 

J  22.  When  the  queen  was  informed  of  Mary's  execution,  she 
expressed  the  utmost  >urprise  and  indignation.  She  shed  tears  and 
put  on  mourning.  She  protested  that  Davison  had  betrayed  het. 
When  her  sorrow  was  abated,  she  wrote  a  letter  of  apology  to  the 
king  of  Scots,  committed  Davison  to  prison,  and  ordered  him  to 
be  tried  in  the  Star-chamber.  He  was  condemned  to  imprisonment 
during  the  queen's  pleasure,  and  to  pay  a  fine  of  10,000^.  Here  ho 
remained  four  years,  and  was  never  restored  to  favour.  James 
discovered  the  highest  resentment,  and  refused  to  admit  Elizabe:h*f 
envoy  into  his  presence.  He  recalled  his  ambassadors  from  Eng- 
land, and  seemed  to  breathe  nothing  but  war  and  vengeance.  The 
states  of  Scotland,  befng  assembled,  took  part  in  h'ls  anger;  and 
professed  that  ihey  were  ready  to  spend  their  lives  and  fortunes  in 
revenge  of  his  mothcr^s  death,  and  in  defence  of  his  title  to  the 
crown  of  England.  But  the  judicious  representations  made  to  him 
by  Walsingham,  joined  to  the  peaceable,  unambitious  temper  of 
the  young  prince,  prevailed  over  his  resentment*,  and  he  feD 
gradually  into  a  good  correspondence  with  the  court  of  Englaod. 


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Dutch  medal  od  the  overthrow  of  the  Armada.    Obv. :  flavit  .  HOT  "  •  dmm'aW' 
svKT  .  168S :  the  Annada  advancing  in  order. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

KLIZABETH — CX)NTINUED.      FROM   THE   EXECUTION  OF  THE  QUEEN 
OF  SOOTS  TO   THE    DEATH   OF    ELIZABETH.       A.D.    1587-1603. 

S  1.  Preparations  of  Philip  for  an  invasion  of  England.  The  Invintiblc 
Armada.  §  2.  Defeat  of  the  Spanish  ArmaJa.  §  3.  Expedition  against 
Portugal.  §  4.  French  affairs.  Elizabeth  assists  Henry  IV^  Naval 
enterprises  against  Spain.  §  5.  Elizabeth's  proceedings  with  hor  parlia- 
ment. §  6.  Affairs  of  France.  Raleigh's  expedition  to  Guiana.  §  7. 
Expeditions  to  Cadiz  and  Ferroi.  The  earl  of  Essex.  Death  of  Burleigh, 
and  of  Philip  II.  §  8.  Affairs  of  Ireland.  Tyrone's  rebellion.  Essex 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland.  Disgrace  of  Essex.  §  9.  His  insurrection. 
His  trial  and  execution.  §  10.  Death  and  character  of  Elizabeth.  §  11. 
General  reflections  on  the  period  of  the  Tudors.  Power  of  the  crown 
under  that  dynasty.  §  12.  The  constitution  intact  in  theory.  Bene* 
volences.  Monopolies.  §  13.  Relations  of  the  crown  and  commons. 
14.  Administration  of  justice.  §15.  Consequences  of  the  Reformation. 
Court  of  High  Commission.     §  16.  General  state  of  the  Jiation. 

§  1.  While  Elizabeth  insured  tranquillity  from  the  atten)i)ts  of  her 
nearest  neighbour,  she  was  not  negligent  of  more  distant  dangers. 
Slie  knew  that  Philip,  eager  for  revenge  and  zealous  to  exterminate 
heresy,  had  formed,  with  the  sanction  and  co-operation  of  the  pope 
and  of  the  Guises  in  B*rance,  the  ambitious  project  of  subdiiing 
England,  and  was  secretly  preparing  a  great  navy  for  that  purpose. 
Accordingly  she  sent  sir  Francis  Drake  with  a  fleet,  soon  after 
Mary's  death  (April,  1587)i  to  pillage  the  Spanish  coast  and  destroy 


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826  SUZABETH.  Ohap.  xisl 


Bereiw  of  medAl  on  preoeding  page .  allidob  .  hoh  .  ljiooii  .  the  Church  on  a  rook 
in  the  mldat  of  a  stormy  aea. 

the  shipping.  He  had  already,  in  1585,  taken  St.  Domingo  and 
Carthagena,  and  ravaged  the  West  Indies,  inflicting  serious  damage, 
Drake  burned  more  than  100  ships  off  Cadiz,  and  destroyed  a  vast 
quantity  of  stores  which  had  been  collected  for  the  invasion  of 
England.  Meanwhile  Philip  continued  his  pre()arations  with  the 
greatest  energy ;  every  part  of  his  vast  empire  resounded  with  the 
noise  of  armaments ;  and  all  his  ministers,  generals,  and  admirals 
were  employed  in  forwarding  the  design.  Vessels  of  uncommon  size 
and  force  were  built ;  immense  armies  were  assembled ;  nor  were  any 
doubts  entertained  but  such  vast  prejmrations,  conducted  by  odicers 
of  consummate  skill,  must  finally  be  Ruccossfiil.  Ah*eady  the 
Spaniards,  ostentatious  of  their  [lower,  aT)d  elated  with  vain  hopes, 
had  denominated  their  navy  the  Invincible  Armada.  Elizabeth 
meantime  made  preparations  for  resistance ;  nor  was  she  dismayed 
with  that  power  by  which  all  Euro|)e  apprehended  she  must  of 
necessity  be  overwhelmed.  Her  force  indeed  seemed  very  unequal 
to  resist  so  potent  an  enemy.  All  the  sailors  in  England  amounted 
at  that  time  to  about  15,000  men.  The  size  of  the  English  shipping 
was  in  general  so  small,  that,  except  a  few  of  the  queen's  ships  of 
war,  there  were  not  four  vessels  belonging  to  the  merchants  which 
exceeded  400  tons.  The  queen's  navy  consisted  of  only  34  sail, 
many  of  which  were  of  small  size ;  none  of  them  exceeded  the 
bulk  of  our  modem  frigates,  and  most  of  them  deserved  rather  the 
name  of  pinnaces  than  of  ships.  The  only  advantage  of  the  English 
fleet  consisted  in  the  dexterity  and  courage  of  the  seamen,  and 
their  knowledge  of  the  seas.    All  the  commercial  towns  of  England 


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A.D.  1587-1588.  THE  ARMADA,  327 

were  required  to  furnish  ships  for  reinforcing  this  small  navy, 
which  amounted  at  most  to  140  sail.  To  show  their  zeal  in  the 
common  cause,  the  citizens  of  London,  instead  of  15  vessels  which 
they  were  commanded  to  equip,  voluntarily  fitted  out  double  that 
number.  The  gentry  and  nobility  hired,  armed,  and  manned  43 
ships  at  their  own  charge ;  and  all  the  loans  of  money  which  the 
queen  demanded  weie  frankly  granted.  L«>rd  Howard  of  Effingham, 
a  man  of  courage  and  capacity,  was  ndmiral-in-chief ;  Drake, 
Hawkins,  and  Frobisher,  the  most  renowned  seamen  in  Europe, 
served  under  him.  On  land  three  large  armies  were  assembled ;  but 
the  men  were  raised  in  haste,  and  such  levies  were  much  inferior  to 
the  Spaniards  in  disciijline  and  reputation.  The  queen  did  every- 
thing in  her  power  to  animate  her  soldiers  and  excite  the  martial 
spirit  of  the  nation.  On  one  occasion  she  appeared  on  horseback  in 
the  camp  that  was  formed  at  Tilbury ;  and,  riding  through  the  lines, 
discovered  a  cheerful  and  animated  countenance.  "I  am  come 
amongst  you,"  she  said,  "  not  for  my  lecrcation  and  sport,  but  re- 
solved, in  the  he^t  of  the  battle,  to  live  or  die  amongst  you ;  to  lay 
down  my  crown  and  my  blood,  even  in  the  dust,  for  my  Grod  and 
my  people.  I  know  that  I  have  but  the  body  of  a  weak  and  feeble 
woman,  but  I  have  the  heart  of  a  king,  and  of  a  king  of  England." 
§  2.  ITie  sailing  of  the  Spanish  Annada  was  delayetl  by  the  death 
of  the  admiral  and  vice-admiral ;  and  Philip  apj  ointed  the  duke  of 
Medina  Sidonia  to  the  c  »mmand,  a  nobleman  of  great  family,  but 
entirely  unacquainted  with  the  sea.  The  Armada  at  last  set  sail 
from  Lisbon  (June,  1588) ;  but,  being  dispersed  by  a  storm,  was 
obliged  to  put  into  the  Groyne  (Corunna)  to  refit.  When  this  was 
accomplished,  the  Spaniards  with  fresh  hopes  set  out  again  to  sea, 
in  prosecution  of  their  enterprise.  The  floet  consisted  of  130  vessels 
of  war.  Nearly  100  of  these  were  galleons,  of  greater  size  than  any 
ever  before  used  in  Europe.  It  was  manned  by  11,000  seamen  and 
galley  slaves,  carried  3000  pieces  of  cannon,  and  had  on  board  22,000 
troops  officered  by  the  best  families  in  Spain,  and  many  priests  and 
friars  to  lend  the  enthusiasm  and  sanction  of  relijnon  to  the  enter- 
prise. It  was  Philip's  intention  that  the  Armada  should  sail  to 
Dunkirk,  take  on  board  the  veteran  Spanish  troops  in  the  Nether- 
lands imder  the  command  of  the  duke  of  Parma,  and,  having  landed 
them,  make  sail  to  the  Thames  in  three  different  divisions.  But  these 
plans  wore  disarranged  by  the  storm  ;  and  in  consequence  the  duke 
of  Guise  withdrew  the  troops  he  had  collected  in  Normandy,  and 
Parma  relaxed  in  his  preparati«»ns.  A  report  was  spread  that  the 
design  was  almndoned;  bnt  on  the  19tb  of  July  the  Spaniards 
were  descriLitl  off  the  Lizard;  and  Effingham  had  just  lime  to  get 
out  of  Plymouth,  when  he  saw  the  Armada  coming  full  sail  towards 


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928  EUZABExa  Churoix, 

him,  disposed  in  the  fonn  of  a  crescent,  and  stretching  the  distance 
of  seven  miles  from  the  extremity  of  one  division  to  that  of  the 
other.  In  spite  of  contrary  winds,  he  continued  to  hang  on  their 
rear  as  they  drew  up  the  Channel.  But,  though  his  numbers  had 
been  augmented  by  perpetual  reinforcements  until  iiis  fleet  amounted 
to  140  sail,  he  did  not  deem  it  prudent  to  come  to  close  quarters 
with  the  Spaniards,  the  size  and  number  of  whose  vessels,  and  their 
large  body  of  soldiers,  would  be  a  disadvantage  to  the  English.  He 
resolveil,  therefore,  to  wait  the  o[>portunity  which  winds,  currents, 
or  various  accidents  might  afford  him  of  intercepting  any  scattered 
vessels  of  the  enemy.  Nor  was  it  long  before  the  event  answered 
expt  ctation.  A  great  ship  of  Biscay,  on  board  of  which  was  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  Spanish  money,  was  blown  up  or  took  fire  by 
accident ;  and  while  all  hands  were  employed  in  extinguishing  the 
flames,  she  fell  behind  the  rest  of  the  Armada.  The  great  galleon 
of  Andalusia  was  detained  by  ihe  springing  of  her  mast ;  and  both 
these  vessels  were  taken,  after  some  resistance,  by  sir  Francis  Drake. 
As  the  Armada  advance  1  up  the  Channel,  the  English  hung  upon 
its  rear,  and  still  infest  d  it  with  skirmishes ;  whilst,  the  alarm 
having  now  reached  the  coast  of  England,  the  nobility  and  gentry 
hastened  out  with  their  vessels  from  every  harbour,  and  reinforced 
the  admiral  The  Armada  cast  anchor  before  Calais,  in  expectation 
that  the  duke  of  Parma,  who  had  received  intelligence  of  their 
approach,  would  put  to  sea  and  join  their  forces  (July  27).  The 
English  admiral  practised  here  a  successful  stratagem.  On  the 
ni^ht  of  July  28  he  converted  eight  of  his  more  worthless  vessels 
into  fire-ships,  and  let  them  drive  in  the  direction  of  the  enemy. 
Before  they  had  suffered  any  injury  the  Spaniards  were  seized  with 
consternation;  they  immediately  cut  their  cables,  and  took  to 
flight  with  the  greatest  disorder  and  precipitation.  The  English 
fell  upon  them  next  morning  while  in  confusion;  and,  besides 
doing  great  damage  to  other  ships,  they  took  or  destroyed  about 
12  of  the  enemy  (July  29). 

The  great  body  of  them  steered  for  Gravelines  and  Dunkirk,  but 
the  duke  of  Parma  positively  refused  to  leave  the  harbour;  and  the 
Spanish  admiral,  finding  that  in  many  rencounters,  while  he  lost  so 
considerable  a  part  of  his  own  navy,  he  had  destroyed  only  one 
small  vessel  of  the  English,  prepared  to  return  homewards.  As  the 
wind  was  contrary  to  his  passage  through  the  Channel,  he  resolved 
to  tail  northwards,  and,  making  the  tour  of  the  island,  reach  the 
Spanish  harbours  by  the  ocean.  The  English  fleet  followed  him  as 
far  as  the  Orkneys ;  and  had  not  their  ammunition  fallen  short,  by 
the  negligence  of  the  oflficers  in  supplying  them,  they  had  obliged 
the  whole  Armada  to  surrender  at  discretion,    A  violent  tempeet 


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AJ).  1588-1589.       EXPEDITION  INTO  PORTUGAL.  829 

overtook  the  Armada  after  it  passed  the  Orkneys,  and  numy  of  the 
ships  were  miserably  wrecked.  Not  half  of  the  navy  returned  to 
Spain ;  the  seamen  as  well  as  soldiers  who  remained  were  so  overcome 
with  hardships  and  fatigue,  so  dispirited  by  their  discomfiture,  that 
they  filled  all  Spain  with  accounts  of  the  desperate  valour  of  the 
English,  and  of  the  tempestuous  violence  of  that  ocean  which  sur- 
rounds them.  Such  was  the  miserable  and  dishonourable  oonolu- 
sion  of  an  enterprise  which  had  been  preparing  for  three  years,  had 
exhausted  the  revenue  and  force  of  Spain,  and  had  long  filled  all 
Europe  with  anxiety  or  expectation.  Great  rejoicingis  followed  ia 
England.  Elizabeth  attended  a  solemn  thanksgiving  at  St.  Paul's, 
Spanish  banners  waved  from  the  churches,  and  the  pulpits  of  thtf 
land  rung  with  praises /or  this  great  national  deliverance.  The 
two  medals  struck  on  the  occasion,  of  which  fac-s:  miles  are  exhibited 
in  these  pages,  expre^ssed  in  modest  and  appropriate  language 
Elizabeth's  sense  of  ms  glorious  achievement,  the  greatest  va^ 
doubtedly  in  the  annals  of  England,  and  rightly  attributed  the  main 
success  of  it  to  the  elements  that  fought  against  the  Spaniards* 
Something  also  was  due  to  the  more  rapid  movements  of  the  Eng** 
lish  ships,  which  were  more  wisely  handled,  and  took  up  their  posi- 
tion without  gunshot  range  of  the  huge  floating  batteries;  something 
also  to  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards,  of  the  shoals  and 
sand-banks  in  the  Channel.  If  there  ever  was  a  greater  victory, 
never  was  one  celebrated  with  less  indeceot  exultation,  and  less 
boastfulness. 

§  3.  Till  now  Spanish  troops  and  the  Spanish  navy  had  with 
reason  been  considered  the  most  formidable  and  irresistible  in  the 
world ;  and  both  now,  to  the  astonishment  of  the  world,  had  been 
discomfited  by  the  single  strength  of  England,  in  wealth,  territory, 
military  power  and  resources  immeasurably  inferior  to  its  formid- 
able antagonist.  The  spirit  of  the  nation  was  excited  in  proportion. 
It  was  seized  with  a  passionate  enthusiasm  for  enterprises  against 
Spain ;  and  a  design  was  formed  in  the  following  year  (1589)  to 
conquer  the  kingdom  of  Portugal  for  Don  Antonio,  an  illegitimate 
scion  of  the  royal  family  of  that  country.  Sir  Francis  Drake  and 
sir  John  Noms  were  the  leaders  in  this  romantic  enterprise,  which 
was  afterwards  joined  by  the  earl  of  Essex ;  but  the  queen  only 
allowed  six  of  her  ships  of  war  to  at f  end  t  he  expedition.  The  Engli^ 
gained  several  advantages  over  the  Spaniards,  took  and  burned  Vigo, 
and  even  got  possession  ot*  the  suburbs  of  Lisbon ;  but,  their  am- 
munition and  provisions  being  exhausted,  and  the  army  wasted  by 
fiitigue  and  intemperance,  it  was  found  necessary  to  make  all  possible 
haste  to  return.  It  is  computed  that  1100  gentlemen  embarked  on 
board  the  fleet,  and  that  only  350  survived  the  multiplied  disasters 


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330  ELIZABETH.  Chap.  xix. 

(0  which  thoy  had  been  exposed  through  fatigue,  famine,  sickness, 
and  the  swoid. 

§  4.  Meanwhile  a  revolution  was  in  progress  in  France,  which 
finally  engaged  Elizabeth  to  take  a  part  in  the  afiairs  of  that  coun- 
try. Henry  IIL,  to  disembarrass  himself  of  the  tyranny  of  the 
league,  had  caused  its  leaders,  the  duke  of  Guise  and  his  brother  the 
cardinal,  to  be  assassinated  (December,  1588) ;  and,  having  entered 
into  a  confederacy  with  the  Huguenots  and  the  king  of  J^^avarre, 
was  himself  murdered  by  Jaques  Clement,  a  Dominican  friar 
(August  2,  1589).  The  king  of  Navarre,  next  heir  to  the  crown, 
assumed  the  government  by  the  title  of  Henry  lY. ;  but  the  league, 
governed  by  the  duke  of  Mayenne,  brother  to  Guise,  gathered  new 
force,  aud  the  king  of  Spain  entertained  views  either  of  dismember- 
ing the  French  monarchy  or  of  annexing  the  whole  to  his  own 
dominions.  In  his  necessity  Henry  addressed  himself  to  Elizabeth, 
who  made  him  a  present  of  22,0002.,  and  sent  him  a  reinforcement 
of  4000  men  under  lord  Willougtiby.  In  1591  she  sent  over,  at 
two  different  times,  a  large  body  of  men  to  the  assistance  of  Henry, 
with  the  view  of  expelling  the  leaguers  from  Normandy.  Robert,  earl 
of  Essex,  was  appointed  general  of  these  forces — a  young  nobleman 
who,  by  his  many  accomplishments,  his  birth,  youth,  and  daring, 
was  daily  advancing  in  favour  with  Elizabeth,  and  seemed  to  occupy 
that  place  in  her  affections  which  Leicester,  now  deceased,  had  so 
long  enjoyed  (September  4,  1588).  During  these  operations  in 
France,  Elizabeth  employed  her  naval  power  against  Philip,  and 
endeavoured  to  intercept  his  West  Indian  treasures,  the  source  oi 
that  greatness  which  rendered  him  formidable  to  all  his  neighbours. 
This  war  did  great  damage  to  Spain,  but  it  was  attended  with  con* 
siderable  expense  to  England. 

i  6.  Elizabeth  therefore  summoned  a  parliament  in  order  to  obtaii* 
a  supply  of  money  (1593).  An  extraordinary  grant  was  made 
of  three  subsidies,  six  fifteenths  and  tenths,  greatly  to  the  dislike 
of  sir  Edward  Coke,  chosen  speaker  on  this  occasion,  who  observes 
that  in  former  times  the  commons  never  gave  more  than  one  sub- 
sidy,  usually  amounting  to  70,000Z.,  and  two  fifteenths,  each 
amounting  to  30,000/.  The  clerical  subsidy  was  computed  at 
20,0002.  On  this  occasion  sir  Francis  Bacon  and  sir  Robert  Cedl 
took  very  prominent  and  opposite  parts. 

But  for  all  this  the  queen  betrayed  no  inclination  of  relaxing  her 
authority.  During  the  session  she  sent  Peter  Wentworth  to  the 
Tower  for  petitioning  the  lords  to  join  with  the  commons  in  sup- 
plicating her  to  settle  the  succession.  Sir  Henry  Bromley,  who 
had  attendetl  with  him,  was  committed  to  the  Fleet,  together  with 
Stevens  and  Welsh,  two  members  who  had  been  concerned  in  draw- 


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A.D.  168&-1694.  FRENCH  AFFAIRS.  331 

ing  the  petitioiL  Morrice,  chancellor  of  the  duchy,  and  attorney 
of  the  court  of  wards,  having  made  a  motion  for  redressing  the 
abuses  in  the  bishops'  courts,  but,  above  all,  of  the  High  Commis- 
sion, was  committed  to  the  custody  of  sir  John  Fortescue,  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer,  discharged  from  his  office,  incapacitated  from 
any  practice  in  his  profession  as  a  common  lawyer,  and  kept  some 
years  prisoner  in  Tutbury  castle.  The  queen  expressly  forbad 
the  commons  to  exhibit  any  "  bills  touching  matters  of  state  or 
reformation  in  causes  ecclesiastical.''  In  this  session  an  act  was 
passed  against  the  puritans,  who  had  given  great  offence  to  the 
queen  in  a  scandalous  controversy  called  the  Martin  Mar-Prelate 
tracts,  in  which  they  had  attacked  the  bishops  with  great  virulence, 
and  had  not  scrupled  to  rail  against  the  rule  of  a  woman.  It  for- 
bad any  meetings  or  conventicles,  under  pretence  of  religion,  on 
pain  of  imprisonment  and  abjuration  of  the  realm  in  the  event 
of  continued  nonconformity.  With  even-handed  justice,  an  equal 
measure  of  severity  was  dealt  out  to  popish  recusants.  They  were 
to  confine  themselves  within  five  miles  of  their  homes,  to  pay  a 
monthly  fine  of  20^.  for  non-attendance  at  church,  or  abjure  the 
realm. 

§  6.  Meanwhile  Henry  IV.,  moved  by  the  necessity  of  his  affairs, 
had  resolved  to  renounce  the  protcstant  religion,  and  was  solemnly 
received  by  the  French  prelates  of  his  party  into  the  bosom  of  the 
church  (July  25,  1593).  Elizabeth  was  extremely  displeased  with 
this  abjuration  of  Henry;  and  she  wrote  him  an  angry  letter. 
Sensible,  however,  that  the  league  and  the  king  of  Spain  were  still 
their  common  enemies,  she  hearkened  to  his  apologies,  continued  her 
succours  both  of  men  and  money,  and  formed  a  new  treaty,  in  which 
they  mutually  stipulated  never  to  make  peace  but  by  common  agree- 
ment. She  assisted  Henry  in  finally  breaking  the  force  of  the  league, 
which,  after  the  conversion  of  that  monarch,  went  daily  to  decay, 
and  was  threatened  with  speedy  ruin  and  dissolution.  The  English 
forces  rendered  Henry  considerable  assistance  till  he  made  peace  with 
Spain  in  1598. 

Among  the  designs  against  the  life  of  Elizabeth  at  this  time 
(1594),  the  most  notorious  was  the  attempt  of  her  physician,  Roger 
Lopez,  a  Portuguese  Jew,  who  had  been  captured  in  one  of  the  ships 
of  the  Armada.  As  early  as  1590  he  had  entered  into  a  secret 
correspondence  with  the  Spanish  minister  to  poison  the  queen  for 
60,000  crowns.  Whether  he  really  intended  to  execute  this  in- 
famous design,  or,  like  many  others  engaged  in  similar  enterprises, 
had  no  other  object  than  that  of  extorting  money,  is  uncertain. 
He  and  his  associates  were  executed  with  no  little  barbarity  at 
Tybmrn,  and  their  quarters  set  on  the  gates  of  the  city  (June  7), 


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3S2  ELIZABETH.  Chap,  zix 

But  these  attempts  only  seired  to  redouble  the  seyerity  and  the 
vigilance  of  the  government  against  the  catholics.  Lop  z's  attempt 
was  followed  by  that  of  Squyer  in  1598. 

This  was  the  age  of  naval  enterprises,  and  several  were  undertaken 
about  this  time  by  sir  John  Hawkins  and  his  son  Richard  Hawkins, 
sir  Francis  Drake,  and  others.  In  1596  sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who 
had  been  disgraced  for  an  intrigue  with  a  maid  of  honour,  no 
sooner  recovered  his  liberty  than  he  was  pushed  by  his  active  and 
enterprising  genius  to  attempt  some  great  action  It  w.is  imagined 
that  in  the  inland  parts  of  South  America,  called  Guiana,  a  country 
as  yet  undiscovered,  there  werj  mines  and  treasures  far  exceeding 
any  which  Gortez  or  Pizarro  had  met  with.  Raleigh,  whose  turn  of 
mind  was  somewhat  romantic  and  extravagant,  undertook,  at  his 
own  charge,  the  discovery  of  this  wonderful  country.  Having  taken 
the  small  town  of  St.  Joseph,  in  the  isle  of  Trinidad,  where  he  found 
no  riches,  he  left  his  ship  and  sailed  up  the  river  Orinoco,  but 
without  meeting  anything  to  answer  his  expectations. 

§  7.  In  1596  the  English  attempted  the  Spanish  dominions  in 
Europe,  where  they  heard  Philip  was  making  great  preparations  for 
a  new  invasion  of  England.  A  powerful  fleet  was  equipped  at 
Plymouth,  in  which  near  7000  soldiers  were  embarked.  The  land 
forces  were  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Kssex ;  the  navy  by  Howard, 
lord  Effingham,  high  admiral.  The  fleet  set  sail  on  the  1st  of 
June,  and  bent  its  (^urse  to  Cadiz,  which  was  taken  and  plundered, 
chiefly  through  the  impetuous  valour  of  Essex.  The  admiral  was 
afterwards  created  earl  of  Nottingham,  and  his  promotion  gave 
great  disgust  to  Ess  x.  In  the  preamble  of  the  patent  it  was  said 
that  the  new  dignity  was  conferred  on  him  on  account  of  his  good 
services  in  taking  Cadiz,  a  merit  which  Essex  claimed  solely  for 
himself.  Next  year  the  queen,  having  received  intelligence  that  the 
Spaniards  were  preparing  a  squadron  in  order  to  make  a  descent 
upon  Ireland,  equipped  a  large  fleet,  in  which  she  embarked  about 
6000  troops,  and  appointed  the  earl  of  Essex  commander-in-chief 
both  of  the  land  and  sea  forces.  The  design  was  to  attack  Ferrol  and 
the  Groyne,  where  the  Spanish  expedition  was  preparing ;  but  the 
English  fleet  having  been  dispersed  and  shattered  by  a  storm, 
Essex  confined  his  enterprise  to  an  ill-advised  attempt  of  inter- 
cepting the  Indian  fleet;  but  the  Spaniards  contrived  to  reach 
Terceira.  Three  of  their  ships  only  were  taken,  but  these  were 
rich  enough  to  repay  the  charges  of  the  expedition. 

The  earl  of  Essex  continued  to  increase  daily  in  the  queen's  favour, 
but  his  lofty  spirit  could  ill  submit  to  that  deference  which  she 
required,  and  had  ever  been  accustomed  to  receive  from  her  subjects. 
On  one  occasion,  when  he  was  engaged  in  a  dispute  with  her  about 


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4J».  159lh-15^       REBELLION  IN  IRELAND.  333 

the  choice  of  a  governor  for  Ireland,  he  was  so  heated  in  the  argu- 
ment that  he  entirely  forgot  the  rules  hoth  of  duty  and  civility,  and 
turned  his  hack  upon  her  in  a  contemptuous  manner.  Her  anger 
was  roused  at  this  provocation ;  and  she  instantly  gave  him  a  box 
on  the  ear,  adding  a  passionate  expression  suited  to  his  impertinence. 
Instead  of  recollecting  himself,  and  making  the  submissions  due  to 
her  sex  and  station,  he  clapped  his  hand  to  his  sword,  and  swore 
that  he  would  not  b<ar  such  usage  were  it  from  Henry  VIII.  him- 
self; and  he  immediately  withdrew  from  court.  Yet  the  queen'c 
partiality  reinstated  him  in  his  'brmer  favour,  and  her  kindness  to 
him  appeared  rather  to  have  acquired  new  force  from  this  short 
inter^*al  of  anger  and  resentment.  The  death  of  lord  Burleigh,  in 
I  "98,  seemed  to  insure  Essex  em  ire  possession  of  the  queen's  con- 
fidence ;  and  nothing  indeed  could  have  shaken  it  except  his  own 
indiscretion.  Soon  after  the  deatli  of  Burleigh,  the  queen,  who 
regretted  extremely  the  loss  of  so  wise  and  faithful  a  minister,  was 
informed  of  the  death  of  her  capital  enemy,  Philip  II.,  who,  after 
languishing  under  many  infirmities,  expired  at  an  advanced  age  in 
Madrid  (September  13,  1598). 

§  8.  The  affairs  of  Ireland  now  challenged  the  queen's  attention. 
Though  the  dominion  of  the  English  over  that  country  had  been 
established  above  four  centuries,  their  authority  often  had  been 
little  more  than  nominal.  A  body  of  1000  men  was  supported 
there,  which  on  extraordinary  emergencies  was  augmented  to  2000. 
No  wonder  that  such  a  force  was  unable  to  control  the  half-civilized 
Irish,  and  that  their  ancient  animosity  against  the  tyranny  of  the 
English,  now  further  inflamed  by  religious  antipathy,  should  hav^ 
broken  out  into  dangerous  rebellions.  Hugh  0*Neale,  nephew  to 
Shan  (VNeale,  or  the  Great  O'Neale,  had  been  raised  by  the  queen  to 
the  dignity  of  earl  of  Tyrone ;  but  having  murdered  his  cousin,  son 
of  that  rebel,  and  being  acknowledged  head  of  his  clan,  he  preferred 
the  pride  of  barbarous  licence  and  dominion  to  the  pleasures  of 
opulence  and  tranquillity,  and  he  fomented  all  those  disorde:s  by 
which  he  hoped  to  weaken  or  overturn  the  English  government. 
He  entered  into  a  correspondence  with  Spain ;  he  procured  thence 
a  supply  of  arms  and  ammunition ;  and,  having  united  the  Irish 
chieftains  in  a  dependence  upon  himself,  he  began  to  be  regarded 
as  a  formidable  enemy.  Tyrone  defied  and  eluded  for  some  years 
the  arms  of  sir  John  Norris,  the  English  commander.  He  defeated 
sir  Henry  Bagnal,  sir  John's  successor,  in  a  pitched  battle  at  Black- 
water,  where  1500  men,  together  with  the  general  himself,  were 
left  dead  upon  the  sjwt  (August  14, 1598).  This  victory,  so  unusual 
to  the  Irish,  roused  their  courage,  supplied  them  with  arms  and 
ammunition,  and  raised  the  reputation  of  Tyrone,  who  assumed  the 
16* 


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834  ELIZABETH.  Chap,  xcl 

character  of  the  deliverer  of  his  country  and  patron  of  Irish  liherty. 
The  English  council,  sensible  that  the  rebellion  of  Ireland  was  now 
come  to  a  dangerous  head,  resolved  to  push  the  war  by  more 
vigorous  measures.  Essex  was  appointed  governor  of  Ireland  by 
the  title  of  lord-lieutenant,  and  was  sent  over  with  an  army  of 
16,000  men.  He  landed  at  Dalkey,  near  Dublin,  April  15,  1699 ; 
but  instead  of  bringing  the  war  to  an  end,  as  had  been  expected,  he 
found  himself  at  the  end  of  the  campaign  unable  to  effect  anything 
against  the  enemy.  By  tedious  marches,  by  sickness  and  other 
causes,  his  numbers  were  reduce<l  to  6000  men.  Essex  hearkened 
therefore  to  a  message  sent  him  by  Tyrone,  who  desired  a  couference; 
and  a  cessation  of  arms  was  agreed  upon.  He  received  from 
Tyrone  proposals  for  a  peace,  in  which  that  rebel  had  inserted 
many  unreasonable  and  exorbitant  conditions.  With  these  he 
suddenly  left  Ireland  (September  24),  though  the  queen  had 
expressly  charged  him  to  remain,  and  presented  himself  abruptly 
before  her  at  Nonsuch,  four  days  after. 

Besmeared  with  dirt  and  sweat,  he  hastened  upstairs  to  the 
presence  chamber,  thence  to  the  privy  chamber,  nor  stopped  till  he 
was  in  the  queen*s  bed-chamber.  Elizabeth  was  newly  risen,  and 
was  sittin<:i;  with  her  hair  about  her  face.  He  threw  himself  on  his 
kneeSf  kissed  her  hand,  and  was  so  graciously  received  that  on  his 
departure  he  was  heard  to  express  great  satisfaction,  and  to  thank 
Qod  that,  though  he  had  sufiered  much  trouble  and  many  storms 
abroad,  he  found  a  sweet  calm  at  home.  But  this  placability  of 
Elizabeth  was  merely  the  result  of  her  surprise,  and  of  the 
momentary  satisfaction  which  she  felt  on  his  sudden  and  unex- 
pected appearance.  When  Essex  waited  on  her  in  the  afternoon, 
he  found  her  extremely  altered.  She  ordercl  him  to  be  confined  to 
his  chamber  (September  28) ;  to  be  twice  examined  by  the  council ; 
and,  though  his  answers  were  calm  and  submissive,  she  committed 
him  to  the  custody  of  lord  keeper  Egerton,  and  held  him  sequestered 
from  all  company,  even  from  that  of  his  countess  (October  2).  The 
vexation  of  this  disap|X)intment,  and  of  the  triumph  gained  by  his 
enemies,  preyed  upon  his  haughty  spirit ;  and  he  fell  into  a  distemper 
which  seemed  to  put  his  life  in  danger.  But,  though  Elizabeth 
showed  her  solicitude  for  his  health,  she  resolutely  refused  to  admit 
Essex  to  her  presence.  Several  incidents  kopt  alive  the  queen's 
anger.  Every  account  which  she  received  from  Ireland  convinced 
her  more  and  more  of  hi**  misconduct  in  that  government,  and  of 
the  insignificant  purposes  to  which  he  had  employed  so  much  force 
and  treasure.  Her  displeasure  against  him  was  augmented  by  his 
supposed  popularity  ;  and  still  more  by  the  fact  that  several  of  the 
Loiodou  clergy,  inclined  to  puritanism^  had  openly  prayed  for 


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A.l>.  1599-160L  DISGRACE  OF  ESSEX.  335 

him  in  their  pulpits.  She  expressed  her  determination  to  have  the 
earl  tried  for  his  offences  in  the  Star-chamber ;  but,  relenting  from 
her  severity,  she  was  contented  to  have  him  only  examined  by  the 
privy  counoiL  Essex  pleaded  in  his  defence  with  great  humility,  but 
vas  condemned  to  remain  a  prisoner  in  his  own  house  till  it  should 
please  her  majesty  to  restore  him.  Bacon,  so  much  distinguished 
afterwards  by  his  high  offices,  and  still  more  by  his  profound  genius, 
pleaded  against  him  before  the  council ;  although  Essex,  who  could 
distinguish  merit,  and  who  passionately  loved  it,  had  entered  into 
an  iutimate  friendship  with  Bacon;  had  zealously  attempted, 
though  without  success,  to  procure  him  the  office  of  solicitor- 
general  ;  aud,  in  order  to  comfort  his  firiend  under  the  disappoint- 
ment, had  conferred  on  him  an  estate  to  the  value  of  1800^. 

§  9.  All  the  world  expected  that  Essex  would  soon  be  reinstated 
in  his  former  credit,  when  they  saw  that,  though  he  was  still  pro- 
hibited from  appearing  at  court,  he  was  continued  in  his  office  of 
master  of  horse,  and  was  restored  to  his  liberty.  But  Elizabeth, 
though  gracious  in  her  deportment,  refused  his  repeated  requests 
to  be  admitted  into  her  presence.  He  poesesseii  a  monopoly  of  sweet 
wines ;  and,  as  bis  patent  was  near  expiring,  he  patiently  expected 
that  the  queen  would  renew  it.  She  denied  his  request,  not  out  of 
severity  to  Essex,  but  for  other  reasons.  Being  now  reduced  to 
despair,  he  gave  entire  reins  to  his  violent  disposition.  Intoxicated 
with  the  public  &vour,  which  he  already  possessed,  he  practised 
anew  every  art  of  popularity.  He  secretly  courted  the  confidence  of 
the  catholics ;  but  his  chief  trust  lay  in  the  puritans,  whom  he 
o()enly  caressed,  and  whose  manners  he  seemed  to  have  entirely 
adopted.  He  engaged  the  most  celebrated  preachers  of  that  sect  to 
resort  to  Essex  house,  he  had  daily  prayers  and  sermons  in  his 
family,  and  he  invited  all  the  zealots  in  London  to  attend  those 
pious  exercises.  He  also  indulged  himself  in  great  liberties  of 
speech,  and  was  even  heard  to  say  of  the  queen  that  she  was  now 
grown  an  old  woman,  and  was  become  as  crooked  in  mind  as  in 
body.  He  even  made  secret  applications  to  the  king  of  Scots,  and 
assured  him  that  he  was  determined  to  use  every  expedient  for 
extorting  an  immediate  declaration  in  favour  of  his  succession. 

Essex  now  resorted  to  more  desperate  counsels.  A  select  council 
of  malcontents  was  formed,  by  whom  it  was  agreed  that  Essex 
should  seize  the  palace,  oblige  the  queen  to  assemble  a  parliament, 
and  with  common  consent  settle  a  new  plan  of  government.  While 
these  projects  were  in  agitation,  Essex  received  a  summons  to  attend 
the  council,  which  met  at  the  treasurer's  house  (1601).  While  he 
was  musiug  on  this  circumstance  a  private  note  was  conveyed  to  him, 
Dy  which  he  wns  warned  to  provide  for  his  own  safety.    He  con- 


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8S6  ELIZABETH.  Ohap.  jxl 

duded  dnt  the  conspiracy  was  discoyered,  or  at  least  suspected; 
and  he  immediately  despatched  messages  to  his  more  intimate 
confederates,  requesting  their  advice  and  assistance  in  the  present 
critical  situation  of  his  afiairs.  Flight  was  proposed,  but  rejected ; 
to  seize  the  palace  seemed  impracticable,  without  more  preparations ; 
there  remained  therefore  uo  expedient  but  that  of  rai.'^ing  the  city, 
which  was  immediately  resolved  on ;  but  the  execution  of  it  was 
delayed  till  next  day ;  and  emissaries  were  despatched  to  all  Essex's 
friends,  informing  them  that  Cobham  and  Raleigh  had  laid  schemes 
against  his  life,  and  entreating  their  prcs<;nce  and  assistance. 

Next  day  (February  8,  1601)  being  Sunday,  there  appeared  at 
Essex  house  the  earls  of  Southampton  and  Rutland,  the  lords 
Sandys  and  Monteagle,  with  about  300  gentlemen  of  good  quality 
and  fortune ;  and  Essex  informed  them  of  the  danger  to  which  he 
pretended  the  machinations  of  his  enemies  exposed  him.  The 
queen,  being  informed  of  their  concourse,  sent  some  of  the  <!hief 
officers  of  state  to  Essex  house  to  learn  the  cause  of  these  unusual 
commotions.  Essex  detained  them,  and  proceeded  to  the  execution 
of  his  former  project.  He  sallied  forth  with  about  200  attendants, 
armed  with  swords ;  and  in  his  passage  to  the  city  was  joined  by 
the  earl  of  Bedford  and  lord  Cromwell.  He  cried  aloud,  "  For  the 
queen  1  for  the  queen  !  a  plot  is  laid  for  my  life  1 "  and  then  pro- 
ceeded to  the  house  of  Smith,  the  sheriff,  on  whose  aid  lie  had  great 
reliance.  The  citizens  flocked  about  him  in  amazement,  but  no  one 
showed  a  disposition  to  join  him.  The  sherifif,  on  the  earl's  approach 
to  his  hoase,  stole  out  at  the  back  door,  and  made  the  best  of  his 
way  to  the  lord  mayi*r.  Essex  meanwhile,  observing  the  coldness 
of  the  citizens,  after  in  vain  attempting  to  force  his  way  through 
the  streets,  retired  towards  the  river,  and,  taking  boat,  arrived  at 
Essex  house.  He  was  now  reduced  to  despair,  and  surrendered  in 
the  evening  to  the  earl  of  Nottingham. 

The  queen  soon  gave  orders  for  the  trial  of  the  most  considerable 
of  the  conspirators,  and  on  the  19  th  of  February  the  carls  of  Essex 
and  Southampton  w<  re  arraigned  before  a  jury  of  25  peers,  and  were 
found  guilty  (February  19).  Bacon,  though  he  was  not  one  of  the 
special  law  officers  of  the  crown,  did  not  scruple  to  employ  his  talents, 
as  counsel,  against  the  earl,  rather  than  sacrifice  the  queen's  favour. 
After  Essex  had  pa83e<i  some  days  in  the  solitude  and  reflections 
p{  a  prison,  his  proud  heart  was  at  last  subdued,  not  by  the  fear  of 
death,  but  by  the  sentiments  of  religion.  He  made  a  full  con- 
fession of  his  disloyalty,  not  sparing  his  most  intimate  friends. 

If  Elizabeth  had  expected  any  application  for  mercy,  Essex  made 
none ;  and  she  gave  her  consent  to  his  execution.  At  his  death,  he 
discovered  symptoms  rather  of  penitence  and  piety  than  of  fear, 


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AJK  1601-1606.  HER  DEATH.  387 

and  willingly  acknowledged  the  justice  of  his  sentence.  The  exeea 
tion  was  private,  in  the  Tower,  agreeably  to  hid  own  request 
(February  25).  At  his  death  he  was  34  years  of  age.  Some  of 
his  associates  were  trieil,  condemnevl,  and  executed.  Southamp- 
ton's life  was  saved  with  great  difiSculty,  but  he  was  detained  in 
prison  during  the  life  of  Elizabeth. 

§  10.  The  remaining  transactions  of  this  reign  are  neither  nume- 
rous nor  important.  The  war  was  continued  against  the  Spaniards 
with  success ;  and  in  1603  Tyrone  appeared  before  Mountjoy,  and 
made  an  absnlu'e  surrender  of  his  life  and  fortunes  to  the  queen*8 
mercy.  But  Elizabeth  was  now  incapable  of  receiving  any  t^atis- 
&ction  from  this  fortunate  event.  She  had  fallen  into  a  profound 
melancholy,  which  all  the  advantages  of  her  high  fortune,  all  the 
glories  of  her  prosperous  reign,  were  unable  to  alleviate  or 
assuage.  Her  dejection  has  been  ascribed  to  various  causes,  and 
particularly  to  compunction  for  the  fate  of  Essex ;  but  it  was  pro- 
bably the  natural  result  of  disease  and  old  age.  Worn  out  by  the 
cares  of  state,  her  mind  had  pi  eyed  so  long  on  her  frail  body  that  her 
end  was  visibly  approaching ;  and  the  council,  being  assembled,  sent 
the  keeper,  admiral,  and  secretary,  t)  know  her  will  with  regard  to 
her  successor.  She  answered,  with  a  &in t  voice,  t  hat,  as  she  had  held 
a  regal  sceptre,  she  desired  no  other  than  a  royal  successor.  Cecil 
requesting  her  to  explain  herself  moro  particularly,  she  subjoined 
that  she  would  have  a  king  to  succeed  her ;  and  wh  >  should  that 
be  but  her  nearest  kinsman,  the  kingot  Scots  ?  Being  then  advised 
by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  fix  her  thoughts  upon  God,  she 
replied  that  she  did  so,  nor  did  her  mind  in  the  least  wander  from 
Him.  Her  voice  soon  after  left  her ;  her  senses  failed ;  she  fell  into 
a  lethargic  slumber,  which  continued  some  hours ;  and  she  expired 
gently,  without  further  struggle  or  convulsion,  in  the  70th  year  of 
her  age  and  45th  of  her  reign  (March  24, 1603). 

There  are  few  great  personages  in  history  who  have  been  more 
exposed  to  the  calumny  of  enemies  and  the  adulation  of  friends  than 
queen  Elizabeth,  and  yet  there  is  sc  arcely  any  whose  reputation  has 
been  more  certainly  determined  by  the  almost  unnnimous  consent 
of  posterity.  Her  vigour,  her  constancy,  her  n)agnanimity,  her 
penetration,  vigilance,  address,  arc  allowed  the  higliest  praises,  and 
appear  not  to  have  been  surpassed  by  any  person  that  ever  filled  a 
throne ;  a  conduct  less  rigorous,  less  imperious,  and  more  indulgent 
to  her  people,  would  have  been  requisite  to  form  a  per'^ect  character. 
By  the  force  of  her  mind  she  controlled  all  her  more  active  and 
stronger  qualities,  and  prevented  them  from  running  into  excess; 
her  heroism  was  exempt  from  temerity,  her  frugality  from  avarice, 
her  active  temper  from  turbuleacy  and  vain  ambition ;  she  guarded 


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338  ELIZABETH.  Chap.  xn. 

not  herself  with  equal  care  or  equal  success  from  lesser  iBfinnitieB ; 
the  rivalship  of  beauty,  the  desire  of  admiration^  the  jealousy  of 
love,  and  the  sallies  of  anger. 

§  11.  The  many  arbitrary  acts  of  power  exercised  by  the  Tudor 
princes  have,  by  some  historians,  been  ascribed  to  an  actual  increase 
of  the  prerogative,  nor  can  it  be  justly  doubted  that  the  crown 
gained  an  accesnion  of  strength  under  that  d}^ nasty.  To  be  per- 
suaded of  this,  we  need  only  advert  to  the  succcssi  >n  of  the  crown. 
Under  the  early  Plantagcnets  the  notion  was  not  altogether  obso- 
lete, that  the  sovereign  was  in  a  certain  degree  elective  ;  and  the  in- 
variable right  of  succession  in  the  eldest  branch  was  not  completely 
established  till  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  But  imder  Henry  VIII.  an 
act  was  passed  empowering  that  monarch  to  bequeath  the  crown  to 
whomsoever  he  pleased,  oven  to  one  not  of  the  blood  royal,  if  his 
children  died  without  issue.  So,  too,  an  alteration  was  made  in 
the  coronation  oath  of  Edward  VI. ;  and  that  prince  was  crowned, 
as  the  rightful  and  undoubte<l  heir,  before  he  had  sworn  to  preserve 
the  liberties  of  the  realm,  and  without  the  consent  of  the  people 
having  been  asked  to  his  accession. 

This  augmented  power  of  the  crown  under  the  Tudors  was  not 
supported  by  military  force,  and  seems  to  have  rested  mainly  upon 
public  opinion.  Such  a  state  of  opinion  was  a  natural  consequence 
of  the  long  and  bloody  wars  of  the  Roses ;  which,  bein?;  carried  on 
merely  for  the  choice  of  a  sovereign  of  the  blood  royal,  filled  the 
public  mind  with  an  exaggerated  idea  of  his  personal  importance. 
The  same  wars,  however,  undoubtedly  added  to  the  material  as  well 
as  to  the  ideal  power  of  the  crown.  The  great  nobility,  hitherto  the 
chief  support  of  the  people  in  their  struggles  with  the  throne,  were 
nearly  exterminated.  They  were  further  overawed  and  depressed 
by  severe  and  unjust  executions ;  as  those  of  the  earl  of  Warwick 
and  the  earl  of  Suffolk  under  Henry  VII..  the  duke  of  Buckingham 
under  Henry  VIII.,  and  of  several  oth'  rs  in  the  subsequent  reigns. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  and  various 
encroachments  upon  the  projierty  of  the  church,  supplied  Henry 
and  his  successors  with  means  of  purchasing  the  affection  of  the 
great,  and  surrounding  himself  by  a  ix)rsonal  nobility  strongly 
attached  to  the  crown  from  motives  of  self-interest. 

§  12.  Yet  in  theory  the  constitution,  as  a  monarchy  limited  by 
law  was  maintained  in  several  works,*  written  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth.  The  two  chief  p  ivileges  of  jmrliament,  that  of  kgis- 
lation  under  certain  restrictions,  and  of  taxation  in  general,  were 

♦  Such  are  Aylmer's  Harborotoe  for  FoLith/ul  SidQecU;  Hooker's  BccletiatHetA 
Polity;  Sir  T.  Smith's  CmamomotMitK  etc. 


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AA  ie08.  BENEVOLENCES  AND  MONOPOLIES.  339 

scarcely  disputed.  Henry  YIII.  procured  indeed  a  statute  tq 
enable  the  king,  on  attaining  the  age  of  24,  to  repeal  any  acts 
passed  since  his  accession ;  and  another  to  give  his  proclamations 
the  force  of  laws.  Yet  here  the  constitution  is  acknowledgt  d,  in 
the  yery  breach  and  suspension  of  it ;  for,  instead  of  assuming  these 
powers,  the  king  prefers  to  have  them  conferred  by  parliament. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  parliamentary  right  of  taxation  was  some- 
times evaded  by  the  crown.  One  of  the  devices  for  this  purpose 
was  called  a  Benevolence,  of  which  we  have  spoken  already.  Li 
1492  Henry  VII.  levied  a  Benevolence  with  the  consent  of  parlia- 
ment ;  Edward  IV.  had  done  so  without  its  consent  In  1505  Henry 
levied  a  Benevolence  without  any  fresh  act.  Henry  VIII.  made  two 
similar  attempts,  in  1525  and  1544.  He  also  exercised  an  act  of  great 
arbitrary  power.  Bead,  an  alderman  of  London,  who  had  refused 
to  contribute,  was  enrolled  as  a  foot  soldier,  and  sent  to  the  wars 
in  Scotland,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner.  Henry  also  resorted  to 
forced  loans,  and  from  the  obligation  of  their  repayment  he  was 
released  by  parliament.  Elizabeth  also  raised  compulsory  loans^ 
but  was  generally  punctual  in  repaying  them. 

The  sovereigns  of  this  period  still  continued  to  derive  an  income 
from  feudal  rights,  such  as  escheats,  purveyance,  etc.  Another 
source  of  income  was  the  sale  of  pardons,  wardships,  the  first-fruits 
and  tenths  derived  from  all  ecclesiastical  promotions.  They  also 
enjoyed  the  means  of  rewarding  favourites  and  adherents  by  mono- 
polies; that  is,  the  gmnting  of  patents  for  the  exclusive  sale  of 
certain  articles.  Towards  the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign  great  com- 
plaints were  made  of  this  practice,  which  had  grown  at  first  out  of 
mistaken  notions  of  furthering  commerce  and  encouraging  home 
man\ifactures.  Some  of  the  most  necessary  articles  of  life,  as  salt, 
iron,  calf-skins,  train  oil,  vinegar,  sea  coals,  lead,  paper,  and  a  great 
many  more,  wer^  in  the  hands  of  patentees.  Stormy  debates  en- 
sued on  the  subject  in  the  session  of  1601.  Elizabeth  promised  that 
most  of  the  monopolies  complained  of  should  be  abolished,  but  it 
does  not  appear  how  far  her  word  was  kept.* 

§  13.  The  narrative  will  have  conveyed  some  idea  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  Tudor  sovereigns  occasionally  treated  the  commons. 
Elizabeth  forbad  them  to  handle  certain  subjects,  reprimanded  un- 
ruly members,  and  committed  some  of  them  to  the  Tower.  But 
though  they  submitted  to  this  treatment,  instances,  though  rare, 
are  not  wanting  in  which  certjiin  m(  mbers  of  the  commons  boldly 


•  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  In  a  speech  mndo 
on  this  occasion  in  the  commons,  explains 
tho  true  motive  of  these  complaints :  "  If 
her  mi^Jesty  make  a  patent,  or,  as  we 
term  it,  a  monopoly,  unio  any  of  her 


8<>rvants,  that  most  go,  and  we  cry  out  of 
it ;  but  if  she  grant  it  to  a  number  of  bnr- 
gesaes,  or  a  corporation,  that  must  staod, 
and  that  forsooth  is  uo  monopoly.'* 


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840  ELIZABETH.  Chap,  xdl 

asserted  their  privileges.  In  the  debate  on  a  subsidy  in  1601,  Mr. 
Serjeant  Heyle  having  observed  that  the  queen  might  take  it  at  her 
pleasure,  and  that  she  had  as  much  right  to  their  land  and  goods  as 
to  any  revenue  of  the  crown,  Mr.  Montague  replied  that  **  if  all  pre- 
ambles of  subsidies  were  looked  upon,"  it  wuuld  I  e  found  they  were 
free  gifts.  "  And  though,'*  he  observed,  "  her  majesty  requires  this'^ 
at  our  hands,  yet  it  is  in  us  to  give,  not  in  her  to  exact  of  duty.** 
And  speaker  Onslow,  in  his  address  to  the  queen  herself,  at  the  close 
of  the  session  of  1666,  plainly  |,ointed  out  the  limits  of  her  preroga- 
tive. "  By  our  common  law,"  he  said,  "although  there  be  for  the 
prince  provided  many  princely  prerogatives  and  royalties,  yet  it  is 
not  such  as  the  prince  can  take  money  or  other  things,  or  do  as  he 
will,  at  his  own  pleasure,  without  order ;  t  but  quietly  to  suffer  his 
subjects  to  enjoy  their  own,  without  wrongful  oppression :  wherein 
other  princes,  by  their  liberty,  do  take  as  pleaseth  them." 

The  commons  gained  ground  as  the  Tudor  dynasty  proceeded. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  they  ventured  to  throw  out  only  one 
bill  recommended  by  the  crown  ;  but  there  are  many  instances 
under  his  successors  of  their  doing  so.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
crown  did  not  scruple  to  reject  bills  which  had  pa'^sed  both  houses ; 
and  in  1697  Elizabeth  refused  no  fewer  than  48.  The  interference 
of  the  crown  in  elections  shows  the  opinion  entertained  of  the 
power  of  the  commons;  and  the  same  fact  is  evident  from  the 
creation  of  what  we  should  now  call  rotten  boroughs.  In  the  short 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  22  boroughs  were  created  or  restored ;  in  that 
of  Mary,  14 ;  while  Elizabeth  added  no  fewer  than  62  members  to 
the  house,  of  whom  a  large  proportion  sat  for  petty  boroughs  imder 
the  influence  of  the  crown. 

§  14.  Turning  from  the  legislature  to  the  executive  and  the 
administration  of  justice,  we  shall  find,  in  like  manner,  that  the 
liberty  of  the  subject,  though  secure  in  theory,  was  frequently 
violated  in  practice.  The  law  forbad  any  man  to  be  thrown  into 
prison  without  legal  warrant ;  or  to  be  kei)t  there  without  being 

*  That  Is,  the  unprecedented  grant  of  i  allowed  of  it,  and  It  is  snch  as  I  hope 
four  subsidiee  and  eight  fiiteenths  and  shall  never  be  discussed.  The  queen,  as 
tenths.  I  she  is  our  sovereign,  hath  both  an  enlarg- 

t  lyEwcs,  p.  IIB.  Onslow  says,  with-  !  ing  and  restraining  power.  For  by  her 
out  order ;  not,  uithout  order  qf  the  com-  prerogative  she  may.  first,  set  at  liberty 
moM.    But  what  was  order  was  the  point  I  things  restrained  by  statute  law  or  other- 


In  debate,  and  it  varied  according  to  men's 
notions  of  the  prerogative.  Could  the 
sovereign  in  cases  of  political  necessity 
dispense  with  the  law  or  not  ?  Even  as 
late  as  1601,  an  authority  no  less  than 
Bacon  declared  in  the  same  bouse :  "  For 
the  prerogative  royal  of  the  prince,  X  ever 


wise;  and,  secondly,  by  her  prerogative, 
she  may  restrain  things  that  are  at 
liberty."  Opinions  differed,  and,  though 
it  wa»  generally  admitted  that  the  pre- 
rogative was  limited  by  the  law,  no  one 
could  precisely  determine  whal  thoM 
limiutlonB  were. 


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AJ>.  1608.    CONSEQUENCES  OF  THE  BEFORMATION.         341 

speedily  brought  to  trial ;  or  to  be  coademned  without  a  trial  by  hii 
peers ;  yet,  in  fact,  all  these  things  were  frequently  done.  Even 
under  ihe  Plantagenets,  the  king's  ordinary  council  sometimes  exer- 
cised an  arbitrary  jurisdiction ;  depriving  an  accused  person  of  trial 
by  jury,  or  punishing  jurors  whose  verdict  was  deemed  unsatis- 
factory, by  fine  and  imprisonment.  Under  the  Tudors,  these 
illegal  proceedings  weie  still  further  aggravated  by  means  of  the 
same  council,  or  rather  a  committee  of  it,  called  the  court  of  Star 
Chamber.*  The  more  flagrant  violations  of  justice  were  naturally 
displayed  in  political  trials,  and  those  conducted  in  parliament 
were  no  better  than  those  in  the  ordinary  courts  of  law.  Cromwell, 
the  minister  of  Henry  VIII.,  sanctioned  the  precedent  of  condemn- 
ing an  accused  person  without  hearing  him  in  his  defence ;  but  by 
a  just  retribution  he  himself  was  one  of  the  first  to  fall  by  his  own 
invention  t 

§  15.  '1  he  reforms  of  the  church  introduced  by  Henry  VIII. 
proceeded  little  beyond  the  abolishment  of  the  papal  jurisdiction  in 
England ;  those  of  Edward  VI.  went  a  great  way  in  the  direction  of 
doctrine.  Elizabeth,  taking  a  middle  course,  maintained  the  rites 
and  ceremonies  of  the  church  of  England.  Of  course  the  zealots 
on  either  side  were  not  satisfied,  and  thus  she  raised  up  two  political 
as  well  as  religious  parties  against  her,  both  of  which  occasioned 
her  great  trouble.  In  her  first  year  two  important  acts  were 
passed,  that  of  supremacy  and  that  of  uniformity ;  by  the  latter 
of  which  the  use  of  any  but  the  established  liturgy  was  prohibited 
under  severe  penalties.  In  order  to  enforce  this  law,  a  new  court, 
called  the  court  of  High  Commission,  was  erected.  The  courts  of 
law  regarded  this  tribunal  from  the  first  as  illegal,  and  frequently 
granted  prohibitions  against  its  acts.  On  one  occasion  the  judges 
refused  to  entertain  a  charge  of  murder  against  a  man  who  had 
killed  one  of  the  pursuivants  of  the  commissioners  whilst  attempt- 
ing to  enter  his  house  by  virtue  of  their  warrant. 

§  16.  If  we  turn  our  attention  from  constitutional  questions  to 
the  general  state  of  the  nation,  we  must,  on  the  whole,  pronounce 
the  period  of  the  Tudors  to  have  been  one  of  advancement  and  im- 
provement. The  arms  and  negociations  of  Henry  VIII.,  though 
not  always  well  directed,  extended  English  influence  on  the  con- 
tinent; and,  though  this  advantage  was  lost  in  the  short  but  in- 
glorious reign  of  Mary,  it  was  more  than  recovered  under  Elizabeth. 
In  her  reign  England  first  became  a  great  maritime  power;  and 
some  of  the  sea-fights  and  expeditions  which  then  took  place, 
•specially  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  were  as  brilliant 

*  See  Notes  and  Illustrations :  The  Star  Chamber. 

*  A  similar  fnstanoe  occurred  in  1491. 


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342 


ELIZABETH. 


Chap.  ; 


and  glorious  exploits  as  any  that  can  bo  found  in  our  naval  annals. 
Nor  was  the  aid  which  her  land  forces  lent  to  the  Huguenots  in 
Franco,  and  to  the  nascent  liberties  of  the  Dutch,  wanting  in  glory, 
thougli  rather  perhaps  from  the  cause  in  which  they  were  engaged, 
thaij  from  the  feats  actually  performed.  The  enterprising  voyages 
of  Drake,  Cavendish,  and  others,  likewise  shed  a  lustre  on  her  reign, 
and  prepared  the  way  for  that  extensive  colonization  which  has 
proved  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  England's  greatness. 

The  annals  of  Elizabeth  are  adorned  with  some  of  the  greatest 
names  of  English  literature.  The  majesty  of  English  prose  was 
fonned  by  Hooker ;  the  harmony  of  English  verse  by  Spenser.  The 
drama,  the  surest  proof  of  an  advanced  civilization,  had  then  its 
first  beginnings,  and  was  perfected  by  the  immortal  genius  of 
Shakespeare ;  whilst  Bacon  opened  up  a  new  method  of  philosophy 
whose  practical  fruits  we  may  be  sold  even  now  to  be  gathering. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


A.  THE  COXTRT  OF  STAR 
CHAMBER. 

The  origin  of  this  court  is  derived 
trom  the  most  remote  antiquity.  It  was 
originally  composed  of  all  the  members 
of  the  king's  consilium  ordinarium  or 
unlinary  council,  and  its  Jurisdiction 
embraced  both  civil  and  criminal  causes. 
Its  title  was  derived  from  the  camera 
tlclJata  or  Star  Chamber,  nn  apartment 
in  the  king>  palace  at  Westmlnst^^r  in 
which  it  held  its  sittings;  and  we  find 
"the  lords  sitting  In  Star  Chamber  "  used 
as  a  well-known  phnise  in  the  records  of 
Edward  III.  The  nnnie  was  continued 
long  lifter  the  locality  of  the  court  was 
changed.  In  the  time  of  Filward  HI. 
the  Jurisdiction  of  the  court  had  become 
80  oppresHive,  that  various  statutes  were 
mud.'  to  abridge  ami  restrain  it;  and  after 
this  period  its  power,  tiiough  not  wholly 
extinct,  appears*  to  have  gradually  de- 
clined till  the  time  of  the  Tu.lors. 
Heniy  VII.,  In  the  third  year  of  his 
reign,  erected  a  new  court  on  the  ruins 
ol  the  old.  It  consisted  of  the  chancellor, 
the  treasurer,  and  the  lord  privy  seal, 
OS  Judges;  together  with  a  bi:>hop,  a 
temporal  lord  of  the  council,  and  the  two 


chief  Justices,  or.  In  their  AbeeDO^  tw« 
other  Justices,  as  assistants.  This  oonrt 
was  not  therefore,  strictly  speaking,  the 
court  of  Star  Chamber;  still  less  are  we 
to  look  upon  it,  as  some  writers  hare 
done,  as  the  original  of  that  famous  sourt. 
Yet  as  most  of,  if  not  all,  the  members 
who  composed  It,  were  also  members  of 
the  ordinary  council,  it  may  be  regarded 
as  a  sort  of  committee  of  the  aocient  court 
of  Star  Chamber;  and  both  lord  Cok^ 
(fburth  Institute,  p.  62)  and  lord  Hale 
(^Jurisdiction  qf  the  Lords^  Houie,  ch.  y. 
p.  .35)  consider  it  as  only  a  modification 
of  that  tribunal.  So  also  the  Judges  of 
the  King's  Bench,  In  the  13th  yesrof 
Elizabeth,  cite  the  proceedings  of  this 
court  imder  the  name  of  the  Star  Qiambet 
(Plowd*^n'8  Commentaries^  393).  Tet  tha^ 
nprviUitSon  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
given  to  it  either  in  the  sutute  by  which 
It  was  erected,  or  In  another  passed  In  the 
21st  year  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  which  the 
president  of  the  council  was  added  to 
the  number  of  the  Judges. 

The  fact  Just  mentioned,  however, 
shows  that  the  tribanal  erected  by 
Henry  VII.  continued  to  e.xist  as  f 
court  distinct  from  the  ordinary  coiinc!l 
till  a  late  period  of  the  reign  of  Henry 


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OhJiV.  xbl 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 


348 


yiH.  It  WM  chleflj  designed  to  re- 
Btnia  and  punish  illegal  combinations, 
rodi  as  the  giving  of  liveries,  etc^  the 
partiality  of  sherifb  in  fonning  panels 
and  making  mitrua  retains,  the  taking 
of  money  by  Jurors,  riots  and  unlawful 
assemblies;  and  it  had  the  power  to 
punish  oflTenders,  just  as  if  they  had 
been  convicted  in  due  course  of  law. 
But  towards  the  close  of  Henry  VIII.'b 
reign  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  ancient 
Star  Chamber  was  revived,  and  the 
court  of  Henry  VII.  became  gradually 
merged  in  it.  The  precise  perittd  of 
this  revival  cannot  be  ascertained.  By 
some  it  is  ascribed  to  cardinal  Wolsey; 
and  at  all  events  the  ancient  court  was 
again  in  activity  in  the  31st  year  of 
Henry  VIII.,  as  the  celebrated  act  of 
that  year  concerning  proclamations 
ordains  that  oflTenders  agaiqst  it  may 
be  tried  before  the  Star  Chamber.  Sir 
Thos.  Smith,  who  wrote  his  Oommon- 
vfealih  qf  Sngland  in  Uniiabeth's  reign, 
knows  nothing  of  Henry  VI I. 's  court. 
It  had  then  become  merged  in  the 
general  council. 

The  Judges  of  the  revived  court, 
however,  continued  to  be  the  same; 
via.  the  lord  chancellor,  or  lord  keeper, 
as  president,  the  treasurer,  the  privy  seal, 
and  the  president  of  the  council;  but 
with  these  were  associated  the  members 
of  the  council,  and  all  peers  of  the  realm 
who  chose  to  attend.  Under  the  Tudors 
the  number  of  Judges  often  amounted 
to  30  or  40;  but  under  James  I.  and 
Charles  1.  only  such  peers  seem  to  have 
been  summoned  as  were  also  members 
of  the  privy  council  The  bishops  also 
ceased  to  attend. 

The  dvil  Jurisdiction  of  the  Star 
Chamber  embraced  disputes  between 
Englitth  and  alien  merchants,  questions 
of  maritime  law,  testamentary  causes, 
suits  between  corporations,  etc.;  but 
these  were  gradually  transferred  to  the 
admiralty  court,  the  court  of  chancery, 
and  the  common  law  courts.  It  was 
the  criminal  Jurisdiction  which  rendered 
the  Star  Chamber  most  powerful  and 
most  odious.  The  offences  of  which  it 
took  cognixanoe  were  peijury,  forgery, 
riot,  maintenance,  fraud,  libel,  and 
conspiracy;  and  generally  all  mis- 
demeanours, especially  of  a  public  kind, 
which  could  not  be  brought  under  the 
law.  The  regular  course  of  proceeding 
was  by  information  at  the  suit  of  the 


attorney-general,  or  Bomethnes  of  a 
private  person.  Depositions  of  wit- 
nesses were  taken  in  writing  and  read 
in  court.  But  occasionally  the  process 
was  summary.  Fines  and  imprisonment 
were  the  usual  punishments.  Towards  a 
later  period  the  Stir  Chamber  sentenced 
to  the  pillory,  whipping,  cutting  olT  the 
ears,  etc  But  such  cases  were  rare,  and 
the  great  majority  of  cases  brought  before 
it  were  not  of  a  political,  but  private, 
nature.  In  the  reigns  of  James  1.  and 
Charles  1.  its  Jurinilction  became  very 
tyrannical  and  offensive  as  a  means  of 
asserting  the  royal  prerogative ;  and  the 
court  was  at  length  abi^Iiithed  by  the 
Long  Parliament.  It  is  but  Just  to  add 
that  this  court  had  done  good  service  in 
punishing  rich  and  powerful  offenders, 
whom  no  ordinary  Juries  would  have 
dared  to  convict ;  and,  when  it  was  no 
longer  needed  for  this  purpose,  it  was 
resorted  to  by  persons  whose  causes  were 
too  intricate  for  an  ordinary  Jury.  As  a 
court  of  equity  it  was  not  without  advan- 
tage to  many  suitore. 

For  further  information  respecting 
the  Star  Chamber,  see  Hollam's  Cofuti- 
ttUumal  IJtstorjff  ch.  i.  and  ch.  viii. ; 
Sir  F.  Paigrave's  £s»ajf  upon  the  Original 
Authority  qf  tht  King's  Council;  and 
the  article  " Star  Chamber"  in  the  Ftnng 
Cgclcpcedia. 


B.  AUTHORITIES  FOR  THE  PERIOD 
OF  THE  TUDOKS. 

The  works  of  several  of  the  chroni- 
clers which  serve  for  the  period  of  the 
Plaiitageiiets  extend  also  into  that  of 
the  Tudors;  as  ibuse  of  Fabyan,  Hall, 
Grafton,  Polydore  Virgil,  Holinshed, 
Stowe,  etc. 

The  history  of  the  reign  of  Henry 
VII.  has  been  written  by  lord  Bacon; 
that  of  Henry  VIII.  by  lord  Herbert  of 
Cherbur)';  that  of  Edward  VI.  by  Hay- 
ward;  that  of  Elizabeth  by  Camden. 
Edward  VI.  left  a  Journal  of  some  of 
the  occurrences  of  bis  reign. 

Subsidiary  works  for  this  period  are 
Fiddcs's  Life  qf  Wolsey:  Le  Grand,  Hist, 
du  Divorce;  Brewer's  Introduction*  to 
ataU  Papers  qf  Henry  VIII. ;  Fronde's 
History  qf  Englan>t  containing  the  period 
from  the  fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Spanish 
Armnda;  D'Ewt-s's  Journal  qf  Queen 
KlixabetW.  Parliaments;  Birch's ifc»i»o»r#^ 


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344 


KOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Chap,  xix. 


Winwood'0  Memoridlg;  EI\Wb  Original 
LetUri;  Hajnet  and  Murdin't  StaU 
Paper* ;  Sir  Dudley  Digges*!*  Complete  Awn- 
basModor;  The  CabaJa;  the  State  TriaXs^ 
State  Pgtpers^  HOrdwieke  Papers^  etc. 

For  the  Scotch  affitlre  of  the  period 
■hottld  be  ooDKulted:  Geo.  Buchanan's 
EiH.  qf  Scotland  (translated  by  Bond) ; 
Drummood's  Nist.  of  Scotland-  the 
Memoirs  of  Melvil.  Keith,  Forbes; 
Robertson's  ffist.  of  Scotland  Tytler's 
and  Hill  Burton's  HUl.  qf  Scotland;  The 
Utter- Boola  of  8^  AmyoM  Fouled  by 


John  Morris;  Hosack's  Jfbry  Q,  pfStoU; 
Jebb's,  Ooodal'e,  Andemon's,  LabanofTs, 
and  Teulef  s  collections. 

For  ecclesiastical  aflfairs,  and  the 
history  of  the  Reformation:  Strype's 
Bod.  Memorials,  Annalt  qf  the  Btfor- 
malum,  and  Lives  <f  Parker,  Orindal^ 
Whitgyfl,  and  Aylmer;  Burnet's  Hist, 
of  the  Reformation,  by  Pocock;  Collier's 
JCccl.  History:  Hcylyn's  Hist,  of  tk^  He- 
formation,  and  of  The  PresbjftrrUMs; 
Foxe's  j4c<«  and  MiMHtnents:  Neal*8  fiist, 
qf  the  Puritans,  etc 


SardoDyz  ring,  with  cameo  head  of  Qaeen  Eliiabeth,  in  the  poasession  of 
Rev.  Lord  John  Thynne. 


This  U  Mid  to  be  tha  Identtrnl  ring  gtven  by  queen  Bizabeth  »o  Ebaex.  It  has  de«ended  ttam  hdy 
Frances  Dererrax.  bsex's  dsnghter.  bi  unbroken  snrce«don  fVoro  mother  and  dnuRhtar  to  the  pfemt 
posaeMor.  Tbe  ring  ia  gold,  the  Mea  engiared.  and  the  faiiide  ot  Use  enaaneL— labarte.  Artt  ^  tke 
Middle  Agm,  p.  U. 


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Obrerae  of  medal  of  James  1.    u' ! :  i .  tottvb  .  nra :  bbtt  .  imp :  bt  .  vbaho  .  «t.  rib. 
BBX.    (The  title  Impen  tor  Is  to  be  noted.)    Bust  of  king,  fiudng. 


BOOK  V. 

THE  HOUSE  OP  STUART,  TO  THE  ABDICA- 
TION OP  JAMES  n, 

A.D.  1603-1688. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

JAMB8  I.,  b.  1566 ;  r.  1603-1626. 

f  1.  iDtroductioD.  §2.  Accession  of  James.  §  3.  Conspiracy  in  favonr  of 
Arabella  Stuart.  Conference  at  Hampton  Conrt.  §  4.  Proceedings  of 
parliament.  Peace  with  Spain.  §  5.  The  Onnpowder  plot.  §  6.  Strug- 
gles with  the  parliament.  Assassination  of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  §  7. 
State  of  Ireland,  and  settlement  of  Ulster.  Death  of  prince  Henry,  and 
marriage  of  the  princess  Elizabeth.  §  8.  Rise  of  Somerset.  Munler  of 
sir  Thomas  Overbury.  §  3.  Somerset's  fall,  and  rise  of  Buckingham. 
§  10.  English  colonization.  Raleigh's  expedition  to  Guiana.  His  execu- 
tion. §  11.  NegociatioDs  for  the  Spanish  match.  Affairs  of  the  Pala- 
tinata.  §  12.  Discontent  of  the  English.  A  parliament.  Im)>eachments. 
Fall  of  lord  Bacon.  §  13.  Rupture  between  ihe  king  and  commons. 
J  I4-.  Progress  of  the  Spanish  match.  Prince  Charles  and  Buckingham 
visit  Madrid.  §  15.  The  marriage  treaty  broken  by  Buckingham. 
Triumph  of  the  commous.  §  16.  Rupture  with  Sp:iin,  and  treaty  with 
France.  Count  Maosfeld's  expedition.  Death  and  character  of  the 
king. 

{  1  Thbouoh  the  able  management  of  sir  Robert  Cecil,  the  crown 
of  England  was  never  transmitted  from  father  to  son  with  greater 
tranqailUty  than  it  passed  from  the  Tudora  to  the  Sioarts,  in  qpite  of 


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346  JAMES  I.  Chap.  zx. 

the  will  of  Henry  VIIL,  sanctioned  by  act  of  parliament,  settling 
the  succession  on  the  house  of  Suffolk,  the  descendants  of  his 
younger  sister  Mary.  Queen  Elizabeth,  on  her  deathbed,  had 
recognized  the  title  of  her  kinsman  James;  and  the  whole  nation 
seemed  to  dispose  themselves  with  joy  and  pleasure  for  his  re- 
ception. Great  were  the  rejoicings,  and  loud  and  hearty  the 
acclamations,  which  resounded  from  all  sides.  But  James,  though 
sociable  and  familiar  with  his  friends  and  courtiers,  hated  the 
bustle  of  a  mixed  multitude ;  and,  though  far  from  disliking  flattery, 
he  was  still  fonder  of  tranquillity  and  ease.  Every  one  who  ex- 
pectt"d  rewards  and  preferments  from  the  new  sovereign  flocked  to 
see  him  and  anticii)ate  his  favours.  At  the  suggestion,  therefore,  of 
the  council  in  Kngland,  James  issued  a  proclamation,  forbidding 
the  resort  of  inople,  on  pretence  of  the  scarcity  of  provisions,  and 
other  inconveniences;  and  by  his  ungainly  manners  he  lost  some 
of  his  popularity  even  before  his  arrival  in  London. 

§  2.  James,  at  his  accession,  was  36  years  .of  age^  and  had  by  his 
queen,  Anne  of  Denmark,  two  sc»ns,  Henry  and  Charles,  and  one 
daughter,  Elizabeth.  He  had  been  brought  up  among  scene*  of 
turbulence.  Of  Ujc  governore  he  had  in  his  infancy,  three  were  cut 
off  by  violence.  The  murder  of  his  father,  the  unhappy  fate  of  his 
mother,  were  a  ixTiKJtuai  memento  of  the  insecurity  of  life,  and  how 
little  "  the  divinity  which  hedges  a  king"  was  res|iected  in  Scotland. 
His  education  had  been  conducted  by  the  celebrated  George 
Buchanan,  but  was  more  suited  for  a  pedant  than  a  niler;  and 
James  had  acquired  a  consideiable  stock  of  learning,  of  which  he 
took  frequent  occasion  to  make  display,  both  in  conversation  and  in 
writing.  He  was  an  author,  and  had  published,  for  the  use  of  his 
son,  a  book  called  Basil ikoti  Doron  (flaetkuthw  i&pov)  or  licytd  Otfi, 
besides  works  on  d»  monology  and  other  subjects.  But  his  i>edantry 
was  the  pedantry  of  his  ago,  and  did  not  strike  his  contemporaries 
as  ridiculous  in  itself,  or  unbecoming  in  their  sovereign.  His 
speeches  were  able  and  manly ;  and,  though  he  sjii  nt  much  of  his  time 
in  pursuits  unfitted  for  his  station,  like  most  of  his  countrymen  he 
possessed  a  fund  of  shrewd  good  sense,  which  seldom  failed  him 
when  the  occasion  i)rescnted  itself.  His  main  fault  was  his  in- 
dolence, jmrtly  physical,  partly  the  result  of  untoward  circumstai*cc8, 
and  the  intimidation  to  which  he  was  subjected  in  his  youth.  So 
far  as  this  country  was  concerned,  his  inexixjrience  of  the  arts  of 
government  tempted  him  to  trust  the  cares  of  state  to  his  ministers, 
whilst  he  abandoned  himself  to  his  own  amnsements. 

James  signalized  his  accession  by  freely  distributing  the  honour 
of  knighthood.  It  is  computed  that  within  three  months  after  his 
entrance  into  the  kingdom  he  bestowed  that  distinction  on  no  fewer 


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A.B.  156e-1604.       THE  MAIN  AND  BYE   PLOTS.  347 

than  400  persons.  He  had  brought  with  him»  to  what  he  called  the 
'<  Land  of  Promise,"  great  numbers  of  his  Scottish  courtiers,  some  of 
whom  were  immediately  added  to  the  English  privy  council.  Yet 
he  left  the  chief  offices  in  the  hands  of  Klizabeth's  ministers,  and 
trusted  the  conduct  of  political  concerns,  both  foreign  ar.d  domestic^ 
to  his  English  subjects.  Among  these,  secretary  Cecil,  afterwards 
created  earl  of  Salisbury,  was  always  r^arded  as  his  prime  minister 
and  chief  counsellor.  The  secret  correspondence  into  which  he  had 
entered  with  James,  and  which  had  sensibly  contributed  to  the  easy 
reception  of  that  prince  in  England,  had  laid  the  foundation  of  Gecirs 
credit  with  James. 

§  3.  In  1603  a  double  conspiracy  to  subvert  the  government  was 
discovered.  One  of  these  plots,  called  the  Mairif  is  said  to  have 
been  chiefly  conducted  by  sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  lord  Cobham,and 
consisted  of  a  plan  to  place  Arabella  Stuart,  the  cousin  of  the  king,* 
on  the  throne,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Spanish  government.  The 
other  plot,  called  the  Bye^  the  Surprise^  or  the  Surprising  Treason, 
was  led  by  Broke,  brother  of  lord  Cobham,  and  by  sir  Griffin  Mark- 
ham,  and  was  a  design  to  surprise  and  imprison  the  king,  and  to 
remodel  the  government.  Broke  was  engaged  in  both  plots,  and 
formed  the  connecting  link  between  them.  In  this  wild  undertaking 
men  of  all  persuasions  were  enlisted ;  as  lord  Grey,  a  puritan,  Wat- 
son and  Clarke,  two  Koman  catholic  priests,  and  others.  Their 
design  was  betrayed  by  Broke  to  Cecil,  and  the  conspirators  were 
arrested.  Raleigh  split  upon  Cobham,  and  Cobham  retaliated. 
The  two  priests  and  Broke  were  executed ;  Cobham,  Grey,  and 
Markham  were  pardoned,  after  they  had  been  brought  to  the 
scaffold.  Raleigh  was  reprieved,  but  not  pardoned ;  and  remained 
in  confinement  in  the  Tower  many  years. 

The  religious  disputes  between  the  church  and  the  puritans  induced 
James  to  call  a  conference  at  Hampton  Court,  on  pretence  of  finding 
expedients  which  might  reconcile  both  parties.  The  conference  was 
opened  January  14, 1604.  The  puritans,  who  had  not  yet  separated 
from  the  church  of  England,  d<  sired  the  abolitiun  of  certain  cere- 
monies, as  the  use  of  the  cross  in  baptism,  the  ring  in  marriage,  the 
surplice,  and  the  like.  To  some  of  their  demands  the  king  yielded. 
A  few  alterations  were  made  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer ;  an 
addition  inserted  to  the  catechism ;  and  a  new  tranplation  of  the 
Bible  was  promised.  But  on  the  main  question,  obedience  to  the 
rules  and  discipline  of  the  church,  James  would  admit  of  no 
relaxation.  Quit^  unexpectedly— for  he  had  been  brou.cht  up  as  a 
presbyterian — from  the  beginning  of  the  conference,  he  t-howed  the 

•  She  WM  the  daughter  of  the  dake  of  I  king's    father.     (See   the   Genealogical 
Udox.  the  brother  of  lord  Damley,  the  i  Table  of  the  Stuarto). 


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848  JAKES  L  Chap.  zx. 

strongest  propensity  to  the  established  church,  and  inculcated 
the  maxim,  No  Bishop,  no  Kino.  The  puritans  were  bitterly 
dissatisfied. 

§  4.  The  popular  element  bad  begun  to  develop  itself  in  the 
House  of  Commons  in  the  declining  years  of  Elizabeth ;  and  it 
was  clear,  from  many  indications,  that  it  would  before  long  demand 
an  enlargement  of  its  privileges.  Though  not  puritans  in  the 
sense  of  antagonism  to  the  church,  many  of  the  members  inclined 
to  those  particular  tenets  which  were  considered  especially  Calvin- 
istic  and  puritanical ;  and  as  the  bishops  supported  the  measures 
of  the  court,  and  leaned  to  doctrines  of  an  opposite  tendency, 
Puritanism  found  its  supporters  in  that  party  of  the  house  which 
was  opposed  to  the  court  At  present,  however,  no  indication  of 
a  struggle  was  visible.  Upon  the  assembling  of  the  parliament 
(March  19,  1604)  the  commons  granted  the  king  tonnage  and 
poundage.*  When  the  upper  house  desired  that  the  commons 
would  take  into  consideration  '*  a  relief  and  subsidy  to  his  majesty," 
James,  foreseeing  that  it  might  lead  to  an  altercation  between  the 
two  houses,  already  exasj^erated  on  a  question  of  privilege  between 
themselves,  wisely  sent  a  letter  to  the  commons  declining  any 
further  supply.  The  house  was  profuse  in  its  gratitude.  It 
resolved  that  the  king's  letler  should  be  recorded,  "  for  an  ever- 
lasting memory  of  his  majesty's  grace.**  All  knights  of  the  shires 
were  to  take  a  copy  of  it  to  be  read  in  their  several  counties,  and 
the  speaker  was  commanded  to  thank  the  king  in  the  name  of  the 
whole  house. 

This  summer  a  treaty  of  peace  and  commerce  was  concluded 
with  Spain,  and  was  signed  by  the  Spanish  ministers  at  London.  By 
it  James  was  bound  to  lend  no  aid  to  Holland  (August  18, 1004). 

§  5.  The  Roman  catholics  had  expected  great  favour  on  the 
accession  of  James ;  but  the  rigorous  measures  of  Elizabeth,  espe- 
cially against  the  priests,  were  not  relaxed.  Catesby,  a  gentleman  of 
good  parts  and  of  an  ancient  family,  first  thought  of  a  most  extra- 
ordinary method  of  revenge.  His  scheme  was,  to  destroy  the  king, 
the  royal  family,  the  lords,  and  the  commons,  when  assembled  on 
the  first  meeting  of  the  parliament,  by  blowing  them  up  with  gun- 
powder. The  project  was  communicated  to  Thomas  Winter,  who 
went  over  to  Flanders  in  April  to  solicit  aid  from  Spain.  He  re- 
turned to  England  with  Guy  Fawkes,  an  oflBcer  in  the  Spanish  ser- 
vice, with  whose  zeal  and  courage  he  was  thoroughly  acquainted. 
Thomas  Percy,  a  relation  to  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  was  now 

*  Thefle,  which  are  the  origin  of  our  |  imported,  and  of  U.  in  the  poQBd  on  oUmc 
eutom-house  duties,  consisted  chiefly  of  I  articles, 
ft  (Uny  of  3«.  upon  every  tun  of  wine  J 


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AJ).  1604.  THE  GUNPOWDER  PLOT.  349 

associated  in  the  design.  The  conspirators,  five  in  number,  bound 
ihcmselTes  to  secrecy  by  an  oath,  before  Gerard,  a  Jesuit  Thus 
passed  the  spring  and  summer  of  the  year  1604,  when  the  conspira- 
tors hired  in  Percy's  name  a  cellar  below  the  House  of  Lords. 
Thirty-six  barrels  of  powder  were  lodged  in  it,  the  whole  covered 
up  with  fiaggotsand  billets,  the  doors  of  the  cellar  boldly  flung  open, 
and  everybody  admitted,  as  if  it  contained  nothing  dangerous. 

The  dreadful  secret,  though  communicated  to  several  persons, 
had  been  religiously  kept  during  the  space  of  nearly  a  year  and  a 
half.  But  Gatesby's  funds  growing  exhausted,  he  was  compelled  to 
seek  the  means  of  proceeding  with  the  conspiracy  by  enlisting  other 
persons ;  and  particularly  sir  Everard  Digby,  of  Qayhurst,  in  Buck- 
inghamshire, and  Francis  Tre^ham,  of  Rushton,  in  Northampton- 
shin>,  two  opulent  Roman  catholic  gentlemen.  It  is  suspected  that 
the  plot  was  revealed  by  Tresham.  Ten  days  before  the  meeting  of 
parliament,  lord  Mounteagle,  a  catholic  peer,  son  to  lord  Morley  and 
brother-in-law  of  Tresham,  received  the  following  letter,  which  had 
been  delivered  to  his  servant  by  an  unknown  hand.  **  My  lord, 
out  of  the  love  I  bear  to  some  of  your  friends,  I  have  a  care  of  your 
preservation.  Therefore  I  would  advise  you,  as  you  tender  your  life, 
to  devise  some  excuse  to  shift  off  your  attendance  at  this  parliament. 
For  God  and  man  hath  concurred  to  punish  the  wickedness  of  this 
time.  And  think  not  slightly  of  this  advertisement;  but  retire 
yourself  into  your  country,  where  you  may  expect  the  event  in 
safety.  For  though  there  be  no  appearance  of  any  stir,  yet,  I  say, 
they  shall  receive  a  terrible  blow  this  parliament,  and  yet  they 
shall  not  see  who  hurt^  them."  Mounteagle  communicated  this  to 
lord  Salisbiwy,*  and  he  to  the  king,  who  conjectured,  from  the  serious 
and  earnest  style  of  the  l<  tter,  that  it  implied  something  dangerous 
and  important.  A  ternb'e  bhw,  and  yet  the  authors  concealed ^  seemed 
to  denote  some  contrivance  by  gunpowder;  and  it  was  thought 
advisable  to  inspect  all  the  vaults  below  the  houses  of  parliament. 
The  task  belongetl  to  the  earl  of  Suffolk,  lord  chamberlain,  who 
purposely  delayed  the  search  till  the  day  before  the  meeting  of  par- 
liament. He  remarked  those  great  piles  of  wood  and  faggots  which 
lay  in  the  vault  under  the  upper  house,  and  he  cast  his  eye  u|  on 
Fawkes,  who  stood  in  a  dark  corner,  and  passed  himself  off  for 
Percy's  servant.  These  circumstances  appeared  suspicious,  and  it 
was  resolved  that  a  more  thorough  inspection  should  be  made. 
About  midnight,  sir  Thomas  Knevet,  a  justice  of  peace,  was  sent 


•  It  to  certain  that  Cecil  knew  of  the 

plot  lome  time  before.    Lord  Moanteagle 

was  unqvesdoiiably  concerned  in  it ;  and 

It  baa  been  eurmiaed  that,  feariux  t«  be 

17 


betrayed  by  other  conspirators,  he  pro- 
cared  this  letter  to  be  written  to  bimselt 
and  BO  nude  a  merit  of  hla  discovery. 


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S50  JAMES  I.  Ohap.  XX. 

with  proper  attendaDts ;  and  before  the  door  of  the  vault  finding 
Fawkes,  who  had  just  finished  all  his  preparations,  he  immediately 
seized  him,  and,  turning  over  the  faggots,  discovered  the  powder 
(November  6).  The  matches,  and  everything  proper  for  setting  fire 
to  the  train,  were  taken  in  Fawkes's  pocket ;  who,  finding  his  guilt 
now  apparent,  and  seeing  no  refuge  but  in  boldness  and  despair, 
expressed  the  utmost  regret  that  he  had  lost  the  opportunity  of  firing 
the  powder  at  once,  and  so  sweetening  his  own  death  by  that  of  his 
enemies.  Before  the  council  he  displayed  the  same  intrepid  firm- 
ness ;  and,  though  h^  was  put  to  the  rack  in  the  Tower,  he  does  not 
appear  to  have  disclosed  the  names  of  his  associates  till  they  had 
already  risen  in  arms. 

Catcsby,  Percy,  and  the  other  criminals,  hearing  that  Fawkes  was 
arrested,  hurried  down  to  Warwickshire,  where  sir  Everard  Digby, 
thinking  himself  assured  that  success  had  attended  his  confederates, 
was  already  prepared  to  seize  the  princess  Elizabeth.  They  then 
proceeded  to  Holbeach,  in  Staffordshire,  hoping  to  maintain  them- 
selves by  a  rising  of  the  catholics  in  their  favour;  but  none  stirred. 
Pursued  by  the  sheriffs,  and  siurounded  on  every  side,  they  could 
no  longer  entertain  hopes  of  escape.  The  powder  they  had  brought 
with  them  accidentally  took  fire  and  injured  some  of  them.  Regard- 
ing this  as  a  work  of  divine  retaliation,  they  prepared  for  death, 
and  spent  the  time  in  prayer.  At  eleven  the  sheriff  arrived^  and 
fired  upon  the  house.  Percy  and  Catesby  were  killed  by  one  shot. 
Digby,  Rookwood,  Thomas  Winter,  and  others,  being  taken  prisoners, 
were  tried,  convicted,  and  died  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner 
(January  30-31,  1606).  Gerard  suffered  the  same  fate.  Tresham 
was  committed  to  the  Tower,  where  he  died  on  the  27th  of  Decem- 
ber. On  the  meeting  of  parliament  (January  21),  James,  in  his 
opening  speech,  declared  that  he  would  only  punish  those  who 
were  actually  concerned  in  the  plot ;  but  the  parliament  i^assed 
various  acts  of  renewed  severity  against  the  catholics:  and  the 
methods  adopted  for  aggravating  the  horrors  of  the  late  attempt 
formed  a  sufiicient  excuse  for  withholding  all  moderation  in  the 
treatment  of  catholics,  and  for  bringing  under  suspicion  all  that 
ventured  to  suggest  it, 

§  6.  In  1607  James  recommended  to  parliament  the  union  of 
England  and  Scotland;  but  the  proposal  was  not  acceptable  to  either 
people,  and  little  progress  was  made.  Another  session  was  held  in 
1610,  when  the  king  was  full  of  hopes  of  receiving  supply,  and  the 
commons  of  circumscribing  his  prerogative.  The  earl  of  Salisbury 
laid  oi>cn  the  king's  necessities,  first  to  the  peers,  then  to  a  committee 
of  the  lower  house.  The  commons,  not  to  shock  the  king  with  an 
ebiolute  refusal,  granted  him  one  subsidy  and  one  fifteenth,  which 


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AJ).  1604-1611.     HIS  STRUGGLES  WITH  PARLIAMENT.       351 

would  scarcely  amount  to  100,000Z.*  Under  the  pressure  of  his 
increasing  necessities,  the  king  had  raised  the  customs  payable  upon 
certain  commodities  (1608).  But  a  spirit  of  liberty  had  now  taken 
possession  of  the  house ;  the  leading  members,  men  of  independent 
genius  and  enlarged  views,  began  to  regulate  their  opinions  more  by 
the  consequences  they  foresaw,  than  by  the  precedents  which  were 
set  before  them.  Though  former  sovereigns  had  done  the  same, 
and  it  had  been  decided  by  the  judges  that  such  impositions  wire 
constitutional,  the  commons,  regardless  of  the  king's  prerogative, 
passed  a  bill  abolishing  these  new  rates,  which  was  rejected  by  the 
House  of  Lords.  They  likewise  discovered  some  discontent  against 
the  king's  proclamations,  against  the  practice  of  borrowing  on  privy 
seals,  and  other  abuses ;  and  they  made  remonstrances  against  the 
proceedings  of  the  High  dmimissum  Court,  with  which,  however, 
James  refused  compliance.  But  the  business  which  chiefly  occupied 
them  during  this  session  was  the  abolition  of  wardships  and  pur- 
veyance,— prerogatives  which  were  more  or  less  touched  on  every 
session  during  the  whole  reign  of  James.  To  put  an  end  to  this 
dispute,  a  bargain  was  struck,  called  the  Oreat  Contractj  by  which 
the  king  consented  to  abandon  these  antiquated  rights  of  the  crown 
for  a  settled  income  of  200,000/.  a  year.  But  before  this  agreement 
could  be  embodied  in  an  act  of  parliament,  the  summer  vacation 
had  arrived.  When  winter  (^me  the  tem]  er  of  the  two  parties  was 
altered  for  the  worse.  The  commons  now  demanded  n.ore  than 
James  was  willing  to  concede ;  and  in  displeasure  his  first  parlia- 
ment was  dissolved  (February  9,  1611),  after  it  had  sat  nearly 
seven  years. 

The  year  1610  was  distinguished  by  the  murder  of  the  French 
monarch,  Henry  IV.,  by  the  poniard  of  the  fanatical  llavaillac.  In 
England  anti[)athy  to  the  catholics  was  increased  by  this  tragical 
event ;  and  some  of  the  laws  which  had  formerly  been  enacted,  in 
order  to  keep  the  catholics  in  awe,  were  now  made  more  stringent 
and  executed  with  greater  severity. 

§  7.  About  this  time  the  king  brought  to  a  conclusion  the  project 
he  had  framed  to  civilize  tho  Irish,  and  render  their  subjection 
durable  and  useful  to  the  crown  of  England.  He  proceeded  in  this 
work  by  a  steady,  regular,  and  well-concerted  plan.  In  particular, 
six  of  the  counties  of  Ulster  having  fallen  to  the  crown  by  the 
attainder  of  Tyrone,  ho  resolved  to  plant  in  them  new  colonies. 
The  property  was  divided  into  moderate  shares,  the  largest  not 
exceeding  2000  acres ;  tenants  were  brought  over  from  England 
and  Scotland ;  and  by  these  means  Ulster,  from  being  the  most 
wild  and  disorderly  province  of  all  Ireland,  soon  becime  the  beat 

•  The  expenditure  was  about  500,000<.  a  year,  t  lO  inoume  al»ut  320,0001. 


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362 


JAHBS  L 


Obap.  xz. 


otdtiTated  and  moet  dvilized.  To  raise  the  funds  needed  for  this 
enterprise  and  for  the  defence  of  the  colonists,  a  new  order  of 
nobility,  called  baronetcy,  was  created.  The  patents  were  sold  for 
1095^.  apiece.  Hence  baronets  bear  on  their  shields  the  arms  of 
Ulstir,  a  bloody  hand.* 

The  sndden  death  of  Henry  prince  of  Wales,  in  his  19th  year 
(November  5, 1612),  diffused  a  universal  grief  throughout  the  nation. 
It  is  with  peculiar  fondness  that  historians  mention  him,  and  in 
every  respect  his  merit  seems  to  have  been  extraordinary.  The 
marriage  of  the  princess  Elizabeth  with  Frederick,  elector  palatine, 
was  concluded  some  time  after  the  death  of  the  prince  (February 
14,  1613),  and  served  to  dissipate  the  grief  which  arose  on  that 
melancholy  event ;  but  this  marriage  ultimately  proved  itself  an 
unhappy  event  to  the  king,  as  well  as  to  his  son-in-law,  and  was  of 
ill  consequence  to  the  reputation  and  fortunes  of  both. 

§  8.  Shortly  after  the  king's  accession,  Robert  Garr,  a  yonth 
of  a  good  family  in  Scotland,  arrived  in  London.  His  natural 
accomplishments  consisted  in  g(  od  looks,  his  acquired  abilities  in 
an  easy  air  and  graceful  demeanour.  He  had  letters  of  recom- 
mendation to  his  countryman  lord  Hay ;  and  that  nobleman  as- 
signed him  the  office,  at  a  match  of  tilting,  of  presenting  to  the 
king  his  buckler  and  device.  The  king  became  strongly  attached 
to  him,  taught  him  the  elements  of  the  Latin  grammar,  int  nding 
to  train  him  as  his  private  secretary.  In  1607  he  was  sworn 
gentleman  of  the  bed-chamber,  was  afterwards  knighted,  and 
eventually  crafted  earl  of  Somerset  (November  4, 1613).  He  con- 
tracted a  friendship  with  an  unscrupulous  adventurer,  sir  Thomas 
Overbury,  who  trusted  to  Carr  for  his  hopes  of  preferment.  But 
an  event  soon  happened  which  proved  the  ruin  of  both.  Garr  had 
succeeded  to  Salisbury's  power  on  tl^e  death  of  that  able  minister 
in  1612,  and  had  been  created  viscount  Rochester  in  the  previous 
year.  He  entertained  a  passion  for  the  wife  of  the  earl  of  Essex,t 
who  was  engaged  in  obtainingadivorce  from  her  husband.  Overbury, 
to  whom  he  communicated  his  design  to  marry  her,  strongly  opposed 
it ;  and  in  order  to  get  him  out  of  the  way,  Rochester,  instigated  by 
the  countess,  persuaded  the  king  to  send  him  on  an  embassy  into 
Russia.  But  Overbury  declined  this  proposal,  was  committed 
to  the  Tuwer,  and  died  there  after  a  rigorous  confinement  of  six 
months  (September  15,  1613),  not  without  suspicion  of  poison* 
The  countess  was  accused  of  the  erime  (1615).    Weston,  a  warder 


*  This  new  creation  —  though  often 
ridiculed— was  of  excellent  service;  for 
it  opened  to  wealthy  commoners,  now 
greatly  enrichrd  by  the  extension  of  com- 


merce, the  distiDcUons  of  nobUity,  fttm 
which  they  had  been  rigidly  ezdoded. 

t  Essex  had  been  restored  to  the  hooowf 
of  his  CKther  in  1603. 


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AJ>.  1619-1623.  RISE  OF  BUCKINOHAJC  853 

of  the  Tower,  her  agent,  was  executed,  with  several  others ;  and  hei 
husband  was  vehemently  suspected  of  being  concerned  in  the  plot. 
After  a  long  trial  both  were  sentenced  to  die,  but  were  pardoned  by 
the  king,  and  eventually  set  at  liberty  in  1622. 

§  9.  Meanwhile  a  new  &vourite  had  appeared  on  the  scene.  Greorge 
Villiei-s,  better  known  as  the  duke  of  P^uckingham,  a  youth  of  two 
and  twenty,  a  younger  brother  of  a  good  family,  returned  in  1614 
from  his  travels,  and  was  remarked  for  the  advantages  of  a  hand- 
some person,  genteel  air,  and  fashionable  apparel.  In  ability  he 
was  far  superior  to  Somerset  Confident,  intrepid,  free-spoken  to 
the  very  verge  of  imprudence,  he  attached  himself  to  the  j  erson 
of  the  king,  and  never  scrupled  to  express  openly  his  hatred  or 
contempt  for  those  who  differed  from  him.  In  a  court  full  of 
intrigues  and  rival  parties,  such  a  disposition  would  have  been 
cerUun  to  expose  him  to  malevolent  expressions,  had  he  done  nothing 
to  deserve  them;  but  at  this  juncture,  when  the  commons  were 
determined  on  restricting  the  prerogative  of  the  crown,  and  the 
utmost  caution  and  moderation  were  required  to  prevent  a  rupture, 
the  conduct  of  Yilliers  provoked  the  bitterest  animosities.  It  is 
true  that  James  kept  the  decision  of  political  questions  in  bis  own 
hands,  but  access  to  royal  favour  was  through  Buckingham. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  years  James  created  him  viscount  Yilliers, 
earl,  marquis,  and  duke  of  Buckingham,  and  conferred  upon  him 
some  of  the  highest  offices  in  the  kingdom.  By  these  premature 
and  exorbitant  honours,  the  king  took  an  infallible  method  to  ruin 
him.  It  must,  however,  be  stated  that  in  these  acts  of  favouritism 
James  was  swayed  by  other  motives  besides  personal  affection. 
He  had  come  to  England  with  little  knowledge  of  English  politics ; 
and  so  long  as  Salisbury  lived,  whom  he  implicitly  trusted  in  all 
matters  of  government,  James  had  no  favourites.  At  his  death,  so 
bitter  were  the  rivalries  between  the  Scotch  and  English  nobles, 
that  James,  who  would  have  preferred  the  former,  dared  not  select 
a  successor  to  Salisbury  from  either  party.  A  young  man,  like 
Yilliers,  of  some  ability  and  agreeable  manners,  but  not  formidable  for 
his  birth  or  riches,  was  a  more  manageable  instrument  for  the  king's 
purpose.  At  this  time,  also,  the  number  of  the  House  of  Lords  was 
greatly  diminished,  for  the  jealous  policy  of  the  Tudors  had  impaired 
its  influence,  and  it  had  become  quite  subordinate  in  importance  to 
the  commons.  The  older  peers  owed  nothing  to  James.  To  counter- 
balance the  power  of  the  commons,  a  new  and  augmented  nobility 
was  desirable ;  and  as  they  would  owe  their  honours  to  James,  he 
natimilly  expected  to  find  them  more  compliant.* 

*  In  leai  the  Hoase  of  Lovdf  protested  against  the  making  anoh  a  mnltttode  of 
iDotch  and  Irish  lords. 


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354  JAMES  I.  Ohap.  XX. 

§  XO.  The  oommencement  of  English  colonization  dates  from  the 
reign  of  James.  In  that  of  Elizabeth,  Raleigh  had  endeavoured 
to  plant  a  colony  in  North  America,  in  the  district  called  after  the 
queen,  Virginia ;  but  it  proved  a  failure.  Towards  the  close  of 
Elizabeth's  reign,  and  the  banning  of  that  of  James,  several  dis- 
coveries and  surveys  were  made  in  North  America ;  and  in  1606 
James  granted  charters  to  two  companies — the  London  of  South 
Virginia  Ck)mpany,  and  tKe  Plymouth  Company — for  planting 
colonies  in  that  quarter:  in  consequence  of  which  James  Town, 
in  the  bay  of  Chesapeake,  was  founded  in  the  following  year,  and 
was  preserved  from  destruction  by  the  courage  and  fortitude  of 
John  Smith.  In  1610  Lord  Delaware  proceeded  thither  as  gover- 
nor of  Virginia,  with  a  new  body  of  emigrants,  who  were  again 
reinforced  in  the  following  year;  and  from  this  time  the  colony 
flourished  and  increased.  In  1610  a  charter  was  also  granted  for 
the  colonization  of  Newfoundland.  At  the  same  period  the  trade 
to  the  east  was  fostered  and  encouraged  by  the  government.  On 
the  31st  December,  1600,  the  Elast  India  Company  was  established 
by  a  charter  of  Elizabeth  for  16  years,  which  was  renewed  by  James 
in  1609  for  an  unlimited  period;  and  in  1612  the  first  English 
factory  was  established  at  Surat.    (Supplement,  Note  IIL) 

But  the  man  who  had  given  the  first  impulse  to  British  coloniza- 
tion was  still  languishing  in  prison.  The  long  sufferings  of  Raleigh 
had  worn  out  his  unpopularity.  People  forgot  that  he  had  been  the 
bitter  enemy  of  their  great  favourite  the  earl  of  Essex,  and  were 
struck  with  the  extensive  genius  of  the  man  who,  educated  amidst 
naval  and  military  enterprises,  had  cultivated  literature  with  no 
little  success  They  admired  his  unbroken  magnanimity,  which  at 
his  age  and  under  his  circumstances  could  etigage  him  to  undertake 
so  great  a  work  as  his  "  Hii^ory  of  the  World."  To  increase  these 
favourable  dispositions,  on  which  he  built  the  hopes  of  recovering 
his  liberty,  he  spread  the  reftort  of  a  gold  mine  in  Guiana,  a 
country  he  had  visited  20  years  before,  and  which  was  sufficient, 
according  to  his  representation,  not  only  to  enrich  all  the  adven- 
turers, but  to  afford  immense  treasures  to  the  nation.  Though 
he  still  refused  to  grant  Raleigh  a  pardon,  the  king  released  him 
from  the  Tower,  and  conferred  on  him  authority  over  his  fellow- 
adventurers  ;  exacting,  however,  a  promise  from  him  that  he  should 
not  approach  the  Spanish  territory  on  forfeiture  of  his  life.  Raleigh 
maintained  that  the  English  title  to  the  whole  of  Guiana,  by 
virtue  of  its  discovery,  remained  certain  and  indefeasible;  but 
It  happened  in  the  mean  time  that  the  Spaniards,  not  knowing  or 
not  acknowledging  this  claim,  had  taken  possession  of  a  part  of 
Guiana,  had  formed  a  settlement  on  the  river  Orinoco,  and  built  a 


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A.D.  1606-1619.         EXECUTION  OF  RALEIGH.  355 

town  called  St.  Thomas.  Kaleigh  sent  his  men  up  the  river  with- 
out distinct  orders  to  avoid  fighting.  They  seized  and  plundered 
the  Spanish  settlement.  The  gold  they  expected  eluded  their 
search.  The  other  adventurers  now  concluded  that  they  had  heen 
deceived  by  Raleigh,  and  thought  it  safest  to  return  immediately 
to  England,  and  carry  him  along  with  them  to  answer  for  his  con- 
duct. GK)ndomar,  the  Spanish  ambassador,  whose  brother  had  been 
killed  in  resisting  Raleigh's  men,  demanded  justice;  and  James 
signed  the  warrant  for  his  execution  upon  his  former  sentence. 

Raleigh,  finding  his  fate  inevitable,  collected  all  his  courage. 
"  *Tis  a  sharp  remedy,"  he  stud,  "  but  a  sure  one  for  all  ills,"  when 
he  felt  the  edge  of  the  axe  by  which  he  wad  to  be  beheaded.  With 
the  utmost  indifference  he  laid  his  head  upon  the  block,  and  re- 
ceived the  fatal  blow.  In  his  death  there  appeared  the  same  great 
mind  which  during  his  life  had  displayed  itself  in  all  his  conduct 
and  behaviour  (October  29, 1618).  No  measure  of  James's  reign 
was  attended  with  more  public  dissatisfaction.  It  was  regarded  as 
a  piece  of  complaisance  towards  Spain,  with  which  country  James 
was  now  meditating  more  intimate  connections.* 

§  11.  In  1611  James  proposed  to  marry  his  son  to  the  Spanish 
infanta.  In  1614,  after  parliament  was  dissolved,  he  renewed  the 
proposal :  "  Money  he  must  have,  and  if  he  could  not  get  money 
from  parliament,  he  would  get  it  from  the  king  of  Spain  as  a 
daughter's  portion."  The  court  of  Spain,  though  determined  to 
contract  no  alliance  with  a  heretic,  entered  into  negociations  with 
James,  which  they  ai'tfully  protracted;  and  the  transactions  in 
Germany,  so  important  to  the  Austrian  greatness,  became  every 
day  a  new  motive  for  this  duplicity  of  conduct.  In  1618  the 
states  of  Bohemia,  which  were  in  open  revolt  against  the  enii)eror 
Ferdinand  II.  for  the  defence  of  their  religious  liberties,  had  elected 
Frederick,  elector  palatine,  for  their  king.  In  addition  to  his  own 
forces,  Frederick  was  son-in-law  to  the  king  of  England,  and  nephew 
to  prince  Maurice,  whose  authority  was  become  almost  absolute  in  the 
United  Provinces.  The  Bohemians  hoped  that  these  princes,  moved 
by  the  connections  of  blood,  as  well  as  by  the  tie  of  their  common 
religion,  would  interest  themselves  in  the  fortunes  of  Frederick, 
and  would  promote  his  greatness.  On  the  other  hand,  the  catholic 
princes  of  the  empire  had  embraced  Ferdinand's  defence;  and, 
above  all,  the  Spanish  monarch,  deeming  his  own  interest  closely 
connected  with  that  of  the  younger  branch  of  his  family,  prepared 
powerful  succours  from  Italy  and  from  the  Low  Countries  (1619). 

*  Brave  as  he  was,  Balelgfa  was  on-  |  his  principles.  The  government  had  other 
■ompnloos.  By  hia  sea  life,  like  many  evidence  against  him  than  what  ua8pr(H> 
%f  his  contemporaries,  he  had  tarnished  I  dooed  upon  the  trial. 


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856  JAMES  L  Orap.  n. 

The  news  of  ihefle  •Tents  no  sooner  reached  England  than  the 
whole  kingdom  was  on  fire  to  engage  in  the  quarrel.  But  James 
was  in  no  condition,  nor  had  he  the  temper,  to  emhark  In  a  con- 
tinental war.  He  hesitated ;  and,  after  much  irresolution  resolved 
to  defend  the  hereditary  dominions  of  the  palatine,  but  to  give  him 
no  support  in  his  claim  on  Bohemia.  Meanwhile  afiOiIrs  everywhere 
hastened  to  a  crisis.  Almost  at  the  same  time  it  was  known  in 
England  that  Frederick,  being  defeated  in  the  great  and  decisive 
battle  of  Prague,  had  fled  with  his  family  into  Holland,  and  that 
Spinola,  the  Spanish  commander,  had  invaded  the  palatinate,  and^ 
meeting  with  no  resistance,  except  from  some  princes  of  the  union, 
and  from  one  English  regiment  of  2400  men,  commandgpl  by  the 
brave  sir  Horace  Vere,  had  in  a  little  time  reduced  the  greater  part 
of  that  principality  (1620).    (Supplement,  Note  IV.) 

§  12.  Loud  were  now  the  murmurs  and  complaints  against  the 
king's  neutrality  and  inactive  disposition ;  but  the  only  attention 
James  paid  to  this  feeling  was  to  make  it  a  pretenoe  for  obtaining 
money.  He  first  tried  the  expedient  of  a  Benevolence^  but  the 
jealousy  of  liberty  was  now  roused,  and  the  nation  r^rded  such 
expedients  as  extortions,  contrary  to  law,  and  dangerous  to  freedom. 
A  parliament  was  fouad  to  be  the  only  resource  which  could  furnish 
any  large  supplies;  and  writs  were  accordingly  issued  for  sum- 
moning that  great  council  of  the  nation  (January  30,  1621).  The 
parliament  met  in  a  very  discontented  mood.  What  the  king  most 
needed  was  a  supply,  and  the  commons  were  in  no  humour  to 
grant  it.  They  proceeded  at  once  to  the  examination  of  grievances. 
They  found  that  patents  had  been  granted  to  sir  Giles  Mompesson 
for  licensing  inns  and  alehouses,  and  for  gold  and  silver  thread, 
which  he  was  accused  of  making  of  baser  metal.  The  commons 
proceeded  against  him  by  way  of  impeachment — a  revival  of  a 
practice  sometimes  adopted  under  the  Lancastrian  kings,  but  of 
which  there  had  been  no  instance  imder  the  Tudors.  Encouraged 
by  this  success,  the  commons  carried  their  scrutiny  into  othei 
abuses,  and  sent  up  an  impeachment  to  the  peers  against  tht 
celebrated  Bacon,  now  viscount  St.  Albans  and  lord  chancellor. 
His  want  of  economy  and  his  indulgence  to  his  servants  had  involved 
him  in  necessities.  He  was  accused  of  taking  bribes  from  suitors 
in  chancery,  by  the  title  of  presents.  Conscious  of  guilt,  the  chan- 
cellor deprecated  the  vengeance  of  his  judges ;  and  endeavoured,  by 
a  general  avowal,  to  escape  the  confusion  of  a  stricter  enquiry.  The 
lords  insisted  on  a  particular  confession  of  all  his  corruptions.  He 
acknowledged  the  articles ;  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  40,000?., 
to  be  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  during  the  king's  p^asure,  to  be 
for  ever  incapable  of  any  ofilce,  place,  or  employment,  or  of  ever 


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AJ>.  16S0-16S1.      QUAKRELS  WITH  THE  COMMONa  857 

again  sitting  in  parliament,  or  coming  within  the  verge  of  the  court 
CMaj  3).  In  consideration  of  his  great  merit,  the  king  released 
him  in  a  little  time  from  the  Tower,  remitted  his  fine,  as  well  as 
other  parts  of  his  sentence,  and  paid  him  his  pension  of  1200Z. 
three  years  in  advance.  And  that  great  philosopher  at  last 
acknowledged  with  regret  that  he  had  too  long  neglected  the  true 
ambition  of  a  fine  genius ;  and  by  plunging  into  business  and  afiairs 
which  requirb  much  less  capacity,  but  greater  firmness  of  mind, 
than  the  pursuits  of  learning,  had  exposed  himself  to  such  grievous 
calamities. 

§  18.  Time  was  passing  rapidly,  and  nothing  had  yet  been  done 
in  parliament  for  the  war.  But  before  the  House  of  Commons  ad- 
journed tor  the  summer,  they  passed  a  unanimous  resolution  to  spend 
their  lives  and  fortunes  in  defence  of  their  religion  and  of  the  palati- 
nate, **  lifting  up  their  hats  in  their  hands  so  high  as  they  could  hold 
them,  as  a  visible  testimony  of  their  unanimous  consent,  in  such 
sort  that  the  like  had  scarce  ever  been  seen  in  parliament"  This 
Bolenm  protestation  and  pledge  was  recorded  in  the  journals.  The 
affairs  of  the  elector  palatine  proceeded  from  bad  to  worse.  His  allies 
fell  rapidly  from  him,  and  made  their  peace  with  the  emperor  Ferdi- 
nand IT.  Frederick  professed  his  willingness  to  resign  all  claim  to 
Bohemia ;  but  in  the  mean  time,  unable  to  defend  the  upper  palati- 
nate, he  withdrew  upon  the  lower,  pursued  by  Tilly  at  the  head  of  the 
imperial  forces.  James's  son-in-law,  the  chosen  champion  of  pro- 
testantism, was  in  danger  of  losing  all  his  dominions.  To  avoid  such 
an  eventuality  and  enable  Mansfeld  to  keep  the  field,  the  king 
re-assembled  parliament  and  demanded  a  subsidy  (November  20). 
Bdt  the  commons  were  in  no  hurry  to  meet  the  demand.  Their 
late  successes  encouraged  them  to  higher  flights.  They  had  already 
claimed,  by  the  encouragement  of  sir  Edward  Coke,  to  act  as  a 
court  of  judicature  and  administer  oaths  like  the  House  of 
Lords ;  but  the  claim  had  been  stoutly  resisted  by  the  peers.  When 
the  lord  treasurer  stated  the  occasion  for  the  supply,  reminding 
them  of  their  solemn  promise,  so  lately  made,  he  was  tamely 
listened  to.  They  deferred  the  question  to  a  consideration  of  griev- 
ances, and,  omitting  all  reference  to  the  unfortunate  Frederick, 
drew  up  a  long  remonstrance  against  popery  in  general,  indulgences 
to  catholics,  and  the  proiiosed  marriage  with  the  infanta.  As  soon 
as  the  king  heard  of  the  intended  remonstrance,  he  wrote  a  letter  to 
the  speaker,  in  which  he  sharply  rebuked  the  house  for  openly 
debating  matters  on  which  their  opinion  had  not  been  required; 
and  he  strictly  forbad  them  to  meddle  with  anything  that  regarded 
his  government  or  deep  matters  of  state.  The  commons  replied  by 
inristing  on  their  former  remonstrance,  and  their  right  to  debate 
17* 


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358 


JAMES  L 


Ceat. 


on  any  budness  they  pleased.  So  yigorous  an  answer  was  nowise 
calculated  to  appease  the  king.  It  is  said,  when  the  approach  of 
the  committee  who  were  to  present  it  was  notified  to  him,  he  ordered 
twelve  stools  to  be  brought  for  the  twelve  ambassadors,  as  he 
termed  them.  In  his  answer  he  commented  on  the  unfitness  of  the 
house  to  enter  on  afiairs  of  government,  and  told  them  that  their 
privileges  were  derived  from  the  -grace  and  permission  of  his  an- 
cestors, but  that,  as  long  as  they  contained  themselves  within  the 
limits  of  their  duty,  he  would  be  careful  to  maintain  and  preserve 
their  lawful  liberties  and  privileges. 

This  open  pretensi  »n  of  the  king's  naturally  gave  great  alarm  to 
the  conmions.  in  a  thin  house,  the  day  before  they  adjourned,  they 
drew  up  a  protestation  (December  18),  in  which  they  repeated 
their  former  claims  for  freedom  of  speech,  and  an  unbounded 
authority  to  interpose  with  their  advice  and  counsel;  and  they 
asserted  "  that  the  liberties,  franchises,  privileges,  and  jurisdictions 
of  parliament  are  the  ancient  and  undoubted  birthright  and  in- 
heritance of  the  subjects  of  England."  ♦  On  the  30th,  the  king 
sent  for  the  journals,  and  with  his  own  hand,  before  the  council,  he 
tore  out  this  protestation,  and  ordered  his  reasons  to  lie  inserted  in 
the  council  book.  After  the  dissolution  (Feb.  1622),  sir  Edwaid 
Ck)ke  was  sent  to  the  Tower,t  and  Pym  was  confined  to  his 
own  house ;  some  others,  as  a  lighter  punishment,  were  sent  to 
Ireland,  on  the  king's  service. 

§  14.  James  now  attempted  to  raise  money  by  a  Benevolence, 
and  obtiiined  enough  to  support  Vere's  volunteers  for  a  few  months 
longer.  He  then  had  recourse  to  diplomacy ;  but  diplomacy  with- 
out the  supi»rt  of  parliament  was  of  little  avail.  Step  by  step  the 
palatinate  was  lost.  He  now  turned  his  attention  to  Spain ;  and 
he  doubted  not,  if  he  could  effect  his  son's  marriage  with  the  infanta, 
but  that,  after  so  intimate  a  conjunction,  the  restoration  of  the 
pal  itine  could  easily  be  obtained.  A  dispensation  from  Rome  was 
requisite  for  the  marriage  of  the  infanta  with  a  protestant  prince; 
and  the  king  of  Simin,  having  undertaken  to  procure  that  dispen- 
sation, had  thereby  acquired  the  means  of  retarding  at  pleasure  or  of 
forwarding  the  marriage,  and  at  the  same  time  of  concealing  entirely 
his  designs  from  the  court  of  England.  To  soften  the  objection  on 
the  score  of  religion,  James  issued  public  orders  for  discharging  all 
popish  recusants  who  were  imprisoned;  and  it  was  daily  appre- 


*  The  language  is  studiously  ambiini 
ous,  and  was  doubtless  suggesUd  by  Coke. 
The  sting  was  in  the  tail  of  it. 

f  Sir  Edward  Coke,  the  rival  an. I 
enemy  of  Bacon,  and  the  most  eminent 
lawyer  of  those  times,  had  been  created 


chief  JusUce  of  the  King's  Bench  fai  1613; 
but  having  lost  the  favour  of  James  by  Us 
opposition  to  the  court,  he  was  deprived 
of  his  seat  upon  the  bench  in  1616^  and 
WW  returned  to  parliament  in  19XL 


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AJX  1621-1628.  THE  SPANISH  MATCH.  369 

bended  that  he  would  forbid,  for  the  future,  the  execution  of  the 
penal  laws  enacted  against  them.  By  this  concession,  as  well  as  by 
the  skilful  negociations  of  the  earl  of  Bristol,  James's  ambassador 
in  Spain,  matters  seemed  to  have  been  nearly  brought  to  a  success- 
ful conclusion,  when  all  these  flattering  prospects  were  suddenly 
blasted.  Buckingham  was  persuaded  that  a  visit  to  Spain  by 
Charles  himself  would  be  a  more  expeditious  method  of  securing 
the  hand  of  the  infanta  than  the  involved  and  circuitous  route  of 
diplomacy.  The  mind  of  the  young  prince  was  inflamed  by  this 
romantic  idea ;  and,  having  with  difficulty  obtained  the  consent  of 
the  king,  the  prince  and  Buckingham,  with  three  attendants,  passed 
disguised  and  undiscovered  through  France,  under  the  names  of 
John  and  Thomas  Smith.  They  even  ventured  into  a  court-boll  at 
Paris,  where  Charles  saw  the  princess  Henrietta  Maria,  then  13 
years  old,  whom  he  afterwards  espoused.  In  18  days  after  their 
departure  from  London  they  arrived  at  Madrid  (March  7,  1623), 
and  surprised  everybody  by  so  unusual  a  step.  Philip,  by  the' 
most  studious  civilities,  showed  the  respect  which  he  bore  to  his* 
royal  guest.  He  conferred  on  him  the  golden  key.  He  introduced 
Charles  into  the  palace  with  the  pomp  and  ceremony  accorded 
to  the  kings  of  Spain  on  their  coronation.  The  infanta,  how- 
ever, was  only  shown  to  her  lover  in  presence  of  the  court,  the 
Spanish  ideas  of  decency  being  so  strict  as  not  to  allow  of  any 
further  intercourse  till  the  arrival  of  the  dispensation.  A  treaty 
was  soon  concluded  in  which  nothing  could  reasonably  be  found 
fault  with,  except  one  article,  in  which  the  king  promised  that 
the  children  should  be  educated  by  the  princess  till  ten  years  of 
age.  This  condition  could  not  be  insisted  on  but  with  a  view  of 
seasoning  their  minds  with  catholic  principles ;  and  though  so  tender 
an  age  seemed  a  sufficient  security  against  theological  prejudices, 
yet  the  same  reason  which  made  the  pope  insert  that  article  should 
have  induced  James  to  reject  it.  But  besides  the  public  treaty 
there  were  separate  articles,  privately  sworn  to  by  the  king  and  his 
council,  in  which  he  promised  to  suspend  the  penal  laws  against 
catholics,  to  procure  a  repeal  of  them  in  parliament,  and  to  grant  a 
toleration  for  the  exercise  of  the  catholic  religion  in  private  houses. 
But  meanwhile  Gregory  XV.,  who  granted  the  dispensation,  died, 
and  Urban  VIIL,  his  successor,  delayed  sending  a  new  dispensation 
in  hopes  of  extorting  fresh  concessions.  As  a  further  impediment, 
a  condition  was  imposed  that  the  infanta  should  remain  a  year  in 
Spain  after  her  marriage.  Charles  chafed  against  these  restrictions. 
Month  after  month  slipped  away,  and  he  was  no  nearer  the 
attainment  of  his  object.  James  ^so  became  impatient.  On  the 
first  hint  Charles  obtained  permission  to  return,  and  Philip  graced 


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860  TAMES  I.  CsAP.  zx. 

Ms  departure  with  all  the  circumstances  of  elaborate  civility  and 
respect  which  had  attended  his  reception.  But  Charles  was  deeply 
offended,  and  when  he  left  Madrid  he  was  firmly  determined  to  break 
off  the  treaty  with  Spain.    He  reached  England  October  5. 

§  15.  A  rupture  with  Spain,  and  the  loss  of  two  millions  of  crowns, 
were  pro8i.ects  little  agreeable  to  the  pacific  and  indigent  James ;  but 
finding  his  only  son  bent  against  a  match  which  had  always  been 
opposed  by  his  people  and  his  parliament,  he  yielded  to  difficulties 
which  he  could  not  overcome.  Buckingham  assumed  the  direction 
of  the  negociations ;  and  Bristol  received  positive  orders  not  to 
deliver  the  proxy,  which  had  been  left  in  his  hands,  or  conclude 
the  marriage,  till  security  were  given  for  the  full  restitution  of  the 
palatinate.  Short  of  an  appeal  to  the  sword,  the  Spaniard  promised 
everything;  but  without  the  sword  the  palatinate  was  not  to  be 
recovered.  If  James  wis  to  regsun  his  daughter's  dominions  he 
must  prepare  for  war;  but  war  could  only  be  carrl:^  on  with  the 
support  of  parliament.  The  infanta  laid  aside  the  title  of  princess 
of  Wales,  which  she  had  borne  after  the  arrival  of  the  dispensation 
from  Rome,  and  dropped  the  study  of  the  English  language. 

A  fourth  parliament  met  February  19,  1624,  but  their  enthu- 
siasm in  behalf  of  the  palatinate  had  evaporated  with  the  tossing 
up  of  their  hats  in  1621.  They  were  now  fidly  bent  on  enforcing 
the  penal  laws  against  catholics  with  the  utmost  vigour.  It  was 
ordered  that  every  knight  and  burgess  should  act  as  informer, 
and  present  to  the  house  the  names  of  persons  suspected  of  popery 
in  their  several  counties  and  boroughs  (April  3).  The  pros- 
pect of  a  war  with  Spain  was  hailed  with  enthusiasm.  It  was 
urged  by  both  houses.  Even  the  king  shan-d  in  the  general  joy, 
and  with  ready  condescension  informed  the  houses  that  this  was 
the  way  to  make  him  "  in  love  with  parliaments."  The  duke, 
attended  by  the  prince,  delivered  from  a  scaffold  in  Whitehall  an 
account  of  their  proceedings  at  Madrid.  He  was  acquitted  of  all 
blame.  The  people  displayed  their  triumph  by  public  bonfires  and 
rejoicings,  and  by  insults  to  the  Spanish  ministers;  and  Buckingham 
became  the  favourite  oi  the  public  and  of  the  parliament  The 
Commons  voted  a  subsidy  bill  of  300,0D0Z.,  containing  a  clause  of 
an  unprecedented  nature,  that  the  money  should  be  intrusted  to 
treasurers  of  their  own  nomination.  Advantage  was  also  taken 
of  the  present  juncture  to  pass  the  bill  against  monopolies,  which 
had  formerly  been  encouraged  by  the  king,  but  which  had  failed  by 
the  rupture  between  the  king  and  the  last  House  of  Ck)mmons ;  and 
the  commons  corroborated  their  newly  revived  power  of  impeachment 
by  preferring  one  against  the  earV  of  Middlesex,  the  treasurer,  who 
was  found  guilty  of  malversation  and  of  other  misdemeanours* 


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▲.D.  1638-1625.  HIS  DEATH.  361 

though  he  had  been  a  careful  guardian  of  the  public  purse,  and  had 
done  much  towards  remedying  financial  disorders. 

§  16.  All  James's  measures,  and  all  the  alliances  into  which  he 
entered,  were  now  founded  on  the  system  of  enmity  to  the  Austrian 
family,  and  of  war  toba  carried  on  for  the  recovery  of  the  palatinate. 
An  army  of  12,000  men,  under  Mansfeld,  was  levied  in  England  and 
sent  over  to  Holland,  which  had  renewed  the  war  with  the  Spanish 
monarchy.  A  treaty  was  entered  into  with  France,  which  includfd 
a  marriage  between  Charles  and  the  princess  Henrietta ;  and,  as  the 
prince  during  his  abode  in  Spain  had  given  a  verbal  promise  to  allow 
the  infanta  the  education  of  her  children  till  the  age  of  thirteen, 
this  article  was  here  inserted  in  the  treaty.  In  the  spring  of  1625 
James  was  seized  with  a  tertian  ague;  and  after  some  fits  expired 
on  the  27th  of  March,  after  a  reign  over  England  of  22  years  and 
some  (lays,  and  in  the  59th  year  of  his  age.  His  reign  over  Scot- 
land was  admost  of  equal  duration  with  his  life.  No  prince  was 
erver  so  much  exposed  to  the  opposite  extremes  of  calumny  and 
flattery,  of  satire  and  panegyric.  His  generosity  bordered  on  pro- 
fusion, his  learning  on  pedantry^  hi^  pacific  disposition  on  pusillani- 
mity, his  wisdom  on  cunning,  his  friendship  on  fancy.  His  capacity 
was  considerable^  but  he  was  fitter  to  discourse  on  general  maxims 
than  to  conduct  any  intricate  business  with  energy  and  despatch. 
AwKward  and  ungainly  in  his  person,  he  was  ill  qualified  to  com- 
mand respect  partial  and  undisoerning  in  his  affections,  he  was 
little  fitted  to  acquire  general  love.  Never  had  sovereign  a  higher 
notion  of  kingly  dignity,  never  was  any  less  qualified  by  nature  to 
sustain  it,  for  he  hated  business  and  spent  much  of  his  time  in 
hunting  and  in  field  sport«.  From  the  charge  of  immorality 
brought  against  him  by  the  libellers  of  the  Stuarts  he  was  entirely 
free,  though  his  manners  were  not  elegant,  nor  his  language  re- 
fined. He  spoke  broad  Scotch  to  the  end  of  his  life,  and  his  con- 
versation was  often  interspersed  with  humour  more  pointed  than 
polite. 


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Obrene  of  pattern  tar  a  Bitwd  of  Charles  L    carolts.  d  :  qiuaq  :  bmt  t  fs  :  n  t 
HI :  EBX.    Bust  of  Ung  to  left. 


CHAPTER  XXL 
0HARLE8  I.  h.  A.D.  1600 ;  r.  1625-1649.— FBOH  His  aogession  to 

THB  OOXMENOEXENT  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR.      A.D.  1625-1642. 

§  1.  Accession  of  Charles.  Proceedings  in  parliament.  §  2.  Expedition 
against  Spain.  Second  parliament.  Impeachment  of  Buckingham.  §  3. 
Illegal  taxation.  War  with  France.  Expedition  to  the  isle  of  Rh^.  §  4. 
Third  parliament.  Petition  of  Right.  Struggle  between  the  king  and 
commons.  ^  5.  Assassination  of  Buckingham.  Surrender  of  Rochelle. 
§  d.  New  session.  Tonnage  and  poundage.  Religious  disputes.  Dissolu- 
tion of  parliament.  §  7.  Peace  with  France  and  Spain.  The  king's 
advisers.  Laud's  innovations  in  the  church.  Arbitrary  and  illegal 
goTernment.  §8.  Ship-money.  Trial  of  Hampden.  §9  ./i»^ntents 
in  Scotland.  The  Covenant.  Episcopacy  abolished.  Scotch  wars.  §  10. 
Fourth  English  parliament.  Riots  in  London.  §  II.  Scotch  war. 
Rout  at  Newbum,  and  treaty  of  Ripon.  Council  at  York,  and  summon- 
ing of  the  Lone  Parliament.  §  12.  Meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament. 
Impeachment  of  Strafford.  Great  authority  of  the  commons  Triennial 
bill.  §  13.  Strafford's  trial.  His  attainder  and  execution.  §  14. 
Court  of  High  Commission  and  Star  Chamber  abolished.  King's  journey 
to  Scotland.  §  15.  Irish  rebellion.  §  16.  Meeting  of  the  English 
parliament.  The  remonstrance.  Impeachment  of  the  bishops,  f  17. 
Accusation  of  lord  Kimbolton  and  the  five  members.  The  king  leaves 
London.  The  militia  bill.  The  king  arrives  at  York.  §  18.  Prepara- 
tions for  a  civil  vrar.    Thd  king  erects  his  standard  at  Nottingham. 

§  1.  Chables  I.,  the  second  son  of  James  1.,  was  born  at  Dunfermline, 
November  19, 1600.  By  the  death  of  his  brother  Henry,  in  1612,  he 
became  heir-apparent,  but  was  not  created  prince  of  Wales  imtil 
1616.  Soon  after  his  accession  (May  27),  he  completed  his  marriage 
with  the  French  princess  Henrietta,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  and  of 
Mary  de  Medici.  He  had  espoused  her  by  proxy  at  Paris,  and  in 
June,  1625,  Buckingham  conducted  her  to  England.  On  the  18th 
a  new  parliament  assembled  at  Westminster.  The  last  parliament 
was  dissolved  on  the  death  of  the  king,  in  a  happy  state  of  ex- 


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AJ>.  1625.  PROCEEDINGS  IN   PARLIAMENT. 

citenient  at  a  prospect  of  a  war  with  Spain;  and  Charles  not 
unnaturally  expected  that  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign  the 
commons  would  display  their  affection  hy  granting  him  supplies 
adequate  to  conduct  a  war  which  had  been  undertaken  with  the 
apparent  approbation  of  the  people.  But  that  house  was  now 
governed  by  men  of  advanced  views,  distinguished  by  their  ability 
and  parliamentary  experience.  Some  of  them,  like  Pym,  were  un- 
favourable to  monarchy,  and  preferred  a  form  of  government  in  which 
the  supremacy  should  no  longer  reside  in  the  crown,  but  exclusively 
in  the  commons.  They  now  formed  themselves  into  a  regular  party, 
united  by  fixed  aims  and  projects,  as  well  as  by  the  hardships 
they  had  experienced  in  the  late  reign.  Among  these  sir  Edward 
Coke,  sir  Robert  Philips,  sir  Francis  Seymour,  sir  Dudley  Digges, 
sir  John  Eliot,  sir  Thomas  Wentworth,  Mr.  Selden,  and  Mr. 
Pym  were  the  most  prominent.  Animated  with  a  warm  regard 
for  liberty,  they  were  resolved  to  seize  the  opportunity  which 
the  king's  necessities  offered  of  reducing  the  prerogative  within 
narrower  limits.  With  these  views  the  commons  voted  only  two 
subsidies  (about  140,0007.)  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  formidable 
war  in  which  Charles  was  already  engaged ;  and  whereas  it  had 
been  usual  at  the  commencement  of  every  reign  from  the  time  of 
Henry  VI.  to  grant  tonnage  and  poundage  for  life,  they  restricted  the 
grant  to  one  year.  In  consequence  of  the  plague,  parliament  was  ad- 
journed, and  met  at  Oxford  (August  1st).  The  king  laid  the  state 
of  his  affairs  before  them.  He  showed  that  upwards  of  a  million 
a  year  was  necessary  for  the  conduct  of  the  war  and  for  the  defence 
of  Ireland,  and  even  condescended  to  use  entreaties;  but  the 
commons  remained  inexorable.  **  We  are  called  hither,"  said  one 
of  them,  **  first  for  religion,  secondly  for  a  supply.  Our  coldness  in 
religion  is  a  powerful  cause  of  the  previous  visitation  upon  us." 
Accordingly  they  proceeded  to  remedy  this  defect  by  petition- 
ing the  king  to  give  no  connivance  to  papists — alluding  to  the 
queen  and  her  attendants — ^by  passing  an  act  "  for  punishing  divers 
abuses  on  the  Lord's  Day,  commonly  called  Sunday"— {the  puritans 
objecting  to  the  use  of  the  word  Sunday  as  of  heathen  origin) — and 
by  falling  foul  upon  two  books  written  by  a  doctor  Montagu,  in 
which  he  had  undertaken  to  show  that  the  doctrines  of  the  church 
of  England  were  not  Calvinistic,  nor  the  pope  Antichrist.  Finding 
that  the  commons  in  their  present  temper  were  not  inclined  to  pay 
any  attention  to  his  demands,  Charles  dLssolved  them  (August  12.)* 


*  A  trifle  shows  the  new  tendencies  of 
the  oomoKMis  at  this  time.  For  on  their 
appearance  ai  the  lords'  they  resolved, 
^tbatif  the  lordi  tccop  bare,  they  to  do  tbe 


like ;  tmt  it  they  oorer  their  heads,  tha 
q)eaker  and  the  oomnons  are  to  do  tha 


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364  CHARLES  I.  Chap,  zxl 

To  supply  the  want  of  parliamentary  i^d,  Charles  issued  privy  seals 
for  borrowing  money  from  his  subjects.  The  advantage  reaped  by 
this  expedient  was  a  small  compensation  for  the  disgust  which  it 
occasioned:  by  means,  however,  of  that  supply,  and  by  other  ex- 
pedients, he  was  enabled,  though  with  some  difficulty,  to  equip  a 
fleet  under  sir  Edward  Cecil,  lately  created  viscount  Wimbledon, 
to  intercept  the  Spanish  plate  fleet. 

§  2.  The  armament,  which  consisted  of  80  ships  and  10,000 
soldiers,  had  been  commenced  in  April,  1625,  and  was  to  have 
been  despatched  in  May,  but  in  consequence  of  the  temper  of  tho 
commons  in  refusing  Uie  needful  supplies,  it  was  not  ready  before 
Octx)ber,  when  it  sufifered  severely  from  the  lateness  of  the  season. 
It  reached  Cadiz  October  22.  The  fort  defending  the  harbour  was 
surreudered,  but  the  men  under  Cecil's  command,  who  were  pressed 
in  haste  and  ill-disciplined,  fell  into  disorder,  by  indulging  too  much 
in  Spanish  wines.  Cadiz  was  too  strong  to  be  taken.  Putting 
to  sea,  the  fleet  steered  in  the  direction  of  the  treasure-ships,  which 
arrived  safely  in  the  bay  two  days  after  Wimbledon  had  left  it. 
Such  a  disastrous  result,  which  at  other  times  would  have  pro- 
voked little  comment,  was  magnified  into  a  national  humiliation 
in  the  present  temper  of  the  nation.  For  want  of  pay,  soldiers 
were  kept  embodied,  and  were  billeted  in  private  houses,  thus  in- 
creasing the  general  discontent. 

Whilst  Wimbledon  was  at  Cadiz,  Buckingham  had  visited  the 
Hague  to  form  a  confederacy  against  Spain.  In  addition  to  so 
formidable  an  opponent,  Charles  was  in  danger  of  a  conflict  with 
France.  At  the  close  of  his  reign,  James  had  consented  to  allow 
an  English  squadron  to  assist  Louis  XIII.  in  quelling  the  rebellion 
of  his  protestant  subjects  in  Rochelle.  The  ships  had  been  recalled 
by  Charles  and  Buckingham.  Hearing  that  Louis  and  the  protes- 
tants  were  at  peace,  Charles  permitted  his  brother-in-law  to  use 
the  ships.  The  act  was  greedily  laid  hold  of  by  the  king's  enemies 
and  Buckingham's,  to  hold  them  up  in  the  odious  light  of  using 
English  forces  against  the  protestants.  A  second  parliament  was 
summoned  (February  6, 1626).  Great  and  successful  efforts  had 
been  employed  to  secure  the  return  of  members  of  similar  sentiments 
to  the  last.  The  commons  made  the  same  order  as  before,  '*  that  all 
their  members  should  give  in  the  names  of  all  persons,  in  trust,  who 
are  suspected  of  popery."  On  February  24  they  resolved  them- 
selves into  a  committee  to  consider  the  state  of  the  king  and  the 
kingdom;  and  all  considerations  of  supply  were  postponed.  The 
duke  of  Buckingham,  who  had  become  every  day  more  unpopular, 
was  obliged  to  sustain  two  violent  attacks  this  session — one  from 
the  earl  of  Bristol,  another  from  the  House  of  Commons.    The  earl 


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4.D.  lftS5-163«.     IMPEACHMENT  OF  BUCKINGHAM.  365 

of  Bristd  had  mortally  offended  Buckingham  in  the  affair  of  the 
Spanish  marriage,  and  was  conaequeatly  obnoxious  to  Charles. 
When  the  parliament  was  summoned,  Charles  had  given  orders  that 
no  writ,  as  was  customary,  should  be  sent  to  Bristol,  as  that  noble- 
man was  under  restraint.  Bristol  applied  to  the  House  of  Lords  by 
petitiim,  and  craved  their  good  offices  with  the  king  for  obtaining 
his  due  as  a  peer  of  the  realm.  His  writ  was  sent  him,  but  accom- 
panied with  a  letter  from  the  lord-keeper,  Coventry,  commanding 
him,  in  the  king's  name,  to  absent  hiznself  from  parliament,  as  his 
restraint  still  remained  in  force.  Bristol  refused  to  obey,  and 
took  his  seat  Provoked  at  these  instances  of  vigour,  which  the 
courtiers  denominated  contumacy,  Charles  ordered  his  attorney- 
general  to  enter  an  accusation  of  high  treason  against  him.  By  way 
of  recrimination,  Bristol  accused  Buckingham  of  being  the  author  of 
the  war  with  Spain,  and  of  the  loss  of  the  palatinate.  To  carry 
on  their  proceedings  with  more  despatch,  the  commons  appointed 
various  committees  of  enquiry.  The  conmiittee  on  religion  re- 
solved on  enacting  severer  laws  agfdnst  pa^nsts ;  that  on  grievances 
denounced  purveyance  and  the  levying  tonnage  and  poundage  with- 
out consent  of  parliament.  But  the  most  important  was  directed 
against  the  duke  of  Buckingham.  After  they  had  voted  that 
common  &me  was  a  sufficient  ground  of  accusation,  they  proceeded 
to  frame  regular  article»  against  Buckingham  (May  8).  They 
accused  him  of  having  united  many  offices  in  his  own  person ;  of 
neglecting  to  guard  the  seas,  insomuch  that  many  merchant-shipp 
had  fiillen  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy ;  of  delivering  ships  to  the 
French  king,  in  order  to  serve  against  the  Huguenots ;  of  selling 
honours  and  offices ;  of  accepting  extensive  grants  from  the  crown ; 
of  procuring  titles  for  his  kindred;  and  of  administering  physic 
to  the  late  king  without  acquainting  his  physicians.  As  the 
commons  called  for  no  evidence,  it  is  impossible  to  decide  how 
£eu-  these  articles  were  well  founded,  llie  duke  replied  to  these 
charges;  but  the  commons  were  dissatisfied,  and  petitioned 
the  king  to  remove  Buckingham  from  his  councils.  Charles  felt 
that  to  abandon  Bnckingham,  whose  chief  fault  was  devotion  to 
his  service,  would  be  a  stain  upon  his  honour  as  a  man,  and 
derogatory  to  him  as  a  king.  If  the  commons  were  to  determine 
who  should  be  his  ministers,  the  prerogatives  of  the  crown  would  be 
transferred  to  them.  He  preferred  to  abandon  all  hope  of  supply, 
much  as  it  was  needed  to  recover  the  palatinate,  and  dissolved  the 
parliament  (June  15). 

§  3.  By  advice  of  his  council,  Charles  now  took  steps  to  raise  the 
funds  necessary  for  the  war  with  Spain  without  the  consent  of  the 
parliament   On  July  26  he  issued  a  commission  for  levying  customs 


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366  CHARLES  I.  Chap,  xxl 

and  imposts,  "intending  to  have  this  settled  by  parliament/' 
as  in  former  reigns.  He  required  loans  and  Benevolences;  he 
compounded  with  recusants.  From  the  nobility  he  desired  assist- 
ance ;  from  the  city  a  loan  of  100,000/.  The  former  contributed 
slowly ;  the  latter  gave  at  last  a  flat  refusal.  Each  of  the  maritime 
towns  was  required,  with  the  assistance  of  the  adjacent  counties, 
to  arm  so  many  vessels  as  were  appointed  them.  The  city  of 
XiOndon  was  rated  at  20  ships.  This  is  the  first  appearance,  in 
OJharles's  reign,  of  ship-money;  a  taxation  which  had  once  been 
imi)osed  by  Elizabeth,  but  which  afterwards,  when  carried  some 
steps  further  by  Charles,  created  such  violent  discontents.  But 
after  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Lutter,  between  the  king  of  Den- 
mark, the  ally  of  England,  and  count  Tilly,  the  imperial  general, 
in  which  the  former  was  totally  defeated,  money  becatne  more 
necessary  than  ever,  in  order  to  support  a  prince  who  was  so  nearly 
allied  to  Charles.  After  some  deliberation,  an  act  of  council  was 
passed,  importing  that,  as  the  urgency  of  afifairs  admitted  not "  the 
way  of  parliament,"  the  most  speedy,  equal,  and  convenient  method 
of  supply  was  by  a  gkneral  loan  from  the  subject,  "  according  as 
every  man  was  assessed  in  the  rolls  of  the  last  subsidy.**  Commis- 
sioners, invested  with  almost  inquisitorial  power,  were  appointed  to 
hjvy  the  money.  Many  refused  ;  some,  active  in  encouraging  their 
neighbours  to  resist,  were  by  warrant  of  council  thrown  into  prison 
or  sent  to  the  Fleet. 

The  ill  feelin^4  bet>*een  France  and  England  was  now  ready  to 
burst  into  a  flame.  Louis  XIII ,  imder  the  guidance  of  cardinal 
Richelieu,  proposed  to  lay  siege  to  the  greit  protestant  sea- 
port of  Rochelle ;  and  Charles,  in  answer  to  the  demands  of  the 
French  protestants,  felt  himself  bound  in  honour  to  interfere  and 
proclaim  war  against  France.  Other  causes  contributed  to  the  ill 
feeling  between  the  two  crowns.  In  the  state  of  irritation  against 
the  catholics,  which  had  grown  stronger  daily,  the  king  had  not 
been  able  to  carry  out  those  indulgences  for  the  exercise  of  their 
faith,  which  Louis  had  been  led  to  expect.  He  had  even  found  it 
necessary  to  dismiss  all  his  queen's  French  servants,  contrary  to 
the  articles  of  the  marriage  treaty.  Buckingham  sailed  first  to 
Rochelle,  with  a  fleet  of  nearly  100  sail  and  an  army  of  7000  men ; 
but  though  Rochelle  was  in  possession  of  the  Huguenots,  and  was 
then  boideged  by  cardinal  Richelieu,  the  inhabitants,  mistrusting 
the  English  commander,  refused  to  admit  him.  The  duke  then 
landed  on  the  isle  of  Rh^ — a  point  of  great  advantage,  and  admirably 
chosen  for  protecting  Rochelle.  Its  principal  fort  was  St.  Martin's ; 
and,  if  the  duke  had  been  properly  supported,  it  must  have  fallen 
into  his  hands.    Charles  pleaded  and  urged  his  mlhisters  to  the 


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A.D.  16JHH1628.*         THIKD  PARLIAMENT.  36? 

utmost ;  but  money  and  men  were  not  forthcoming,  and  there  were 
those  at  home  who  did  not  desire  that  Buckingham  should  be 
successful  and  thus  obtain  greater  credit  than  ever  with  his  master, 
A  French  force  landed  on  the  island,  and  Buckingham,  unable  to 
resist  superior  numbers,  after  making  one  more  gallant  and  in- 
effectual stand,  gave  orders  for  a  retreat  Of  the  troops  sent  out, 
less  than  one-half  returned  to  England  (November,  1627). 

S  4.  Meanwhile  the  money  levied  under  colour  of  the  prerogative 
had  come  in  very  slowly,  and  had  left  such  ill  humour  in  the 
nation,  that  it  apjieared  dangerous  to  renew  the  experiment,  and  the 
absolute  necessity  of  supply  forced  the  king  to  call  a  third  parlia- 
ment. The  commons  who  assembled  (March  17, 1628)  were  men 
of  the  samo  spirit  as  their  predecessors,  and  possessed  of  such 
riches  that  their  property  was  computed  to  surpass  three  times 
that  of  the  House  of  Peers.  Some  of  them  had  been  harshly  used 
by  the  court  or  thrown  into  prison  for  refusing  the  loan ;  and  the 
restilt  was  quickly  shown  in  the  speed  with  which  they  declared, 
by  their  votes,  that  all  such  imprisonment  and  all  such  loans 
were  illegal  The  king  told  them,  in  his  opening  speech,  that 
it  was  his  duty  and  theirs  "  to  maintain  their  church  and  com- 
monwealth ;  and  certainly,**  he  continued,  "  there  never  was  a 
time  in  which  this  duty  was  more  necessarily  required  than 
now.  I  therefore,  judging  a  parliament  to  be  the  ancient,  speediest, 
imd  best  way,  in  common  danger,  to  give  such  a  supply  as  to 
secure  ourselves,  and  to  stive  our  friends  from  universal  ruin,  hav* 
called  you  together.  Every  man  miist  do  acco!-ding  to  his  con- 
science; wherefore,  if  you  (as  God  forbid)  should  not  do  your 
duty  in  contributing  what  the  state  needs,  I  must  do  mine,  and  use 
other  means  which  Ood  hath  put  into  my  hand.''  To  conciliate  the 
commons,  Charles  offered  certain  concessions.  He  agreed  to  their 
pe'ition  for  rigid  execution  of  the  laws  against  catholics;  he  re- 
leased 78  gentlemen  who  had  been  imprisoned  for  resisting  the  loan. 
The  commons  promised  five  subsidies,  but  refused  to  pass  any  bill  to 
that  effect  until  they  had  secured  the  king's  assent  to  the  liberties 
and  privileges  claimed  by  them.  Forced  loans.  Benevolences, 
taxes  without  consent  of  parliament,  arbitrary  imprisonments,  the 
billeting  of  soldiers,  martial  law — these  weri  the  grievances  com- 
plained of,  and  against  these  a  sufficient  remedy  was  to  be  provided. 
The  commons  pretended  not,  as  they  affirmed,  to  any  unusual 
powers  or  privileges :  they  aimed  at  securing  those  which  had  been 
transmitted  from  their  ancestors ;  and  their  petition,  which  provided 
against  all  these  abuses,  and  which  was  founded  on  Magna  Carta 
and  other  ancient  statutes,  they  resolved  to  call  a  petition  of  right 
— as  implying  that  it  contained  a  corroboration  or  explanation  of  the 


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868  CHARLES  t  *       Chap  xxl 

ancient  constitution,  not  any  infringement  of  royal  prerogative,  or 
acquisition  of  new  liberties.  To  some  of  these  the  king  offered  no 
objection.  He  was  ready  to  promise  never  to  ruse  a  forced  loan, 
to  billet  soldiers  upon  unwilling  freeholders,  or  execute  martial  law 
in  time  of  peace,  but  he  shrank  from  promising  never  to  fiend  any 
one  to  prison  without  cause  shown.  This  was,  in  effect,  to  part 
with  his  power  of  punishing  political  offences,  and  to  leave  them  to 
the  decision  of  the  judges. 

The  lords  were  disposed  to  modify  the  bill  by  a  saving  clause  in 
behalf  of  the  sovereign  power.  But  the  commons  stood  firm, 
sent  th*^  bill  in  its  original  state  to  the  upper  house,  and  the  peers 
passed  it  without  any  material  alteration.  Nothing  but  the  royal 
assent  was  now  wanting  to  give  it  the  force  of  a  law.  The  king 
came  to  the  House  of  liords,  sent  for  the  commons,  and,  being 
seated  in  his  chair  of  state,  the  petition  was  read  to  him.  Instead 
of  the  usual  concise  and  clear  form,  by  which  a  bill  is  either  passed 
or  rejected,  Charles  said,  in  answer  to  the  petition  (Juue  2),  "  The 
king  willeth  that  right  be  done  according  to  the  laws  and  customs 
of  the  realm,  and  that  the  statutes  be  put  in  due  execution,  that 
his  subjects  may  have  no  cause  to  complain  of  any  wrongs  or 
oppressions,  contrary  to  their  just  rights  and  liberties,  to  the  preser^ 
vation  whereof  he  holds  himself  in  conscience  as  much  obliged  as  of 
his  own  prerogative."  The  result  might  have  been  foreseen.  The 
commons  returned  in  very  ill  humour.  They  proceeded  to  form  a  re- 
monstrance, and  showed  a  further  disposition  to  censure  the  conduct 
of  Buckingham.  After  some  abortive  attempts  to  divert  the  tempest 
that  was  ready  to  burst  on  the  duke,  the  king  thought  jroper,  ui'on 
a  joint  application  of  the  lords  and  commons,  to  come  to  the  House 
of  Peers.  He  then  commanded  the  clerk  of  the  parliament  to  cut 
out  his  former  answer  from  the  journals ;  and  by  pronouncing  the 
usual  form  of  words,  *'  Let  right  be  done  as  is  desired,"  he  gave  full 
sanction  and  authority  to  the  petition  *  (June  7).  The  commons, 
nevertheless,  proceeded  as  before.  They  resumed  their  censure  of 
Buckingham's  conduct,  to  whom  they  attributed  all  their 
grievances.  They  sent  to  the  lords  a  charge  against  doctor  Manwar- 
ing  for  preaching  a  sermon  on  non-resistance.  He  was  judged  to  be 
imprisoned,  to  pay  a  fine  of  £1000,  to  make  his  submission,  to  be 
suspended  for  three  years,  to  be  disabled  from  ever  preaching  at  court 
or  holding  any  ecclesiastical  or  secular  dignity,  and  his  book  waa 
ordered  to  be  bnmed.  They  also  remonstrated  against "  the  undue 
takingof  tonnage  and  poundage,"  and  would  come  to  no  decision  for 

*  This  oelebratM  Pctitiov  of  Right,  i  Notes  and  lUustralions  at  the  end  of  tills 
wbkh  Is  tbe  second  great  charter  of  Eng-     chapter. 
Uah  Ub^ies,  is  priDte4  in  extmtQ  to  I 


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A.D.  16S8.         ASSASSINATION  OF  BUCKINGHAM.  369 

conceding  it  as  it  had  been  conceded  *  in  times  past  To  avdd  all 
further  remonstrance,  the  king  came  suddenly  to  the  parliament^ 
and  prorogued  it  (June  26). 

§  5.  The  great  object  of  the  displeasure  of  the  commons  was 
soon  after  removed  in  a  sudden  and  unexpected  manner.  The  duke 
of  Buckingham  had  repaired  to  Portsmouth  to  superintend  the  pre- 
parations for  an  expedition  to  relieve  Rochelle.  Immediately  after 
breakfast  (August  23),  as  he  was  passing  through  a  narrow  passage 
and  stooped  down  to  speak  to  sir  Thomas  Fryer,  a  colonel  in  the 
army,  he  was  struck  on  the  sudden,  over  sir  Thomas's  shoulder, 
upon  the  breast  with  a  knife.  Without  uttering  other  words  than 
*'  The  villain  has  killed  me,"  at  the  same  moment  pulling  out  the 
knife,  he  breathed  his  last  Soon  after,  a  man  without  a  hat  was 
seen  walking  very  composedly  before  the  door.  One  crying  out, 
"  Here  is  the  fellow  who  killed  the  duke,"  everybody  ran  to  ask, 
"Which  is  he? "  The  man  very  sedately  answered,  "  I  am  he." 
He  was  now  known  to  be  one  Felton,  who  had  served  under  the 
duke  in  the  station  of  lieutenant.  His  captain  being  killed  in  the 
retreat  at  the  isle  of  Rh^,  Felton  had  applied  for  the  company ;  and, 
being  disappointed,  he  threw  up  his  commission,  and  retired  in  dis- 
content from  the  army.  When  asked  at  whose  instigation  he  had 
performed  the  horrid  deed,  he  replied  that  the  resolution  proceeded 
only  from  himself,  and  the  impulse  of  his  own  conscience ;  and  that 
his  motives  would  appear  if  his  hat  were  found :  for  that,  believing 
he  should  |  erish  in  the  attempt,  he  had  there  taken  care  to  explain 
them.  Though  threatened  with  the  rack,  he  made  no  disclosure,  and 
was  soon  afterwards  executed. 

Meanwhile  the  distress  of  Rochelle  had  risen  to  the  utmost  ex- 
tremity. After  Buckingham's  death,  the  command  of  the  fleet  and 
army  was  conferred  on  the  earl  of  Lindsey,  who,  arriving  before 
BocheUe,  made  some  attempts  to  break  through  the  mole  erected 
across  the  harbour  by  Richelieu ;  but  by  the  delays  of  the  English 
that  work  was  now  fully  finished  and  fortified ;  and  the  inhabitants, 
finding  their  last  hopes  fail  them,  were  reduced  to  surrender 
at  discretion,  even  in  sight  of  the  English  admiral  (October  18, 
162S). 

$  6.  For  many  years  it  had  been  the  habitual  usage  of  the  com- 
mons to  vote  the  king  for  life,  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  certain 
duties  on  exports  and  imports,  familiarly  known  as  tonnage  and 

*  At  any  grant  of  public  monej.  H  any  teneooleiMV  witbotit  oonrent  of  parlla- 

was  naval  for  the  king  to  thank  the  com-  ment,  the  word  waa  used  in  the  strict 

I  for  their  bmevoUnce.    But  It  la  clear  technical  sense  of  an  extraordinary  tax. 

this  debate   that  when  the    king  and  did  not  refer  to  tonnage  and  pomidage. 

d,  by  the  Bill  of  Right,  not  to  levy  | 


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S70  CHARLES  I.  Ohaf.  xxi. 

poundage.  From  nnifonn  practice  it  had  come  to  be  regarded  as 
a  sort  of  prescriptive  right,  for  which  the  assent  of  the  commons 
was  merely  nominaL  In  Charles's  first  parliament  the  commons 
had  voted  it  for  a  year  only;  but  the  peers  had  allowed  the  Inli  to 
drop:  and  as  a  dissolution  of  parliament  followed  soon  after,  no 
attempt  seems  to  have  been  made  for  obtaining  tonnage  and 
poimdage  in  any  other  form.  Charles,  meanwhile,  continued  to 
levy  this  duty  by  his  own  authority,  and  the  nation  was  so  accus- 
tomed to  this  exertion  of  royal  power,  that  no  scruple  was  raised 
against  it.  He  was  anxious,  however,  to  have  the  matter  settled. 
He  even  condescended  so  far  as  to  assure  the  commons  that  he  had 
no  intention  to  challenge  these  duties  as  a  right,  and  pleaded  the 
necessity  he  was  under  to  take  it  imtil  they  had  formally  granted  it. 
The  case  was  urgent.  It  was  precisely  analogous  to  stopping  the 
supplies.  Without  it  the  administration  of  the  country  could  not 
be  carried  on.  It  would  have  been  more  dignified  and  candid  in  the 
commons  to  have  returned  a  positive  answer  at  once ;  but  this 
was  not  their  policy.  The  longer  they  delayed,  the  greater  would 
be  the  king's  necessities ;  the  easier  their  victory.  They  diverted 
their  attention  from  tonnage  and  )X)undage  to  controversial  theology, 
to  debates  on  Arminianism  and  the  due  interpretation  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  On  the  28th  of  January,  Charles  sent  them 
a  message  to  proceed  with  the  bill  of  tonnage  and  poundage.  They 
excused  themselves  on  the  ground  that  their  attention  was  occupied 
with  religion.  Week  after  week  passed  away,  and  the  settlement 
of  the  question  was  as  distant  as  ever. 

On  March  2,  sir  John  Eliot  framed  a  remonstrance  against 
levying  those  duties  without  consent  of  parliament,  which  the 
speaker  and  the  clerk  refused  to  read.  He  read  it  himself.  The 
question  being  then  called  for,  the  speaker,  sir  John  Finch,  said, 
^  That  he  had  a  command  from  the  king  to  adjourn,  and  to  put  no 
question."  Upon  which  he  rose  and  left  the  chair.  The  whole 
house  was  in  an  uproar.  They  resolved  to  dispute  the  king's  right  to 
adjourn  them  without  their  own  consent.  The  door  was  locked.  The 
speaker  was  pushed  back  into  the  chair,  and  forcibly  held  in  it  by 
Holies  and  Valentin^*,  till  a  short  remonstrance  was  framed,  and 
was  passed  by  acclamation  rather  than  by  vote.  In  it  papists 
and  Arminians  were  declared  capital  enemies  to  the  common- 
wealth. Those  who  levied  tonnage  and  poundage  were  branded 
with  the  same  epithet.  Even  the  merchants  who  should  voluntarily 
pay  these  duties  were  denominated  betrayers  of  English  liberty 
and  public  enemies.  Maxwell,  usher  of  the  Black  Rod,  who  was 
sent  by  the  king,  stood  knocking  at  the  door,  but  could  not 
obtain  admittance  till  these  resolutions  were  adopted.    He  took 


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A.D.  16W.  CONTEST  WITH  THE  COMMONa  371 

the  mace  from  the  table,  which  ended  their  proceedings ;  and  a  few 
days  after,  the  parliament  was  dissolred  (March  10,  1629).  Sir 
John  Eliot,  Hollts,  Valentine,  and  some  others,  for  seditious 
speeches  in  parliament,  were  committed  to  the  Tower  (March  5), 
and  informations  were  exhibited  against  them  in  the  Star  Chamber. 
They  applied  to  the  court  of  King's  Bench  for  their  liberation, 
but  were  sent  to  separate  prisons.  The  judges  declared  that  they 
were  entitled  to  bail,  but  must  give  sureties  for  good  behaviour. 
On  their  refusal,  they  were  condemned  to  be  imprisoned  during  the 
king's  pleasure,  to  find  the  requisite  sureties,  and  to  be  fined,  the 
two  former  in  1000^.  apiece,  the  latter  in  500^.  Sir  John  Eliot 
died  in  custody  (1632) ;  his  comrades  made  their  submission  one 
by  one,  and  were  discharged.    (Supplement,  Note  V.) 

§  7.  After  the  turbulent  proceedings  of  the  last  parliament, 
Charles  resolved,  for  a  time  at  least,  to  rule  without  one.  Such 
an  act  did  not  at  that  time  appear  so  unconstitutional  as  it  appears 
to  modem  readers ;  for,  from  the  time  of  Henry  VIL,  long  intervals 
had  often  occurred  between  the  meetings  of  parliament.  It  did  not 
appear  unconstitutional  to  the  nation  at  the  time,  nor  probably  to 
the  king  himself.  "  If,"  says  an  able  writer,  **  Charles  had  been 
asked  whether  he  intended  to  tread  the  law  and  constitution  under- 
foot, he  would  have  shrunk  back  with  horror  at  the  thought.  He 
would  have  replied,  that  he  was  in  truth  the  supporter  of  the  law. 
Always  in  theory,  and  since  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Tudor, 
in  practice  as  well,  parliament  had  been  but  the  great  council  of 
the  king.  The  king  had  been  the  centre  of  government,  the  acting 
power  round  which  all  else  revolved.  What  the  commons  now 
demanded  was  to  take  his  place,  to  keep  liim  short  of  money  till  he 
would  comply  with  their  wishes,  and  to  render  him  powerless,  by 
calling  his  ministers  to  account  when  they  did  what  the  commons 
considered  to  be  illegal.  Not  only  the  authority  of  the  king,  but 
the  decision  of  the  judges,  was  to  be  swept  aside.  And  all  this  was 
to  be  done  in  order  that  freedom  of  thought,  except  so  fi&r  as  it 
found  favour  in  the  eyes  of  the  dominant  majority,  might  be 
stamped  out  in  England ;  that  no  one  might  print  a  book  or  preach 
a  sermon  without  the  leave  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Charles 
was  not  wrong  in  dissolving  such  a  parliament.  It  had  done  its 
work  in  preparing  the  great  Petition.  ...  A  parliament  stereo- 
typing upon  the  country  a  particular  form  of  religious  or  political 
belief,  which  happened  to  be  popular  at  the  time,  would  degenerate 
into  the  must  odious  of  despotisms.  The  mouth  of  the  counsellors, 
whose  walk  it  is  invariably  to  change  public  opinion,  would  be 
closed.  I'he  establishment  of  parliamentary  supremacy  in  1688 
was  a  nob)«  w(»'k.    But  it  would  not  have  been  a  noble  work  if  it 


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372  CHABLIS  L  Graf,  xzl 

had  stood  alone.    It  came  accompanied  by  the  abolition  of  the 
cenflorahip  of  the  press  and  by  the  Toleration  Act."  * 

Charles  had  now  become  practically  absolute.  But  though  he 
had  obtained  a  victory  over  the  commons— due  in  some  measure  to 
their  arbitrary  proceedings — and  though  their  temporary  eclipse 
produced  no  expression  of  national  regret,  he  was  not  careful  to 
avoid  their  errors. 

The  death  of  Buckingham  had  disarmed  much  of  the  hostility  of 
the  parliamentary  opponents  of  the  court,  and  the  proceedings  of 
Pym  and  Eliot,  who  made  no  secret  of  their  intentions  to  deprive 
the  crown  of  its  supremacy,  induced  many  to  abandon  them,  and 
lend  their  support  to  the  king.  Among  them  were,  sir  Thomas 
Wentworth,  whom  the  king  created  first  a  baron,  then  a  viscount, 
and  afterwards  earl  of  Strafford,  and  made  him  president  of  the  council 
of  York  and  deputy  of  Ireland ;  sir  Dudley  Digges,  created  Master 
of  the  Rolls ;  Noy,  attorney-general ;  Littleton,  solicitor-gcneraL 
All  these  had  been  parliamentary  leaders,  and  were  eminent  in 
their  profession.  In  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Laud,  bishop  of  London, 
had  acquired  a  great  ascendency  over  Charles,  and  led  him,  by  the 
facility  of  his  temper,  into  actions  which  proved  fatal  to  himself 
and  to  his  kingdom.  Possessed  with  a  deep  sense  of  authority — a 
conviction  increased  by  the  manifest  disregard  of  it  in  his  own  times 
— Laud  was  bent  on  securing  conformity.  Adherence  to  ritual  was 
rigidly  enforced.  The  communion  table  was  removed  from  the  body 
of  the  church,  placed  at  the  east  end,  railed  in,  and  called  the 
altar :  the  use  of  copes,  pictures,  and  other  decorations  was  allowed. 
The  puritans  believed  that  the  church  of  England  was  fast  re- 
lapsing into  Romish  superstition :  the  court  of  Rome  entertained 
hopes  of  regaining  its  authority  in  this  island ;  and  offered  Laud 
informally  a  cardinal's  hat,  which  he  declined.  As  if  they  had 
seriously  accepted  the  converse  of  the  proposition,  **  No  bishop,  no 
king,**  Laud  and  his  followers  took  care  to  magnify,  on  every 
occasion,  the  regal  authority,  and  to  treat  with  the  utmost  disdain 
all  puritanical  pretensions. 

At  the  advice  of  his  ministers,  Charles  levied  money  either  by 
the  revival  of  obsolete  laws,  or  by  violations,  some  more  open,  some 
more  disguised,  of  the  privileges  of  the  nation.  He  gave  way  to  the 
severities  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  High  Commission.  He  issued  a 
proclamation,  from  which  it  was  generally  inferred  that  during  this 
reign  no  more  parliaments  were  intended  to  be  summoned  (March  27, 
1629).  Monopolies  were  revived.  Tonnage  and  poundage  continued 
to  be  levied  by  the  royal  authority  alone.  Compositions  were  made' 
with  recusants.    At  the  king's  coronation,  all  those  who  possessed 

*  a«rdlii6r.  The  Firtt  neo  Shiartt,  p.  71. 


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JLD.  1629-1688.     DEATH  OF  ABCHBISHOP  ABBOTT.  373 

40^.  a  year  in  land  were  summoned,  according  to  ancient  usage,  to 
appear  and  take  up  their  knighthood,  or  compound  for  their  neglect. 
As  these  fines  had  not  been  discharged,  commissioners  were  now 
appointed  by  the  council  to  fix  the  rates  of  composition,  and  instruc- 
tions were  given  them  not  to  accept  of  a  less  sum  than  would  have 
been  due  by  the  party  upon  a  tax  of  three  subsidies  and  a  half. 

The  court  of  Star  Chamber  extended  its  authority,  and  it  was 
matter  of  complaint  that  it  encroached  upon  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
other  coiuts,  by  imposing  heavy  fines  and  inflicting  severe  punish- 
ments. One  case  may  be  mentioned  by  way  of  example.  Prynne, 
a  barrister  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  had  written  an  enormous  quarto  of  a 
thousand  pages,  which  he  called  Hutriomastix.  It  professed  to 
decry  stage-plays,  comedies,  interludes,  music,  and  dancing,  as  the 
occasions  of  all  immorality.  From  the  players  he  turned  to  the 
government,  which  he  stigmatized  for  permitting  the  abuse,  and 
ho  inserted  expressions  which  were  held  to  reflect  upon  the  queen, 
who  had  sometimes  acted  a  part  in  pastorals  and  interludes  which 
were  represented  at  court.  Prynne  was  indicted  in  the  Star  Chamber 
as  a  libeller ;  was  condemned  to  be  put  from  the  bar;  to  stand  in  the 
pillory  in  two  places,  Westminster  and  Cheapside ;  to  lose  both  his 
ears,  one  in  each  place ;  to  pay  5000^  fine  to  the  king ;  and  to  be 
imprisoned  until  he  made  his  submission  (1634).  In  the  same  year 
Charles  renewed  his  father's  edict  for  allowing  sports  and  recreations 
on  Sunday  to  such  as  had  attended  public  worship ;  and  he  ordered 
his  proclamation  for  that  purpose  to  be  read  by  the  clergy  after 
divine  service.  Those  who  were  puritanically  affected  refused 
obedience,  and  were  punished  by  suspennon  or  deprivation.  Some 
encouragement  and  protection  which  the  king  and  the  bishops  gave 
to  wakes,  church-ales,  bride-ales,  and  other  cheerful  festivals  of  the 
common  people,  were  the  objects  of  like  scandal  to  the  puritans. 

§  8.  Till  the  year  1634,  however  contrary  these  proceedings  may 
appear  in  this  century  to  law  and  justice,  they  awakened  little  or 
no  discontent  in  the  nation  at  large.  Even  Prynne's  sentence  at 
the  time  produced  no  sensation.  When  there  was  no  vehicle  for 
public  opinion,  no  reports  of  the  proceedings  of  the  commons,  it 
made  little  difference  whether  they  were  silent  by  authority  or  by 
the  force  of  circumstances.  The  nation  went  on  much  as  usual, 
believing  in  a  king,  and  not  very  clearly  understanding  the  meaning 
of  his  disputes  with  the  commons.  Laud  was  only  bishop  of 
London.  A  small  and  noisy  minority  only  in  his  diocese  opposed 
his  reforms.  As  for  drifting  into  a  civil  war  or  taking  up,  arms 
against  the  government,  such  a  thought  never  occurred  to  the 
most  sanguine  opponent  of  the  church  or  the  state.  But  in 
August,  1633,  archbishop  Abbott  died;  and  Laud,  appointed  hit 
16 


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374  CHARLES  I.  Chaf.  xkl 

successor,  succeeded  also  to  the  great  influence  connected  with 
such  a  dignity  in  yery  critical  times,  with  a  fixed  resolution  to 
carry  out  those  ecclesiastical  principles  which  had  hitherto  found 
no  encouragement  in  his  predecessor.  But,  besides  the  power  to 
enforce  his  views  resulting  from  his  official  position.  Laud  was 
clothed  with  still  greater  authority  as  a  member  of  the  two  great 
courts,  the  High  Commission  and  the  Star  Chamlier.  Such  also 
was  his  influence  with  the  king  in  other  than  ecclesiastical  ques- 
tions, that  whatever  he  determined  was  backed  by  the  power  of 
the  crown.  Thoroughly  honest  in  his  intentions,  earnestly  devoted 
to  the  interests,  as  he  held  them,  of  the  king,  the  church,  and  the 
nation,  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  Laud  to  have  escaped 
envy  and  detraction  had  he  employed  his  immense  power  with  the 
utmost  prudence,  suavity,  and  circumspection.  But,  in  the  con- 
fidence of  the  sincerity  of  his  own  intentions.  Laud  was  not  always 
careful  to  disarm  hostility  or  resentment  by  those  arts  of  popularity 
with  which  no  great  minister  can  well  afiford  to  dispense.  Con- 
sequently, without  intending  it,  he  created  bitter  enemies,  not  only 
among  the  clergy  and  the  nobility,  but  among  the  king's  privy 
councillors,  who  were  not  forward  in  seconding  his  efforts,  nor  sorry 
when  he  was  foiled  and  disappointed. 

In  163*^  a  measure  was  introduced  which  led  to  fatal  conse- 
quences. This  was  ship-money.  Whilst  England  was  engrossed 
with  domestic  broils,  i^he  was  fast  losing  the  supremacy  of  the  seas. 
British  waters  were  infested  with  pirates ;  Englishmen  were  carried 
off  and  sold  for  slaves  in  Barbary.  The  Dutch,  taking  advantage 
of  the  political  complications  of  the  times,  had  greatly  advanced 
their  commerce,  and  were  prepared  to  dispute  with  England  the 
sovereignty  of  the  narrow  seas.  They  excluded  the  English  from 
the  northern  fisheries,  and  claimed  the  right  of  fishing  on  the 
English  coasts.  The  navy  of  France  was  also  rapidly  augmented, 
under  the  fostering  care  of  Richelieu.  Intercepted  letters  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  government,  detailing  a  plot  for  an  attack  upon 
Dunkirk  by  the  French  and  the  Dutch.  Charles  had  no  mind  to 
see  the  whole  of  the  southern  shore  of  the  Straits  of  Dover  in  the 
hands  of  the  French,  and,  though  his  pecuniary  distresses  were  great, 
he  wished  to  meet  the  emergency.  He  had  already  had  evidence, 
in  the  case  of  the  palatinate,  of  the  hopelessness  of  appealing  to 
parliament  for  support,  and  he  therefore  fell  back  on  the  precedents 
of  Elizabeth's  reign.  The  first  writ  of  ship-money  was  drawn  up 
by  Koy,  formerly  a  leader  of  the  puritan  party,  now  attorney* 
general.  The  ancient  precedents  were  carefully  followed.  In  the 
first  instance  the  writs  were  directed  to  seaport  towns  only.  After- 
wards the  counties  were  informed  that  they  might  contribute  money. 


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▲.D.  1688-1687.  TRIAL-  OF  HAMPDEN.  375 

instead  of  ■hips,  for  the  expenses  of  the  royal  dockjrards.  In  1636 
the  tax  was  extended  by  the  council  to  the  inland  shires,  and  each 
county  was  rated  at  a  specified  sum,  to  be  levied  in  fair  proportions 
upon  individuals,  llie  tax  seems  to  have  been  moderately  and 
equitably  assessed,  and  the  money  was  expended  on  the  navy.  In 
some  few  instances  complaints  were  made,  not  against  the  legality 
of  the  tax — for  that  seems  to  have  attracted  no  attention — but 
against  the  equality  of  the  assessment.  This  was  left  to  the  sheriffs 
and  their  officers,  and  party  or  personal  feelings  sometimes  inter- 
fered with  the  strict  justice  of  their  proceedings.  In  spite  of  all 
these  difficulties  a  fleet  was  raised ;  and  in  1635  and  the  following 
year  the  Dutch  fishing  vessels  were  driven  from  the  coast,  and  a 
number  of  English  slaves  were  rescued  from  Moorish  pirates.  In 
anticipation  of  any  resistance  or  disputes  with  the  sheriffs,  Charles 
had  taken  the  precaution  in  1637  to  ask  the  advice  of  the  twelve 
judges  as  to  the  legality  of  the  tax.  They  gave  it  as  their  unani- 
mous opinion  that  the  king  might  call  on  his  subjects  for  ships,  or 
money  to  supply  them,  when  the  kingdom  was  in  danger,  and  that 
be  only  was  the  judge  of  such  necessity.* 

John  Hampden,  a  Buckinghamshire  gentleman,  who  had  already 
resisted  the  sheriff  in  his  own  county  on  the  assessment  of  the  tax, 
following  the  example  of  lord  Saye  and  Sele,  a  bitter  opponent  of 
the  court,  refused  to  pay  the  tax  levied  on  him  for  his  estate, 
amounting  to  twenty  shillings.  The  case  was  argued  in  the  Ex- 
chequer. The  twelve  judges  adhered  to  their  former  opinion,  with 
the  exception  of  Hutton  and  Croke.  The  latter  excused  themselves 
on  the  grounds  that  the  opinion  they  had  given  was  only  a  private 
opinion — though  it  is  not  easy  for  the  uninitiated  to  see  how,  in 
a  dry  matter  of  law,  a  judge  can  well  hold  two  different  opinions  at 
the  same  time.  As  a  further  apology  for  his  conduct,  Croke  urged 
that  he  had  signed  his  name  out  of  deference  to  the  majority.  As 
neither  of  the  two  dissentients  incurred  the  formal  displeasure  of 
the  crown,  it  is  fair  to  infer  that  the  judges  were  not  so  obsequious 
to  the  dictation  of  the  king  as  party  prejudices  would  sometimes 
represent.  But  though  the  decision  was  ostensibly  in  favour  of  the 
king,  practically  it  was  the  reverse ;  and  Hampden's  refusal  made 
the  levying  of  the  tax  more  difficult  and  more  precarious. 

The  piu-itans  at  this  time  were  divided  into  two  classes :  political 
puritans,  who  were  generally  averse  to  the  ceremonies  of  the  church, 
and  especially  its  episcopacy  or  **  lordly  prelacy,"  as  they  affected 
to  call  it ;  and  doctrinal  puritans,  to  whom  the  opinions  of  Hooker, 

*  This  WIS  itricUy  in  accordance  with  |  informal  text  had  been  substituted  in  tb« 
the   original   text   of    the    Oonjlrmatio     Petition  of  Right 
ChMTtarum  of  Edward  I.,  for  which  the  1 


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376  CHARLES  t  OtUF.  ZZL 

Ghtytins,  and  Land  were  particularly  obnoxiouB.  But  ndther  had 
as  yet  withdrawn  them»elves  from  the  communion  of  the  church 
of  England.  Restrained  by  Laud  in  England,  some  now  took  this 
step,  and  shipped  themselves  for  America,  where  they  laid  the 
foundations  of  a  goyemment  possessing  that  liberty,  civil  and  reli- 
gious, of  which  they  considered  themselves  bereaved  in  their  native 
country.  In  1^30  the  charter  of  Massachusetts  Bay  had  been 
obtained  from  the  crown,  and  about  350  nonconformists  sailed  with 
the  first  fleet.  Already,  in  1620,  a  band  of  emigrants,  to  the  num- 
ber of  100,  calLd  the  **  Pilgrim  Fathers,"  had  sailed  from  Plymouth 
and  anchored  in  the  harbour  of  Cape  Cod.    Few  came  to  join  them. 

§  9.  But  affairs  in  England  might  long  have  continued  on  the 
same  footing,  had  they  not  been  influenced  by  the  proceedings  in 
Scotland.  James,  from  his  love  of  prelacy,  which  order  he  con- 
sidered best  fitted  to  inculcate  obedience  and  loyalty  among  the 
people,  had  raised  some  of  the  Scotch  prelates  to  chief  dignities  in 
the  state.  The  Scotch  nobility,  whose  power  was  great,  and  whose 
coniicction  with  the  king  had  been  much  loosened  by  his  long 
absence,  were  disgusted  to  find  the  prelates  superior  to  themselves 
in  power  and  influence.  The  inferior  ranks  of  the  Scotch  clergy 
themselves  equalled,  if  they  did  not  exceed,  the  nobility  in  their 
prejudices  against  the  court,  the  prelates,  and  episcopal  authority. 
The  peo;  le,  under  the  influence  of  the  nobility  and  clergy,  could  not 
fail  to  I  artake  of  their  discontents,  and  were  imbued  with  the  same 
horror  against  popery  which  possessed  the  English  puritans.  Tet,  in 
spite  of  these  symptoms,  the  king's  great  aim  wus  to  complete  the 
work  beguD  by  his  father ;  to  establish  ecclesiastical  discipline  in 
Scotland,  to  introduce  a  liturgy  into  public  worship,  and  to  render  the 
ecclesiastical  government  of  all  his  kingdoms  regular  and  uniform. 

The  liturgy  imposed  on  Scotland  was  copied,  with  a  few  altera- 
tions, from  that  of  England :  and  due  notice  was  given  of  the  inten- 
tion to  commence  the  use  of  it  on  Sunday,  July  23,  1C37.  On 
that  day,  accordingly,  in  the  cathedral  church  of  St.  Giles,  the  dean 
of  Edinburgh,  arrayed  in  his  surplice,  began  the  service ;  the  bishop 
himself  and  many  of  the  privy  council  being  present.  But  no 
sooner  had  the  dean  opened  the  book  than  the  people,  clapping  their 
hands,  cursing,  and  crying  out,  "  A  pope !  a  pope !  antichrist !  stone 
him !  **  raised  such  a  tumult,  that  it  was  impo^i8ible  to  proceed  with 
the  service.  It  was  with  difficulty  that  the  magistrates  were  able 
to  expel  the  crowd,  and  shui;  the  doors  against  them.  The  tumult^ 
howeve**,  still  continued  without :  and  the  bishop,  returning  home, 
narrowly  escaped  from  tbe  enraged  multitude. 

Further  riots  ensued;  and,  as  Charles  continued  inflexible,  a 
•yftematk)  resistance  was  organized  at  Edinburgh.     Four  corn- 


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AJ>.  1G87-I68a 


THE  COVENANT. 


877 


mittees  or  tahUsy  as  they  were  called^  were  formed.  One  consisted 
of  nobility,  another  of  gentry,  a  third  of  ministers,  a  fourth  of  bur- 
gesses. In  the  hands  of  the  four  tables  the  whole  authority  of  the 
kingdom  was  placed.  Orders  were  issued  by  them,  and  were  obeyed 
with  the  utmost  regularity.  A  proclamation  by  the  king,  granting 
a  free  pardon  for  past  offences,  but  insisting  on  obedience  to  the 
service  book,  was  met  by  a  public  protestation,  and  the  Covenant 
was  renewed,  with  fresh  clauses  (March  1).  This  famous  deed  con-> 
sisted,  first,  of  a  renunciation  of  popery,  formerly  signed  by  James 
in  his  youth,  followed  by  a  bond  of  union,  by  which  the  subscribers 
obliged  themselves  to  resist  the  recent  religious  innovations,  and  to 
defend  one  another  against  all  opposition.*  The  people,  without  dis- 
tinction of  rank  or  condition,  of  age  or  sex,  flocked  to  the  subscrip- 
tion of  this  Covenant,  and  even  the  king's  ministers  and  counsellors 
themselves  were,  for  the  most  part,  seized  by  the  general  contagion. 
The  king  now  began  to  apprehend  the  consequences,  and  sent  the 
marquis  of  Hamilton,  as  commissioner,  with  authority  to  treat  with 
the  Covenanters.  He  required  the  Covenant  to  be  renounced  and 
recalled ;  but  the  popular  leaders  told  Hamilton  they  would  sooner 
renounce  their  baptism.  Charles  offered  concessions ;  expressed  his 
willingness  to  abolish  the  canons,  the  liturgy,  and  the  High  Commis- 
sion Court,  and  even  to  limit  extremely  the  power  of  the  bishops. 
These  successive  concessions  of  the  king,  which  still  came  short  of 
the  rising  demands  of  the  malcontents,  and  only  discovered  his  own 
weakness,  gave  no  satisfaction.  A  general  assembly  of  the  Scotch 
met  at  Glasgow  November  21, 1638 ;  and  in  August,  next  year,  it 
formally  abolished  episcopacy,  the  High  Commission,  the  canons, 
and  the  liturgy.  Thus  the  whole  fabric  which  James  and  Charles, 
in  a  long  course  of  years,  had  been  rearing  with  so  much  care  and 
policy,  fell  at  once  to  the  ground.  The  Covenant  likewise  was 
ordered  to  be  signed  by  every  one,  under  pain  of  excommunication. 
Preparations  were  now  openly  made  for  war.  Cardinal  Hichelieu, 
in  revenge  for  Charles's  opposition  to  his  designs  upon  Flauderi*, 
carefully  fomented  the  first  commotions  in  Scotland,  and  secretly 
supplied  the  Covenanters  with  money  and  arms.  The  earl  of  Argyle, 
though  he  long  seemed  to  temporize,  at  last  embraced  the  Covenant, 
and  became  the  chief  leader  of  the  party.  Forces  were  regularly 
enlisted  and  disciplined ;  arms  were  imported  from  abroad ;  and  the 
whole  country,  except  a  small  part  where  the  marquis  of  Huntley 


*  Ko  doubt  religloas  animosity  had 
much  to  do  with  the  popular  outbreak, 
but  the  Uttameiiof  it  was  increaaed  from 
the  intenae  diallke  of  Engllah  dictation. 
Tbe  Scotch,  alwajra  Jealous  of  their  nv 


tlonal  independence,  had  become  doubly 
Jealous  when  their  natire  florereign  ruled 
not  from  Edinburgh,  but  London,  and  they 
seemed  in  danger  of  being  sunk  intotha 
position  of  an  English  province. 


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378  CHABLES  I.  Ch4P. 

Btill  adhered  to  the  king,  being  in  the  hands  of  the  Covenanters,  was 
in  a  very  little  time  put  in  a  posture  of  defence.  To  add  to  these 
advantages,  Scotland  swHrmed  with  veter«an  soldiers  who  had  re- 
turned home  from  the  wars  in  Germany ;  among  them  Alexander 
Lesley,  now  entrusted  with  the  command,  had  fought  under 
Gustaviis  Adolphus.  On  tliC  other  hand,  Charles's  fleet  was  for- 
midable, and  had  5000  land  forces  on  board,  under  the  man)uis  of 
Hamilton,  who  had  orders  to  saU  to  the  firth  of  Forth,  and  to  cause 
a  diversion  in  the  forces  of  the  rp.dcontents.  An  army  was  raised 
of  nearly  20,000  foot  and  above  3000  horse,  and  was  put  under  the 
command  of  the  earl  of  Arundel.  But  many  of  these  were  hasty 
and  undisciplined  levies,  without  heart  to  fight,  discouraged  by  want 
of  provisions,  and  ill  paid.  The  king  himself  joined  the  army,  and 
summoned  the  peers  of  England  to  attend  him,  and  in  this  situa- 
tion, carrying  more  show  than  real  force  with  it,  the  camp  arrived 
at  Berwick.  Charles,  advised  that  to  fight  with  such  forces  was  im- 
possible, concluded  a  sudden  pacification,  in  which  it  was  stipuLited 
that  he  should  withdraw  his  fleet  and  army ;  that  within  48  hours 
the  Scots  should  dismiss  their  forces ;  that  the  king's  forts  should 
be  restored  to  him,  his  authority  be  acknowledged,  and  a  general 
assembly  and  a  parliament  be  immediately  summoned,  in  order  to 
compose  all  differences  (June  18,  1639).  He  further  agreed  to  con- 
firm his  former  concessions  of  abrogating  the  canons,  the  liturgy, 
and  the  High  Commission,  and  to  abolish  the  order  of  bishops.  The 
treaty  was  not  observed  by  the  Scotch.  Their  army  was  not  dis- 
banded, nor  the  forts  surrendered ;  whilst  all  those  of  the  nation 
who  had  adhered  to  the  king  were  bitterly  persecuted.  The  Scotch 
parliament,  which  met  soon  after,  advanced  pretensions  which 
tended  to  limit  the  royal  power.  The  war  was  renewed  with  great 
advantages  on  the  side  of  the  Covenanters,  and  disadvantages  on 
that  of  the  king.  For  no  sooner  had  Charles  concluded  the  pacifi- 
cation, than  the  necessities  of  his  afiiEdrs  and  his  want  of  money 
obliged  him  to  disband  his  troops. 

§  10.  The  king,  with  great  difficulty,  found  means  to  draw  together 
an  army ;  but  by  the  advice  of  Laud  and  Wentworth,  who  had  re- 
turned from  Ireland,  he  was  persuaded  to  summon  a  parliament.  The 
time  appointed  for  the  meeting  of  parliament — known  as  the  fourth 
or  the  Short  Parliament — was  late  in  the  year  (April  13, 1640), 
and  very  near  the  time  appointed  for  opening  the  campaign  against 
the  Scots.  Charles  took  occasion  to  press  the  commons  for  an  im« 
mediate  grant,  before  they  proceeded  to  offer  him  petitions  for  the 
redress  of  grievances ;  promising  that  as  much  as  was  possible  of 
this  season  should  afterwards  be  allowed  them  for  that  purpose. 
But,  by  means  of  the  Scottish  insurrection,  and  the  general  discoii- 


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AJ).  1689-1640.  WAR  WITH  THE  SCOTCH.  379 

tents  in  England,  afEairs  had  drawn  so  near  to  a  crisis,  that  the 
leaders  of  the  house  hegan  to  foresee  the  consequences,  and  to  hope 
that  the  time  was  now  coming  when  liberty  would  acquire  a  full 
ascendency.  Instead  of  taking  notice  of  the  king's  complaints 
against  his  Scottish  subjects,  or  his  applications  for  supply,  they 
entered  immediately  upon  grievances.  They  began  with  examin- 
ing the  behaviour  of  the  speaker  the  last  day  of  the  former  parlia- 
ment, when  he  refused,  on  account  of  th'*  king's  command,  to  put 
the  question ;  and  they  declared  it  a  breach  of  privilege.  They 
proceeded  next  to  inquire  into  the  imprisonment  and  p'osecntion  of 
sir  John  Eliot,  Holies,  and  Valentine.  The  afifair  of  ship-money  was 
canvassed;  and  fresh  subjects  of  enquiry  were  suggested  on  all  hands. 
To  bring  the  matter  of  supply  to  some  issue,  Charles  solicited  the 
house  by  repeated  messages.  He  oflfered  to  abandon  ship-money 
in  return  for  a  supply  of  12  subsidies,  about  600,000/.,  payable  in 
three  years.  But  the  commons  objected  that,  by  bargaining  for 
the  remission  of  that  duty,  they  would,  in  a  manner,  ratify  thr> 
authority  by  which  it  had  been  levied.  The  king  was  in  great 
doubt  and  perplexity.  He  saw  that  his  friends  in  the  house  were 
outnumbered  by  his  enemies.  Where  great  evils  lie  on  all  sides,  it 
is  difficult  to  follow  the  best  counsel ;  nor  is  it  any  wonder  that  the 
king,  whose  capacity  was  not  equal  to  situations  of  such  extreme 
delicacy,  should  hastily  have  formed  and  executed  the  resolution  of 
dissolving  this  parliament  (May  5) ;  a  measure,  however,  of  which  he 
soon  after  repented.  This  abrupt  and  violent  dissolution  naturally 
excited  discontents  among  the  people,  and  these  were  increased 
when  some  of  the  members  were  imprisoned  and  otherwise  harshly 
treated.  An  attack  was  made  during  the  night  upon  Laud,  in  his 
palace  of  Lambeth,  by  above  500  persons.  Later  on,  a  multitude 
entered  St.  Paul's,  where  the  High  Commission  then  sat,  tore  do\^Ti 
the  benches,  ismd  cried  out,  '*  No  bishop,  no  High  Commission." 

§  11.  The  king,  having  raised  money  chiefly  by  a  clerical  sub- 
sidy granted  in  convocation,  and  by  other  contributions,  was  enabled, 
though  with  great  difficulty,  to  set  on  foot  his  army,  commanded 
by  the  celebrated  Strafford  and  the  earl  of  Northumberland.  It 
consisted  of  19,000  foot  and  2000  horse.  The  Scottish  army, 
superior  in  numbers,  was  sooner  ready  than  the  king's.  The 
Covenanters  still  |  (reserved  the  most  pathetic  and  most  submissive 
language ;  and  entered  England,  they  said,  with  no  other  view  than 
to  obtain  access  to  the  king's  presence,  and  lay  their  hmnble 
petition  at  his  royal  feet.  At  Newbum-upon-Tyne  they  were 
opposed  by  a  detachment  of  4500  men  under  Conway,  who  seemed 
resolute  to  dispute  with  them  the  passage-  of  the  river.  The  Scots 
tirst  entreated  them,  with  great  civility,  not  to  stop  them  in  their 


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380  CHARLES  I.  Chap,  xxl 

march  to  their  gracious  soyereign,  and  then  attacked  them  with 
great  bravery,  killed  several,  and  chased  the  rest  from  their  ground 
(Augnst  28).  The  English  forces  at  Newcastle  now  retreated  into 
Yorkshire,  and  the  Scots  took  possession  of  Newcastle.  Hence 
they  despatched  messengers  to  the  king,  who  had  arrived  at  York ; 
and  they  took  care,  after  the  advantage  which  they  had  obtained, 
to  redouble  their  expressions  of  loyalty,  duty,  and  submission  to 
his  person,  and  they  even  made  apologies,  full  of  sorrow  and  con- 
trition, for  their  late  victory.  In  order  to  prevent  their  advance, 
the  king  appointed  16  English  noblemen  to  treat  with  11  Scottish 
commissioners  at  Ripon  (October  26). 

An  army  newly  levied,  undisciplined,  seditious,  and  ill  paid, 
was  very  un6t  for  withstanding  a  victorious  and  high-spirited 
enemy,  and  retaining  in  subjection  a  discontented  and  zealous 
nation ;  and  Charles,  in  despair  of  being  able  to  stem  the  torrent, 
at  last  determined  to  yield  to  it.  He  had  summoned  a  great 
council  of  the  peers  at  York  (September  24),  but,  foreseeing  that 
they  would  advise  him  to  call  a  parliament,  he  told  them  in  his 
first  speech  that  he  had  already  taken  this  resolution.  They  agreed 
to  pay  the  Scots  a  daily  subsidy  of  850/.,  to  be  levied  on  the  four 
northern  counties,  on  condition  of  their  refraining  from  plunder. 

§  12.  The  elections,  as  might  have  been  expected,  ran  in  favour 
of  the  popular  party.  The  parliament,  memorable  as  the  Long 
Parliament,  met  on  November  3,  1640.  The  first  act  of  the 
commons  was  to  choose  William  Lenthall  for  their  speaker,  in 
opposition  to  Charles's  views,  who  had  intended  to  advance 
Gardiner,  recorder  of  London,  to  that  important  dignity.  With- 
out any  interval  they  entered  upon  business,  and  they  immediately 
struck  a  blow  which  may  in  a  manner  be  regarded  as  decisive,  by 
impeaching  the  earl  of  Strafford,  who  was  considered  as  the  king's 
chief  minister.  Strafford,  sensible  of  the  load  of  popular  prejudices 
under  which  he  laboured,  would  gladly  have  declined  attendance 
in  parliament ;  but  Charles,  who  had  entire  confidence  in  the  earl's 
capacity,  thought  that  his  counsels  would  be  extremely  useful 
during  the  critical  session  which  approached.  And  when  Strafford 
still  insisted  on  the  danger  of  ap))earing  amidst  so  many  enraged 
enemies,  the  king,  little  apprehensive  that  his  own  authority  was 
so  suddenly  to  expire,  promised  him  protection,  and  assured  him 
that  not  a  hair  of  his  head  should  be  touched  by  the  parliament. 
The  debate  respecting  Strafford  was  conducted  with  locked  doors ; 
his  impeachment  was  unanimously  voted,  and  Pym  was  chosen  to 
carry  it  up  to  the  lords.  Most  of  the  house  accomiianiod  him  on  so 
agreeable  an  errand ;  and  Strafford,  who  had  just  entered  the  House 
oC  Peers,  and  who  little  expected  so  speedy  a  prosecution,  was 


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A.D.   1640.  THE  LONG  PARLIAMENT.  381 

immediately,  upoD  this  general  charge,  ordered  into  custody 
(November  11),  and  a  fortnight  after  sent  to  the  Tower.  After 
a  deliberation  which  scarcely  lasted  half  an  hour^  an  impeachment 
of  high  treason  was  voted  against  Laud,  who  was  immediately 
sequestered  from  parliament,  and  committed  to  custody  (December 
18).  The  lord-keeper  Finch,  and  sir  Francis  Windebank,  ap- 
prehending a  similar  fate,  fled  to  the  continent.  Thus,  in  a 
few  weeks,  the  House  of  Commons,  not  opposed,  but  rather 
seconded,  by  the  peers,  had  produced  such  a  revolution  in  the 
government,  that  the  two  most  powerful  and  most  favoured 
ministers  of  the  king  were  thrown  into  the  Tower,  and  daily 
expected  to  be  tried  for  their  life ;  whilst  two  other  ministers  had 
by  flight  alone  saved  themselves  from  a  similar  fate.  The  com- 
mons, not  content  with  the  authority  which  they  had  acquired 
by  attacking  these  great  ministers,  were  resolved  to  render  the 
most  considerable  personages  of  the  nation  subject  to  them.  All 
who  had  assumed  power  not  authorized  by  statute  were  declared 
delinquents.  This  term  was  newly  come  into  vogue,  and  ex- 
pressed a  degree  or  species  of  guilt  not  exactly  known  or  ascer- 
tained. It  would  comprehend  all  the  sherifis,  and  all  those  who 
had  been  employed  in  assessing  ship-money ;  all  the  farmers  and 
bfflcers  of  the  customs,  who  had  been  engaged  during  so  many 
years  in  levying  tonnage  and  poundage ;  and  all  those  who  had 
Concurred  in  the  arbitrary  sentences  of  the  courts  of  Star  Chamber 
knd  High  CommiB8k)n.  No  minister  of  the  king,  no  member  of  the 
council,  but  found  himself  exposed  by  this  decision.  Almost  all 
ihe  bench  of  bishops,  and  the  most  considerable  of  the  inferior 
clergy,  who  had  voted  in  the  late  convocation,  were  involved,  by 
these  new  principles,  in  the  imputation  of  delinquency.  Freed 
from  the  restraint  of  sovereign  authority,  the  popular  leaders 
nourished  unbounded  hopes.  The  sagacity  of  Pym,  the  ambition 
of  Hampden,  the  dark,  ardent,  and  dangerous  character  of  (St* 
John,  the  impetuous  spirit  of  Holies,  and  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
younger  Vane,  challenged  general  attention.  Men  even  of  the 
most  moderate  tempers,  attached  to  the  church  and  the  mon- 
archy, exerted  themselves  with  the  utmost  vigoiu:  in  the  redress  of 
grievances,  and  in  prosecuting  the  authors  of  them.  In  this  list 
are  foimd  the  names  of  Hyde  and  Falkland,  of  Digby  and  of 
Capel.  Though  in  their  ultimate  views  and  intentions  these  men 
differed  widely  from  the  former,  in  their  present  actions  and  dis- 
courses entire  unanimity  prevailed  amongst  them. 

The  harangues  of  members  were  now  first  published  and  dis- 
persed; and  the  pulpit  and  the  press  were  delivered  from  dread 
of  the  Star  Chamber  and  the  High  Commission.     The  sentences 
18* 


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382  CHARLES  I.  Chap,  xzl 

pronounced  against  Prynne,  Bastwick,  and  Burton  were  reyersed 
by  parliament,  and  they  were  released  from  their  prisons  in  Scilly 
and  the  Channel  Islands.  When  Prynne  and  Burton  landed  in  Eng« 
land,  they  were  received  with  the  highest  demonstrations  of  affection. 
They  were  attended  by  a  mighty  confluence  of  company,  theii 
charges  were  borne  with  great  magnificence,  and  liberal  presents 
were  bestowed  on  them  (November  27).  The  invasion  of  the 
Scots  had  evidently  been  the  cause  of  assembling  the  parliament. 
The  presence  of  that  army  had  reduced  the  king  to  the  subjection 
in  which  he  was  now  held :  and  the  commons,  for  this  reason, 
openly  professed  their  intention  of  retaining  these  invaders.  Eighty 
thousand  pounds  a  month  were  required  for  the  subsistence  of  the 
Scotch  and  the  English  armies,  a  sum  much  greater  than  the  subject 
had  ever  been  accustomed  to  pay  in  any  former  period.  And  though 
several  subsidies,  together  with  a  poll-tax,  were  from  time  to  time 
voted  to  answer  the  charge,  the  commons  still  took  care  to  be  in  debt, 
in  order  to  render  the  continuance  of  the  session  the  more  necessary. 
The  zeal  of  the  commons  was  particularly  directed  against  the 
bishops  and  the  established  church.  They  introduced  a  bill  for 
prohibiting  all  clergymen  the  exercise  of  any  civil  office^  as  a  con- 
sequence of  which  the  bishops  were  to  be  deprived  of  their  seats  in 
the  House  of  Peers.  But  the  bitter  and  intolerant  spirit  displayed 
by  the  puritans  was  now  beginning  to  alienate  many  of  the  lords, 
and  the  bill  was  rejected  by  a  large  majority.  Among  other  acts 
of  regal  executive  power,  which  the  commons  were  every  day 
assuming,  they  issued  orders  for  demolishing  all  images,  altars,  and 
crucifixes  (January  23,  1641).  It  was  now  that  the  zealous  dr 
Robert  Harlow,  to  whom  the  execution  of  these  orders  was  com- 
mitted, removed  the  beautiful  crosses  at  Cheapside  and  Charing  Cross. 
A  committee  was  elected  as  a  court  of  inquisition  upon  the  clergy, 
and  was  commonly  denominated  the  committee  of  Scandalous  Minis- 
ters, The  proceedings  of  this  famous  committee,  which  continued 
for  several  years,  were  cruel  and  arbitrary,  and  made  great  havoc  in 
the  church  and  the  universities.  They  began  with  harassing,  im- 
prisoning, and  molesting  the  clergy,  and  entled  with  sequestrating 
and  ejecting  them.  Charles,  who  was  now  aware  of  the  iiselessness 
of  resistance,  opposed,  as  long  as  he  could,  the  bill  for  assembling 
a  parliament  at  least  once  in  three  years  (February,  1641).  By  a 
statute  passed  during  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  it  had  been  enacted 
that  parliaments  should  be  held  once  every  year,  or  more  frequently 
if  necessary  :  but,  ns  no  provision  had  been  made  in  case  of  &ilure, 
this  statute  had  been  dis|)ensed  with  at  pleasure.  The  defect  was 
supplied  by  those  vigilant  ]  atrio^s  who  now  assumed  the  reins  of 
government.     It  was  enacted  that,  if  the  chancellor  failed  to  iatue 


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A.D.  1640-1641.  TRIAL  OF  STRAFFORD.  383 

writs  on  the  8rd  of  September  in  every  third  year,  any  12  or  more 
of  the  peers  should  be  empowered  to  exercise  this  authority;  in 
default  of  the  peers,  that  the  sheriffs,  mayors,  bailiffs,  etc.,  should 
summon  the  voters ;  and  in  their  default,  that  the  voters  them- 
selves should  meet  and  proceed  to  the  election  for  members,  in  the 
same  manner  as  if  writs  had  been  regularly  issued  by  the  crown. 
Nor  could  the  parliament,  after  it  was  assembled,  be  adjourned, 
prorogued,  or  dissolved,  without  its  own  consent,  during  the  space 
of  60  days.* 

§  13.  Immediately  after  Strafford  was  sequestered  from  parlia- 
ment and  confined  in  the  Tower,  a  joint  committee  of  the  lords 
and  commons  were  appointed  to  investigate  his  case,  and  were 
bound  to  secrecy  by  an  oath.  To  confer  greater  solemnity  on 
this  important  trial,  scaffolds  were  erected  in  Westminster  Hall, 
where  both  houses  sat,  the  one  as  accusers,  the  other  as  judges 
(March  22, 1641).  Besides  the  chair  of  state,  a  close  gallery  was 
prepared  for  the  king  and  queen,  who  attended  during  the  whole 
triad.  The  articles  of  impeachment  against  Strafford  were  28  in 
number,  and  regarded  his  conduct  as  president  of  the  council 
of  York,  as  deputy  or  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  as  counsellor  or 
commander  in  England.  From  a  cumulation  of  charges  it  was 
endeavoured  to  establish  a  constructive  one  of  treason.  The 
principal  articles  were  the  billeting  of  soldiers  on  the  Irish,  in  order 
to  make  them  submit  to  his  illegal  demands,  advising  the  king 
to  employ  the  army  raised  in  Ireland  to  subjugate  England,  and  the 
taxing  of  the  people  of  Yorkshire  for  the  maintenance  of  his  troops. 
The  remaining  charges  were  for  hasty  and  imj^erious  expressions 
and  tyrannous  acts  towards  individuals.  To  strengthen  the  case 
of  the  impeachment,  Pym  produced  a  pai)er,  said  to  have  been 
found  by  Henry  Vane  in  his  father's  cabinet,  purporting  to  be 
notes  of  a  debate  in  council  after  the  dissolution  of  the  last  parlia- 
ment, in  which  Strafford  was  represented  as  saying,  "Your 
majesty  having  tried  the  affections  of  your  people,  you  are  absolved 
and  loose  from  all  rules  of  government.  .  .  .  You  have  an  army  in 
Ireland  that  you  may  employ  to  reduce  this  kingdom  to  obedience ; 
for  I  am  confident  the  Scots  cannot  hold  out  five  months." f 
Though  Strafford  denied  the  accuracy  of  the  statement,  and  other 
members  of  the  council  who  were  present  declared  that  they  had 
never  heard  it,  yet  it  was  received  in  evidence.  It  was  pretended 
that  the  fact  of  this  paper  having  been  seen  by  Pym,  who  had 
copied  it,  and  by  Vane  the  younger,  was  equivalent  to  the 
testimony  of  two  witnesses,  the  number  required  by  law  in  cases 
6f  treason.  Strafford  is  allowed,  on  all  hands,  to  have  made  a 
*  iUpeftled  in  16S4.  f  The  words  are  vArionslj  reported. 


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884 


CHARLES  I. 


Chap.  xu. 


jioble  defence.  "  Certainly,"  remarks  Whitelock,  the  chairman  of 
the  committee  which  conducted  the  impeachment,  ^^  neyer  any 
man  acted  sach  a  part,  on  such  a  theatre,  with  more  wisdom,  con- 
stancy, and  eloquence,  with  greater  reason,  judgment,  and  temper, 
.  and  with  a  better  grace  in  all  his  words  and  actions,  than  did  this 
great  and  excellent  person ;  and  he  moved  the  hearts  of  all  his 
auditors,  some  few  excepted,  to  remorse  and  pity/' 

It  was  evident  that  Strafford  had  gained  many  friends  by  the 
manly  modesty  of  his  demeanour  and  the  eloquence  of  his  defence. 
The  result  appeared  doubtful  if  the  trial  proceeded  in  Westminster 
Hall;  and  some  of  the  leaders  of  the  popular  party  therefore  re- 
solved to  adopt  one  of  the  worst  precedents  of  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  and  to  proceed  against  Strafford  by  bill  of  attainder.*  In 
this  step  they  had  the  active  concurrence  of  Hyde  and  Falkland, 
who  were  shortly  afterwards  the  mainstay  of  the  royalist  party. 
The  bill  of  attainder  passed  the  commons  with  only  59  dissent- 
ing votes  (April  21),  and  was  by  Pym  carried  up  to  the  lords. 
About  80  peers  had  constantly  attended  Strafford's  trial;  but  such 
apprehensions  were  entertained  on  account  of  the  popular  tumults, 
that  only  45  were  present  when  the  bill  of  attainder  was  brought 
into  the  house.  Yet  of  these,  19  had  the  courage  to  vote  against 
it.  The  opinion  of  the  judges  was  read  to  the  house  previously 
to  the  division.  It  did  not  state  that  the  prisoner  was  guilty 
of  treason,  but  that "  they  were  of  opinion,  upon  all  that  which 
their  lordships  have  voted  to  be  proved,  that  the  earl  of  Strafford 
doth  deserve  to  undergo  the  pains  and  forfeitures  of  high  trea- 
son by  law."  The  bill  then  passed  the  lords  (April  29, 1641). 
On  Monday,  May  3rd,  "  a  rabble  of  about  6000  out  of  the  city," 
influenced  by  the  sermons  of  certain  puritan  preachers  the  day 
before,  "  came  thronging  down  to  Westminster,  crying  out  for 
justice  against  the  earl  of  Strafford."  They  posted  up  on  the 
walls  the  names  of  all  those  who  had  voted  for  the  earl,  calling 
them  "  Straffordians  and  betrayers  of  their  country."  Another 
incident  added  fuel  to  the  flame.  Some  officers  of  the  army  con- 
cocted a  form  of  a  petition  to  the  king  and  parliament,  to  be 
subscribed  by  the  army,  in  which  they  offered  to  come  up  and 
guard  the  parliament.  The  draft  of  this  petition  being  convey- 
ed to  the  king,  he  was  prevailed  on  to  signify  his  approbation  of 


*  The  student  should  bear  in  mind  the 
difference  between  on  Impeachment  and  a 
Bill  of  Attainder.  In  an  Impeachment 
*ibe  oommons  are  the  accusers,  and  the 
lords  alone  the  Judges.  In  a  Bill  of 
Attainder  the  commons  are  the  Judges, 
M  well  as  the  lords.     It  may  be  intro- 


duced In  either  house  ;  it  passes  throogh 
the  same  stages  as  any  other  bill ;  and 
when  agreed  to  by  both  houses,  it  receives 
the  assent  of  the  crown.  As  Selden  rs- 
marked,  it  violated  the  oommoiMSt  prin- 
ciples of  Justice  by  making  the  sair.e  party 
accusers  and  Judges 


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AJX  164L  DEATH  OP  STRAFFORD.  386 

it.  An  offioer  named  Goring  betrayed  the  secret  to  the  popular 
leaders.  Their  alarm  may  easily  be  imagined.  The  commons  voted 
a  protestation,  to  be  signed  by  the  whole  nation,  declaring  that  the 
subscribers  would  defend  their  religion  and  liberties. 

The  king's  servants,  consulting  their  own  safety  rather  than  their 
master's  honour,  declined  interposing  with  their  advice  between  him 
and  his  parliament.  Juxon  alone,  Inahop  of  London,  whose  courage 
was  not  inferior  to  his  other  virtues,  ventured  to  advise  him,  if  in 
his  conscience  he  did  not  approve  of  the  bill,  by  no  means  to 
assent  to  it.  Some  plans  for ^  the  earl's  escape  wei-e  devised,  but 
abandoned;  and  Strafford,  hearing  of  Charles's  irresolution  and 
anxiety,  took  a  very  extraordinary  step.  He  wrote  a  letter  (May  4), 
in  which  he  entreated  the  king,  for  the  sake  of  public  peace,  to 
put  an  end  to  his  unfortunate,  however  innocent,  life ;  and  to  quiet 
the  tumultous  people  by  graisting  them  the  request  for  which  they 
were  so  importunate.*  After  a  week  of  violent  agitation,  Charles 
granted  a  commission  to  four  noblemen  to  give  the  royal  assent, 
in  his  name,  to  the  bill  (May  10).  Secretary  Carle  ton  was  sent  by 
the  king  to  inform  Strafford  of  the  final  resolution  which  necessity 
had  extorted  from  him.  The  earl,  rising  up  from  his  chair,  ex- 
claimed, in  the  words  of  Scripture,  **  Put  not  your  trust  in  princes, 
nor  in  any  child  of  man:  for  of  them  cometh  no  salvation." 
But  immediately  collecting  his  courage,  he  prepared  himself  for 
the  fatal  sentence.  The  king  now  made  a  new  effort  in  his  behalf, 
and  sent,  by  the  hands  of  the  young  prince  of  Wales,  a  letter  in  his 
own  hand,  addressed  to  the  peers,  entreating  them  to  confer  with 
the  conunons  and  spare  the  earl's  life. 

In  passing  from  his  apartment  to  Tower  Hill,  where  the 
scaffold  was  erected,  Strafford  stopped  under  Laud's  windows,  with 
whom  he  had  long  lived  in  intimate  friendship,  and  entreated  his 
prayers.  His  discourse  on  the  scaffold  was  full  of  decency  and 
courage.  His  head  fell  at  one  blow  (May  12, 1641),  in  the  49th  year 
of  his  age.  Few  will  uphold  the  justice  or  legality  of  his  sentence, 
nor  can  such  gross  disregard  of  justice  be  defended  on  the  plea  of 
political  necessity.  Strafford's  life  was  sacrificed  quite  as  much  to 
religious  as  to  political  animosity.  He  was  a  £dend  of  Laud,  and 
heartily  embraced  Laud's  ecclesiastical  principles  in  defence  of 
episGopacy.  So  long  as  either  remained  in  power,  the  designs  of  the 
Scotch  Covenanters,  with  whom  the  parliamentary  leaders  had  con- 
tracted the  cloeest  alliance,  could  not  be  realized.  Jealousy  of  his 
favour  with  the  king,  perhaps  also  a  tacit  belief  that  Charles 
would  never  consent  to  his  death,  induced  the  lords  to  agree  with 
the  commons  in  the  earl's  condemnation.  The  result  was  the  same 
*  Tt  has  been  Mwrted  that  this  letter  wm  a  forgery. 


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886  CHABLES  I.  Ob^.  XXL 

In  both  casee— with  the  lords,  because  the  commons  now  began  to 
undervalue  their  concurrence,  and  eventually  abolished  them ;  with 
the  king,  because  having  once  surrendered  his  authority,  when  he 
had  every  obligation  to  stand  firm,  men  were  persuaded  that,  under 
sufficient  pressure,  he  would  give  way  on  all  other  occasions.  Great 
as  was  the  compunction  of  Charles  for  his  compliance  with  Strafford's 
execution,  and  hardly  as  he  was  pressed  to  it  by  those  about  him, 
it  was  a  fatal  step  to  himself  and  to  all  who  were  concerned  in  it 

§  14.  On  the  same  day  that  the  king  gave  his  assent  to  the 
execution  of  Strafford,  he  likewise  sanctioned  a  bill,  which  had 
been  rapidly  carried  through  both  houses,  that  the  parliament 
should  not  be  dissolved,  prorogued,  or  adjourned,  without  its 
own  consent.  A  bill  was  also  passed  to  abolish  the  courts  of  High 
Commission  and  Star  Chamber.  By  the  same  bill  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  king's  council  was  regulated,  and  it«  authority  abridged. 
Thirteen  of  the  bishops  were  im[  cached  for  their  share  in  making 
the  canons  of  1640.  The  house  adjourned  to  the  20th  of  October ; 
and  a  committee  of  both  houses,  a  thing  unprecedented,  was  ap- 
pointed to  sit  during  the  recess  with  very  ample  powers. 

A  small  committee  of  both  houses  attended  the  king  on  his 
journey  into  Scotland,  in  order,  as  was  pretended,  to  see  that  the 
articles  of  pacification  were  executed;  but  really  to  act  as  spies 
upon  him,  and  to  extend  still  further  the  ideas  of  parliamentary 
authority,  as  well  as  to  eclipst^  the  majesty  of  the  king.  Besides  the 
large  pay  voted  to  the  Scots  for  lying  in  good  quarters  during  a 
twelvemonth,  the  English  parliament  conferred  on  them  a  present 
of  300,000?.  for  their  brotherly  assistance.  In  the  articles  of 
pacification  they  were  declared  to  have  ever  been  good  subjects. 
Their  invasions  of  England  were  approved  of,  as  enterprises  cal- 
culated and  intended  for  his  majesty's  honour  and  advantage. 
In  Scotland,  as  in  England,  the  king  was  obliged  to  strip  himself 
of  his  most  valued  prerogatives.  Several  of  the  Covenanters  were 
jwom  of  the  privy  council ;  and  the  king,  while  in  Scotland,  con- 
formed himself  entirely  to  the  services  of  the  kirk,  assisting  with 
great  gravity  at  the  long  prayers  and  longer  sermons  with  which 
the  presbyterians  endeavoured  to  regale  him. 

§  15.  While  the  king  was  employe  d  in  pacifying  the  commotion 
in  Scotland,  a  dangerous  rebellion  had  broken  out  in  Ireland. 
Strafford  had  raised  the  army  in  Ireland  from  3000  to  12,000  men, 
with  the  secret  design,  as  his  enemies  asserted,  of  employing  them  to 
maintain  Charles's  power  in  England.  The  parliament  insisted  on 
their  being  reduced  to  their  original  number ;  nor  would  they  for- 
ward the  king's  plan  of  enlisting  4000  of  these  disbanded  troops  in 
the  Spanish  service  iu  Flanders,  whence  indeed  they  might  hAT« 


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JUD.  1641«  IRISH  REBELLION.  887 

been  easily  diyerted  to  a  different  object  By  this  means,  however, 
not  only  was  the  standing  army  in  Ireland  greatly  reduced,  but  a 
large  body  of  discontented  papists^  trained  to  ihe  use  of  arms,  was 
suddenly  turned  loose  on  society.  The  old  Irish  observed  these 
false  steps  of  the  English,  and  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  them. 
A  geutleman  called  Roger  More,  of  Kildare,  much  celebrated  among 
his  countrymen  for  valour  and  capiicity,  formed  the  project  of 
expelling  the  English*,  and  he  engaged  in  the  conspiracy  the  chiefs 
of  the  native  Irish,  especially  sir  Phelim  O'Neale,  the  representative 
of  the  Tyrone  family,  an*!  lord  Inniskillen  (Macguire).  The  com- 
mencement of  the  revolt  was  fixed  for  the  approach  of  winter,  that 
there  might  be  more  difficulty  in  transporting  forces  from  England. 
An  attempt  to  surprise  Dublin  castle  was  betrayed  and  failed,  but 
O'Neale  and  his  confederates  had  already  taken  up  arms  in  Ulster. 
The  Irish,  everywhere  intermingled  with  the  English,  needed  but 
a  hint  from  their  leaders  to  begin  hostilities  against  a  i)eople 
whom  they  hated  on  account  of  their  religion,  and  envied  for  their 
riches.  The  houses,  cattle,  and  goods  of  the  unwary  English  were 
first  seized.  After  rapacity  had  fully  exerted  itself,  a  massacre  com- 
menced (October  23,  1041).  No  age,  no  sex,  and  no  condition  was 
spared.  The  English,  as  heretics  abhorred  of  God,  were  marked  out 
for  slaughter.  The  English  colonies  were  almost  annihilated  in  the 
open  country  of  Ulster,  whence  the  flames  of  rebellion  diffused  them- 
selves over  the  other  three  provinces  of  Ireland.  Not  content  with 
expelling  the  English  from  their  houses,  and  despoiling  them  of  their 
manors  and  cultivated  fields,  the  Irish  stripped  them  of  their  clothes, 
and  turned  them  out,  naked  and  defenceless,  to  all  the  inclemency 
of  the  season.  The  number  of  those  who  perished  is  estimated 
at  the  lowest  from  30,000  to  40,000.  The  English  of  the  pale, 
or  ancient  English  planters,  who  were  all  catholics,  were  prot«bly 
not  at  first  in  the  secret,  and  pretended  to  blame  the  insurrection 
and  to  detest  the  barbarity  with  which  it  was  accompanied.  By 
their  protestations  and  declarations  they  engaged  the  justices  to 
supply  them  with  arms,  which  they  promised  to  employ  in  de- 
fence of  the  government ;  but  in  a  little  time  the  interests  of 
religion  were  lound  more  powerful  than  regard  and  duty  to  their 
mother  country.  They  chose  lord  Gormanston  their  leader ;  and, 
joining  the  old  Irish,  rivalled  them  in  every  act  of  violence  to- 
wards the  English  )  rotes  t  ants. 

§  16.  The  king,  to  whom  the  Scots  could  grant  no  f\irther  aid 
than  to  despatch  a  small  body  to  support  the  Scottish  colonies  in 
Ulster,  sensible  of  his  utter  inability  to  subdue  the  Irish  rebels, 
found  himself  obliged,  in  this  exigency,  to  have  recourse  to  the 
English  parliament.     But  the  ^larliament  discovered,  in  every  vote» 


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388  CHABLES  I.  Chap.  xxi. 

the  same  dispositions  in  which  they  had  separated.     The  Irish 
rebellion  had  increased  their  animosity ;  but,  wliile  they  pretended 
the  utmost  zeal  against  it,  they  took  no  steps  towards  its  sup- 
pression.   The  necessity  to  which  the  king  was  now  reduced,  his 
facility  in  making  concessions  fatal  to  bis  own  authority,  the  example 
of  the  Scots,  all  combined  in  encouraging  the  commons  to  impair  the 
prerogatives  of  the  monarchy.    They  levied  money  under  pretenoe 
of  the  Irish  expedition,  but  reserved  it  for  purposes  which  concerned 
them  more  nearly ;  they  took  arms  from  the  king's  magazines,  but 
still  kept  them,  with  a  secret  intention  of  employing  them  against 
himself.    To  vindicate  their  couduct  and  to  show  that  their  dis- 
trust of  the  king  was  well  founded,  the  leaders  of  the  popular  party 
thought  proper,  in  the  king's  absence,  to  frame  a  general  Hbmon- 
STRANGE  on  the  state  of  the  nation.   This  memorable  document  was 
not  addressed  to  the  king,  but  was  openly  declared  to  be  an  appeal 
to  the  people.     It  consisted  of  many  gross  falsehoods,  mixed  with 
evident  truths.    Whatever  invidious,  whatever  suspicious,  whatever 
questionable  measure  had  been  embraced  by  the  king,  from  the  com- 
mencement of  his  reign,  is  insisted  on  with  merciless  rhetoric :  the 
unsuccessful  expeditions  to  Cadiz  and  the  isle  of  Rli^ ;  the  sending 
of  ships  to  France  for  the  suppression  of  the  Huguenots;  the  forced 
loans ;  the  illegal  confinement  of  men  for  not  obeying  illegal  com- 
mands; the  violent  dissolution  of  four  parliaments;  the  arbitrary 
government  which  always  succeeded ,  the  questioning,  fining,  and 
imprisoning  of  members  for  their  conduct  in  the  house ;  the  levy- 
ing of  taxes  without  consent  of  the  commons ;  the  introducing  of 
superstitious  innovations  into  the  church,  without  authority  of  law: 
in  short,  everything  which,  with  or  withou  reason,  had  given  offence 
during  the  course  of  15  years,  from  the  accession  of  the  king  to 
the  calling  of  the  present  parliament.     And  a  1  their  grievances, 
they  said,  which  amounted  to  no  less  than  a  total  subversion  of 
the  constitution,  proceedtd  entirely  from   the  combination  of  a 
popish  faction,  which  had  ever  swayed  the  king's  counsels,  had 
endeavoureii,  by  an  uninterrupted  eflbri,  to  introduce  their  super- 
stition into  England  and  Scotland,  and  had  now  at  last  excited 
an  open  and  bloody  rebellion  in  Ireland.    But  the  opposition  which 
the  Remonstrance  met  with  in  the  House  of  Commons  was  great. 
For  above  14  hours  the  debate  was  warmly  maintained,  and  the 
vote  was  at  last  carried  by  a  small  maj<»rity  of  159  to  148  (No- 
vember 22).    It  was  two  o'clock  in  the  morning — the  debate,  which 
was  hot  and  furious,  had  lasted  the  whole  day  before — when  a 
member  at  once  sprang  to  his  feet,  and  moved  that,  without  wait- 
ing for  the  concurrence  of  the  lords,  the  Remonstrance  should  be 
printed, — in  effect,  that  it  shotild  be  put  into  general  circulation  to 


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AJ>.  1641.         IMPEACHMENT  OF  THE  BISHOPa 

excite  the  passions  of  the  people,  before  the  king,  who  was  then 
absent,  or  his  council,  could  have  time  to  answer  it  In  this 
memorable  debate  Hyde  and  Falkland,  who  had  previously  acted 
with  the  popular  party,  were  the  chief  leaders  in  opposition  to  the 
Remonstrance. 

Every  measure  pursued  by  the  commons,  and  still  more  every 
attempt  made  by  their  partisans,  was  full  of  the  most  inveterate 
hatred  against  the  hierarchy,  aud  showed  a  determined  resolution  of 
subverting  the  whole  ecclesiastical  establishment.  The  majority  of 
the  peers,  who  had  hitherto  supported  the  commons,  now  adhered 
to  the  king,  though  a  few,  as  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  the  earl 
of  Essex,  and  lord  Eimbolton  (soon  after  earl  of  Manchester),  still 
took  the  opposite  side.  The  commons  professed  to  be  alarmed 
for  their  personal  safety,  and  applied  to  the  king  for  a  guard,  as  they 
apprehended  **  some  wicked  and  mischievous  practice  to  ihterrupt  the 
peaceMe  proceedings  of  parliament "  (November  30).  The  pulpits 
were  called  in  aid,  and  resounded  with  the  dangers  which  threatened 
religion  from  the  desperate  attempts  of  papists  and  malignants. 
Multitudes  flocked  towards  Westminster,  insulted  the  prelates  and 
such  of  the  lords  as  adhered  to  the  crown,  and  threw  out  insolent 
menaces  against  Charles  himself.  Several  reduced  officers  and 
yoimg  gentlemen  of  the  inns  of  court,  during  this  time  of  disorder 
and  danger,  offered  their  service  to  the  king.  Between  them  and 
the  populace  there  passed  frequent  skirmishes,  which  ended  not 
without  bloodshed.  By  way  of  reproach,  these  gentlemen  gave  the 
rabble  the  appellation  of  Roundheads,  on  account  of  the  short- 
cropped  hair  which  they  wore ;  the  latter  called  the  others  Cavaliers. 
And  thus  the  nation,  which  was  before  sufficiently  provided  with 
religious  as  well  as  civil  causes  of  quarrel,  was  also  supplied  with 
party  names,  under  which  the  factions  might  rally  and  signalize 
their  mutual  hatred. 

As  the  bishops  were  prevented  from  attending  parliament  by  the 
dangerous  insults  to  which  they  were  particularly  exposed,  twelve  of 
them  drew  up  a  remonstrance  to  the  king  and  House  of  Lords,  in 
which  they  protested  against  all  laws,  votes,  and  resolutions,  as 
nidi  and  invalid,  passed  during  the  time  of  their  constrained 
absence  (December  '60).  The  opportunity  was  seized  with  joy 
and  triumph  by  the  commons.  An  impeachment  of  high  treason 
was  immediately  sent  up  against  the  bishops,  as  endeavouring  to 
subvert  the  fundamental  laws,  and  to  invalidate  the  authority  of 
the  legislatiu-e.  They  were,  on  the  first  demand,  sequestered  from 
parliament  and  committed  to  custody. 

§  17.  A  few  days  after,  the  king  was  betrayed  into  an  act  of  iiH 
discretion,  which  was  followed  by  most  disastrous  results.    He  had 


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390  CHARLES  I.  Ohjup.  xxi. 

discovered  that  six  of  the  foremost  leaders  of  the  opposition  had 
entered  into  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  Scots  during  their 
invasion  of  England.  These  were  lord  Kirabolion  (Edward  Montagu, 
eldest  son  of  the  earl  of  Manchester),  Pym,  Hampden,  Hazeliig, 
Holies,  and  Strode.  On  January  3, 1642,  he  sent  Herbert,  the  attor- 
ney-general, to  impeach  them  in  the  House  of  Peers.  To  the  demand 
made  the  same  day  by  a  sergeant-at-arms  for  the  arrest  of  the  five 
members,  the  commons  returned  an  evasive  answer,  and  the  king 
resolved  to  seize  them  in  person  on  the  morrow.  It  is  probable 
that,  if  he  had  been  left  to  himself,  he  would  have  shrunk  from 
executing  this  design  on  cooler  reflection  ;  but  he  was  surrounded 
by  those  who  urged  him  to  more  violent  counsels,  especially  the 
queen  and  her  attendants,  who  taunted  him  with  cowardice  and  re- 
flections on  his  honour.  Accompanied  by  his  ordinary  retinue,  to 
the  number  of  above  200,  armed  as  usual,  son.e  with  halberts,  some 
with  walking-swords,  the  king  made  his  appearance  at  the  doors 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  Leaving  his  followers  outside,  he 
advanced  through  the  hall  alone,  while  all  the  members  rose  to 
receive  hiuL  The  speaker  withdrew  from  his  chair,  and  the  king 
took  possession  of  it.  He  then  in  a  short  speech  demanded  the 
accused  members,  who,  having  received  private  intelligence  from 
the  countess  of  Carlisle,  had  withdrawn ;  and  he  asked  the  speaker^ 
who  stood  below,  whether  any  of  those  persons  were  in  the  house. 
The  speaker  (Lenthall),  falling  on  his  knee,  prudently  replied, 
"  I  have,  sir,  neither  eyes  to  see,  nor  tongue  to  speak,  in  this  place, 
but  as  the  house  is  pleased  to  direct  me,  whose  servant  I  am ;  and 
I  humbly  ask  pardon  that  I  cannot  give  any  other  answer  to  what 
your  majesty  is  pleased  to  demand  of  me."  **  Well,  well,"  rejoined 
the  king,  "  'tis  no  matter ;  I  think  my  eyes  are  as  good  as  another's." 
Then,  convincing  himself  by  a  further  scrutiny  that  his  search  was 
vain,  he  added,  "  As  the  birds  are  flown,  I  do  expect  from  you  that 
you  will  send  them  unto  me  as  soon  as  they  return,  otherwise  I 
must  take  my  own  course  to  find  them."  The  answer  was  not  ill 
natured,  and  probably  the  king  was  not  ill  satisfied  at  the  result ; 
but  as  he  moved  to  the  doors,  shouts  of  "  Privilege  I  privilege ! " 
followed  him  from  all  sides  (January  4).  The  house  immediately 
adjourned  till  the  5th ;  and,  appointing  a  committee  to  sit  at  Guild- 
hail,  it  put  forth  a  declaration  that  the  king's  proceedings  were  a 
breach  of  its  privileges,  and  its  sittings  at  Westminster  could  no 
longer  be  held  consistently  with  its  safety. 

Next  morning  Charles,  attended  only  by  three  or  four  lords,  went 
to  Guildhall,  and  made  a  speech  to  the  common  council  containing 
mf\'\v  gracious  '»xpressi'ms.  The  city  was  the  stronghold  of  the 
disafiected  members.    As  he  passed  through  the  streets,  he  heard 


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AJK  164S.  THE  FIVE  MEMBEBS.  891 

the  cry,  **  Privilege  of  parliament !  privilege  of  parliament ! "  re- 
sounding from  all  quarters.  One  of  the  populace,  more  insolent 
than  the  rest,  drew  nigh  to  his  coach,  and  threw  in  a  paper  on  which 
was  written,  **  To  your  tents,  0  Israel !  "  the  words  employed  by  the 
mutinous  Israelites  when  they  abandoned  Rehoboam,  their  rash  and 
ill-advised  sovereign. 

The  house  met  (January  11),  and,  after  confirming  the  votes  of 
their  committee,  instantly  adjourned,  as  if  exposed  to  the  most 
imminent  perils  fix)m  the  violence  of  their  enemies.  On  the  ap- 
pointed day  the  accused  members  were  conducted  by  water  to  the 
house.  The  river  was  covered  with  boats  and  other  vessels,  laden 
with  small  pieces  of  ordnance,  and  prepared  for  fight;  and,  on 
landing,  the  members  were  received  by  a  body  of  horsemen,  who 
hail  come  up  from  Buckinghamshire  to  testify  their  devotion  to 
Hampden.  When  the  populace,  by  land  and  by  water,  passed 
Whitehall,  they  asked,  with  insulting  shouts,  **  What  has  become 
of  the  king  and  his  cavaliers ?  And  whither  are  they  fled?**  For 
the  king,  apprehensive  of  danger,  had  retired  to  Hampton  Court 
(January  10),  and  from  thence  to  Windsor  (January  12). 

Petitions  of  the  most  threatening  and  seditious  kind  wei^  pre- 
sented to  the  commons,  among  which  were  some,  signed  by  many 
thousands,  from  the  apprentices,  from  the  porters,  and  from  de- 
cayed tradesmen.  The  very  women  were  seized  with  the  same 
infatuation.  A  brewer's  wife,  followed  by  many  thousands  of  her 
sex,  brought  a  petition  to  the  house,  in  which  they  expressed  their 
terror  of  the  papists  and  prelates,  and  the  dread  of  like  massacres, 
rapes,  and  outrages  with  those  which  had  been  committed  upon 
their  sex  in  Ireland.  They  claimed  equal  rights  with  the  other  sex 
in  the  public  cause,  and  were  thanked  by  Pym,  who  begged  their 
prayers  for  the  success  of  the  commons.  The  king's  authority  was 
now  reduced  to  the  lowest  ehb.  By  the  death  of  Strafford  and  the 
imprisonment  of  Laud,  Charles  was  deprived  of  his  most  energetic 
councillors  Those  who  remained  about  his  person,  terrified  by  the 
late  events,  consulted  only  their  own  interests  and  their  own  safety. 
The  king's  friends,  as  they  were  called,  were  dispirited  and  dis- 
persed. To  increase  the  terrorism,  the  commons,  the  day  after  they 
reassembled  (January  12),  reported  to  the  lords  that  there  was  a 
design  to  kill  the  earl  of  Essex  and  four  others.  Two  days  after, 
they  resolved  that  all  who  had  given  the  king  evil  counsel,  or  en- 
deavoured to  maintain  divisions  between  the  king  a* id  the  jiarlia- 
ment,  should  be  judged  enemies  of  the  state ;  thus  sus{)euding  the 
Bword  of  impeachment  over  all  the  king's  advisers,  legal  or  other- 
wise, who  might  incur  the  displeasure  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  king  vainly  endeavoured  to  calm  this  irritation,  which,  if  nol 


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S92  CHARLES  L  Obap.  XZL 

assumed,  was  preposterous.  He  sent  a  message  to  the  lord  keeper 
(January  14),  that  he  never  intended  to  violate  the  privileges  of  the 
house,  and  would  clear  all  douhts  in  a  reasonable  way.  He  offered 
also  (January  20)  to  take  any  of  their  grievances  into  consideration. 
He  openly  announced  that  he  had  abandoned  the  charges  against 
the  accused  members.  But  these  concessions  were  only  met  by 
demands,  the  purport  of  which  could  not  be  mistaken. 

As  a  large  magazine  of  arms  was  stored  in  the  town  of  Hull,  the 
commons  despatched  thither  sir  John  Hotham,  a  gentleman  of  con- 
siderable fortune  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  of  an  ancient  femiily ; 
and  they  gave  him  the  authority  of  governor.  They  sent  orders  to 
Goring,  governor  of  Portsmouth,  to  obey  no  commands  but  such  as 
he  should  receive  from  the  parliament.  They  never  ceased  solicit- 
ing the  king  till  he  had  bestowed  the  command  of  the  Tower  on  sir 
John  Gonyers,  in  whom  alone,  they  said,  they  could  repose  confi- 
dence; and  after  making  a  fruitless  attempt,  in  which  the  peers 
refused  their  concurrence,  to  give  public  warning  that  the  people 
should  put  themselves  in  a  posture  of  defence  against  the  enter- 
prises of  papists  and  other  ill-affected  ptmons,  they  now  resolved  to 
seize  at  once  the  whole  power  of  the  swurd,  and  to  confer  it  entirely 
on  their  own  creatures  and  adherents,  by  means  of  the  militia.  A 
bill  was  introduced,  and  passed  the  two  houses,  which  restored  to 
lieutenants  of  counties  and  their  deputies  the  powers  of  which  by  the 
votes  of  the  commons  they  had  been  deprived ;  but  at  the  same 
time  the  names  of  all  the  lieutenants  were  inserted  in  the  bill,  and 
these  consisted  entirely  of  men  in  whom  the  parliament  could  con- 
fide ;  and  for  their  conduct  they  were  accountable,  by  the  express 
terms  of  the  bill,  not  to  the  king,  but  to  the  parliament  (March  5). 

When  this  demand  was  made,  Charles  was  at  Dover,  attending 
the  queen  and  his  daughter  Mary,  princess  of  Orange,  on  their 
embarkation  to  Holland.  He  at  first  attempted  to  postpone  and 
evade  the  bill ;  but  the  commons  pressed  it  upon  him,  and  asserted 
that,  unless  he  speedily  complied  with  their  demands,  they  should 
be  constrained,  for  .he  safety  of  prince  and  people,  to  dispose  of  the 
militia  by  the  authority  of  both  houses,  and  were  resolved  to  do  it 
accordingly;  and,  while  they  thus  menaced  the  king  with  their 
power,  they  invited  him  to  fix  his  residence  at  London.  Charles 
replied  by  a  remonstrance;  and,  lest  violence  should  be  used  to 
extort  his  consent  to  the  militia  bill,  he  removed  by  slow  journeys 
to  York,  taking  with  him  the  prinoe  of  Wales  and  the  duke  of  York 
(March  19). 

§  18.  The  king  here  found  marics  of  attachment  beyond  what  he 
had  before  expected.  From  all  quarters  of  England  the  prime 
lobility  and  gentry,  either  personally  or  by  messages  and  letters, 


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AJK  16^  THE  KING  ARRIVES  AT  YORK.  893 

expressed  tbeir  duty  towards  him,  and  exhorted  him  to  save  him- 
self and  them  from  that  ignominious  slavery  with  which  they  were 
threatened.  Finding  himself  supported  by  a  considerable  party  in 
the  kingdom,  Charles  began  to  speak  in  a  firmer  tone,  and  per- 
sisted in  refusing  the  bill;  while  the  commons  insisted  on  their 
ordinance,  in  which,  by  the  authority  of  the  two  houses,  without 
the  king's  consent,  they  had  named  lieutenants  for  all  the  counties, 
and  conferred  on  them  the  command  of  the  whole  military  force, 
of  all  the  guards,  garrisons,  and  forts  of  the  kingdom  (May  6). 
Charles  issued  proclamations  against  this  manifest  usurpation ;  and 
the  commons,  inventing  a  distinction,  hitherto  unheard  of,  between 
the  office  and  the  person  of  the  king,  proceeded  to  levy,  in  his  name 
and  by  his  authority,  those  very  forces  which  they  employed 
against  him. 

Charles  had  entertained  hopes  that,  if  he  presented  himself  at  Hull 
before  the  commencement  of  hostilities,  Hotham,  overawed  by  his 
presence,  would  admit  him  with  his  retinue,  after  which  he  might 
easily  render  himself  master  of  the  place ;  but  the  governor  was  on 
his  guard.  He  shut  the  gates  and  refused  to  receive  the  king,  who 
desired  leave  to  enter  with  20  persons  only  (April  23). 

The  county  of  York  levied  a  guard  for  the  king  of  600  men, 
which  the  two  houses  immediately  \oted  a  breach  of  the  trust 
reposed  in  him  by  his  people,  contrary  to  his  oath,  and  tending  to 
a  dissolution  of  the  government.  The  forces,  which  had  been  every- 
where raised  on  pretence  of  the  service  in  Ireland,  were  henceforth 
openly  enlisted  by  the  parliament  for  their  own  purposes,  and  the 
command  of  them  was  given  to  the  earl  of  Essex.  In  London  no 
less  than  4000  men  enlisted  in  one  day.  Within  ten  days  vast 
quantities  of  plate  were  brought  to  their  treasurers.  Such  zeal 
animated  the  partisans  of  the  parliament,  especially  in  the  dty. 
The  women  gave  up  all  the  plate  and  ornaments  of  their  houses, 
and  even  their  silver  thimbles  and  bodkins,  in  order  to  support  the 
good  cause  against  the  malignants.  On  the  other  hand,  the  queen, 
by  disposing  of  the  crown  jewels  in  Holland,  had  been  enabled  to 
purchase  a  cargo  of  arms  and  ammunition,  a  portion  of  which 
reached  the  king  after  many  perils. 

The  parliament  now  sent  the  conditions  on  which  they  were 
willing  to  come  to  an  agreement  (June  2).  They  required  that  no 
man  should  remain  in  the  council  who  was  not  agreeable  to  parlia- 
ment ;  that  no  deed  of  the  king's  should  have  any  validity  ualess 
it  passed  the  council,  and  was  attested  under  their  hand ;  that  all 
the  officers  of  state  and  principal  judges  should  be  chosen  with 
consent  of  parliament,  and  enji>y  their  offices  for  life ;  that  none  of 
the  royal  family  should  marry  without  consent  of  parliament  or  ibo 


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S94 


CHARLES  I. 


Chap,  xxi 


council ;  that  the  laws  should  be  executed  agdnst  catholics ;  that 
the  votes  of  popish  lords  should  be  excluded ;  that  the  refonnatioQ 
of  the  liturgy  and  chiu'ch  government  should  take  place  according 
to  advice  of  parliament;  that  the  ordinance  with  regard  to  the 
militia  be  submitted  to ;  that  the  justice  of  parliament  pass  upon 
all  delinquents ;  that  a  general  pardon  be  granted,  with  such  ex- 
ceptions as  should  be  advised  by  parliament ;  that  the  forts  and 
castles  be  disposed  of  by  consent  of  parliament ;  and  that  no  peer 
be  made  but  with  consent  of  both  houses.  War  on  any  terms  was 
esteemed,  by  the  king  and  all  his  counsellors,  preferable  to  so 
ignominious  a  peace.  Collecting  therefore  some  forces,  Charles 
advanced  southwards;  and  at  Nottingham  he  erected  his  royal 
standard  (August  22, 1642\ 


NOTES  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PETITION  OF  RIGHT. 
3  Car.  I.  c.  1. 
The  petition  exhibited  to  his  majesty  by 
the  lords  spiritoftl  and  temporal,  and 
oommons,  in  this  present  parliament 
assembled,  concerning  divers  rights  and 
liberties  of  the  subjects,  with  the  king's 
majesty's  royal  answer  thereunto  in 
fall  parliament. 

To  the  king's  most  excellent  majesty. 
Humbly  show  onto  our  sovereign  lord 
the  king,  the  lords  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral, and  commons,  in  parliament  as- 
sembled, that  whereas  it  is  declared  and 
enacted  by  a  statute  made  in  the  time  of 
the  reign  of  king  Edward  I.,  commonly 
caUed  Statutum  de  taUagio  non  eonce- 
dendo,  that  no  tallage  or  aid  shall  be  laid 
or  levied  by  the  king  or  his  heirs  in  this 
realm,  without  the  good  will  and  assent 
of  the  archbishops,  bishops,  carls,  barons, 
knights,  burgesses,  and  other  the  Axe- 
men of  the  commonalty  of  this  realm; 
and  by  authority  of  parliament  holden 
in  the  five  and  twentieth  year  of  the 
reign  of  king  Edward  III.  it  is  declared 
and  enacted,  that  from  thenceforth  no 
per«utn  should  be  compelled  to  make  any 
loans  to  the  king  against  his  will,  because 
each  loans  were  against  reason  and  the 
franchise  of  the  land;  and  by  other 
laws  of  this  realm  it  is  provided  that 
none  should  be  charged  by  any  charge 
or  imposition  called  a  benevolence,  nor 


by  such  like  charge;  by  which  statntes 
before  mentioned,  and  other  the  good 
laws  and  statutes  of  this  realm,  your 
suh)ect8  have  inherited  this  freedom,  that 
they  should  not  be  compeUed  to  oou- 
iribute  to  any  tax,  tallage,  aid,  or  other 
like  charge  not  set  by  common  consent, 
in  parliament. 

II.  Yet  nevertheless  of  late  diven 
commissions  directed  to  sundry  com- 
missioners in  several  counties,  with 
instructions,  have  issued ;  by  means 
whereof  your  people  have  been  in  divers 
places  assembled,  and  required  to  lend 
certain  sums  of  money  unto  your  mi^esty, 
and  many  of  them,  upon  their  refusal 
so  to  do,  have  had  an  oath  administered 
unto  them  not  warrantable  by  the  laws 
or  statutes  of  this  realm,  and  have  been 
constrained  to  become  bound  to  make 
appearance  and  give  utterance  before 
your  privy  council  and  in  other  places, 
and  others  of  them  have  been  therefore 
imprisoned,  con&ned,  and  sundry  other 
ways  molested  and  disquieted ;  and  divers 
other  charges  have  been  laid  and  levied 
upon  your  people  in  several  counties  by 
lord  lieutenants,  deputy  lieutenants,  com- 
missioners for  musters.  Justices  of  peace, 
and  others,  by  command  or  direction 
fh)m  your  miO^^J*  "^  your  privy  coun- 
cil, against  the  laws  and  free  customs  of 
the  realm. 

III.  And  whereas  also  by  the  statate 
caUed  "  The  Qraai  Charter  of  the  liber 


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NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


395 


jes  of  Knghmd,"  H  is  declared  and  en- 
acted, that  no  fteeman  may  be  taken  or 
fanpriaooed,  or  be  diseeifled  of  bis  freehold 
or  libertlea,  or  his  tree  cnstoms,  or  bo 
ootlawed  or  exfled,  or  in  any  manner  de- 
stroyed, bat  by  the  lawftil  Judgment  of  his 
peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land. 

rV.  And  in  the  eight  and  twentieth 
yaar  of  the  reign  of  king  Edward  III. 
it  was  declared  and  enacted  by  authority 
of  parliament,  that  no  man,  of  what 
tetate  or  condition  that  he  be,  should  be 
put  out  of  his  lands  or  tenements,  nor 
taken,  nor  imprisoned,  nor  disherited,  nor 
put  to  death  without  being  brought  to 
answer  by  due  process  of  law. 

y.  Nevertheless,  against  the  tenor  of 
the  said  statutes,  and  other  the  good 
laws  and  statutes  of  your  realm  to  that 
end  provided,  divers  of  your  sul\)ects 
have  of  late  been  iroprLioned  without 
any  cause  showed;  and  when  fur  their 
deliverance  they  were  brought  before 
your  Justices  by  your  mi^Jesty's  writs  of 
haheoi  eorpuM,  there  to  undergo  and 
receive  as  the  court  should  order,  and 
their  keepers  commanded  to  certify  the 
causes  of  their  detainer,  no  cause  was 
certified,  but  that  they  were  detained 
by  your  mi^csty's  special  command, 
signified  by  the  lords  of  your  privy 
council,  and  yet  were  returned  back  to 
•everal  prisons,  without  being  charged 
with  anything  to  which  they  might  make 
answer  according  to  the  law. 

YI.  And  whereas  of  late  great  com- 
panies of  soldiers  and  mariners  have 
been  dispersed  into  divers  counties  of 
the  realm,  and  the  inhabitants  against 
their  wills  tiave  been  compelled  to  re- 
ceive them  into  their  houses,  and  there 
to  suffer  them  to  sojourn,  against  the 
laws  and  customs  of  this  realm,  and  to 
the  great  grievance  and  vexation  of  the 
people. 

Yll.  And  whereas  also  hj  authority 
of  parliament,  in  tbu  live  and  twentieth 
year  of  the  reign  of  king  lulward  III., 
it  is  declared  and  enacted,  that  no  man 
should  be  forejudged  of  life  or  limb 
against  the  form  of  the  Great  Charter 
and  the  law  of  the  land;  and  by  the 
said  Great  Charter,  and  other  the  laws 
and  statutes  of  this  your  realm,  no  man 
onftht  to  be  adjudged  to  death  but  by 
the  laws  ostabiixhod  In  this  your  realm, 
either  by  the  customs  of  the  same  realm, 
or  by  acts  of  parliament :  and  whereas 
no  offender  of  what  kind  iMTtr  is  ex- 


empted fhnn  the  proceedings  to  be  used, 
and  punishments  to  be  inflicted  by  the 
laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm; 
nevertheless  of  late  time  divers  com- 
missions under  your  majesty's  great  seal 
have  issued  forth,  by  which  certabat  per- 
sons have  been  assigned  and  appointed 
commissioners  with  power  and  authority 
to  proceed  within  the  land,  according  to 
the  Justice  of  martial  law,  against  audi 
soldiers  or  mariners,  or  c^er  dissoluta 
persons  Joining  with  them,  as  should 
commit  any  murder,  robbery,  felony, 
mutiny,  or  other  outrage  or  misdemeanor 
whatsoever,  and  by  such  summary  course 
and  order  as  is  agreeable  to  martial  law, 
and  as  is  used  in  armies  in  time  of  war, 
to  proceed  to  the  trial  and  condemnation 
of  such  offenders,  and  them  to  cause  to 
be  executed  and  put  to  death  according 
to  the  law  martial. 

YIII.  9y  pretext  whereof  some  of  your 
misJesty's  suttjects  have  been  by  some  of 
the  said  commissioners  put  to  death,  when 
and  where,  if  by  the  laws  and  statutes  of 
the  land  they  had  deserved  death,  by  the 
same  laws  and  sUtutes  also  they  might, 
and  by  no  other  ought  to  have  been 
Judged  and  executed : 

IX.  And  also  sundry  grievous  oflien- 
ders,  by  colour  thereof  claiming  an  ex- 
emption, have  escaped  the  punishments 
due  to  them  by  the  laws  and  statutes  of 
this  your  realm,  by  reason  that  divers 
of  your  officers  and  ministers  of  Justice 
have  unjustly  reflised  or  forborne  to  pro- 
ceed against  such  offenders  according  to 
the  same  laws  and  statutes,  upon  pretence 
that  the  said  offenders  were  pnnishable 
only  by  martial  law,  and  by  authority 
of  such  comm:ssions  as  aforesaid ,  which 
commissions,  and  all  other  of  like  nature, 
are  wholly  and  directly  contrary  to  the 
said  laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm. 

X.  They  do  therefore  humbly  pray 
your  most  excellent  msjesty,  that  no 
man  hereafter  be  compelled  to  make  or 
yield  any  gill,  loan,  benevolence,  tax, 
or  such  like  charge,  without  common 
consent  by  act  of  parliament ,  and  that 
none  be  called  to  make  answer,  or  to 
take  such  oath,  or  to  give  attendance,  or 
be  confined,  or  otherwise  molested  or 
disquieted  concerning  the  same*  or  for 
refusal  thereof;  and  that  no  freeman, 
in  nny  such  manner  as  Is  before  men- 
tioned, be  imprisoned  or  detained;  and 
that  your  majesty  would  be  pleased  to 
remove  the  said  soldien  and  BUtflMr% 


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6d6 


NOTES  AND  ILLU8TEATI0NS. 


Chap. 


•ad  that  your  people  may  not  be  ao 
Imrdened  in  time  to  come ;  and  that  the 
aforeaald  oommiaaionB,  for  proceeding 
bj  martial  law,  maj  be  revoked  and 
annulled;  and  that  horeafter  no  com- 
miaelonB  of  like  natnre  maj  isane  forth 
to  any  peraon  or  persona  whataoe^r  to 
be  executed  aa  aforesaid,  leat  by  colour 
of  them  any  of  your  majeaty'a  antatlecta 
be  destroyed  or  put  to  death  contrary  to 
the  laws  and  franchise  of  the  land. 

XI.  All  which  they  moat  humbly  pray 
of  your  moat  excellent  majesty  aa  their 
rlgfata  and  libertfea,  according  to  the  Uwa 
and  statutes  of  thia  realm ;  and  that  your 
mivfesty  would  also  Touchaafe  to  declare 
that  the  awarda,  doingB,  and  proceedings, 


to  the  pr^udioe  of  your  people  in  any  of 
the  premiaea,  ahall  not  be  drawn  here- 
after into  oonaequence  or  example;  and 
that  your  miO^ty  would  be  also  gra- 
doualy  pleaaed,  for  the  farther  comfi>rtand 
aafety  of  your  people,  to  declare  your 
royal  will  and  pleasure,  that  in  the  things 
aforeaaid  all  your  officers  and  miniatera 
shall  serve  you  according  to  the  laws  and 
statutes  of  ihis  realm,  as  they  tender  the 
honour  of  your  majesty,  and  the  pros- 
perity of  thia  kingdom. 

Qu&  quidtm  pUitione  leetd  et  plmiui 
inUlUctA  per  dictum  dominum  rtffem 
taliter  ttt  rt^^ontum  in  pLeno  farUor 
manto,  via,  aoit  droit  fait  oemme  ttt 
detiri. 


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«♦  Oxford  Crown  "  of  Charles  1. 
Ob. :  CABOLVS  .  D  :  o  :  XAO  :  BRrr :  fkan  :  bt  .  hibrh  .  bbx.  The  king  moanted,  to  left. 
Beneath  his  horse  a  view  of  Oxford,  with  the  name  oxox  and  the  letter  u,  the  initial 
of  the  name  of  the  artlft,  Rawllna.  Rev. :  bxvboat  dkvs  ddbipkmtvb  iKuua. 
Aeroes  the  field  bbuo  .  rwn .  uo  axo  .  lubb  .  pakl  :  above,  v,  for  the  tbIim  ; 
and  below,  1644  oxox. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

CHARLB8  L— OOHTINUED.      FROM  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  OIYIL 

WAB  TO  THE   TRIAL   AND  EXECtJTION   OF  THE   KING. 

A.D.  1642-1649. 

f  1.  Commenceinent  of  the  dvil  war.  State  of  the  kingdom.  §  2.  Battlt 
of  EdgehiU.  Negociation  at  Oxford.  §  3.  Campaign  of  1643.  Death 
of  Hampden.  Siege  of  Gloucester.  Waller's  plot.  Battle  of  Newbury. 
Actions  in  the  north,  f  4.  Proceedings  in  Scotland.  The  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant.  Troops  sent  from  Ireland.  §  5.  Parliaments  at  West- 
minster and  Oxford.  Campaign  of  1644.  Battle  of  Marston  Moor. 
Second  battle  of  Newbury.  §  6.  Independents  and  presbyterians. 
Cromwell  accuses  the  earl  of  Manchester.  The  self-denying  ordinance. 
§  7.  Execution  of  Laud.  §  8.  Campaign  of  1645.  Montrose's  virtories. 
The  "  new  model.*'  Battle  of  Naseby.  Surrender  of  Bristol  and  other 
places.  §  9.  Negociations  with  the  parliament.  Glamorgan's  com- 
mission in  Ireland.  The  king  iiies  to  the  Scottish  camp.  He  is 
delivered  up  by  the  Scots.  §  10.  Mutiny  of  the  army.  The  king  seized 
by  Joyce.  §  1 1.  The  army  subdue  the  parliament.  The  king  flies  to. 
the  Isle  of  Wight.  §  12.  Cromwell  restores  the  discipline  of  the  army. 
Deliberations  respecting  the  king.  §  13.  Displeasure  of  the  Scots. 
Commotions  in  England.  Treaty  of  Newport.  Civil  wars.  §  14.  Pride's 
*'  purge."  Trial  of  the  king.  §  15.  Execution  and  character  of  the 
king. 

§  1.  When  two  names  so  sacred  in  the  English  sonstitution  as  thoee 
of  Kino  and  Parliament  were  placed  in  opposition,  no  wonder  the 
people  were  divided  in  their  choice,  and  were  agitated  with  the 
most  violent  animosities  and  factions.  The  nobility  and  more  con« 
siderable  gentry*  dreading  a  total  oonfusion  of  rank  from  the  fur/ 
19 


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398  GHABLES  I.  Chap.  xni. 

of  the  populace,  enlisted  themselves  in  defence  of  the  monarch, 
from  whom  they  received,  and  to  whom  they  communicated,  their 
lustre.  The  city  of  London,  on  the  other  hand,  and  most  of  the 
great  corporations,  took  part  with  the  parliament,  and  adopted  with 
zeal  those  den.ocratical  principles  on  which  the  pretensions  of  that 
assembly  were  founded.  The  devotee <  of  presbytery  became,  of 
course,  zealous  partisans  of  the  parliament ;  the  friends  of  the 
episcopal  church  valued  themselves  on  defending  the  rights  of 
monarchy.  Those  who  aspired  to  an  easy  enjoymrnt  of  life  flocked 
to  the  king's  standard,  whe?  e  they  breathed  a  freer  air,  and  were 
exempted  from  that  rigid  precisencss  and  melancholy  austerity 
which  reigned  among  the  parliamentary  party.  But  on  the  whole, 
however,  the  torrent  of  general  affection  ran  to  the  parliament,  and 
their  assumption  of  the  king's  name  led  people  to  believe  that  they 
were  maintaining  his  authority  against  less  disinterested  advisers. 
The  neighbouring  states  of  Euroi>e,  engaged  in  violent  wars,  little 
concerned  themselves  in  these  civil  commotions;  and  this  island 
enjoyed  the  singular  advantage  (for  such  it  surely  was)  of  fighting 
out  its  own  qnarrels  without  the  interposition  of  foreigners.  The 
king's  condition,  when  he  api>eared  at  Nottingham,  was  not  very 
encouraging  to  his  i)arty.  His  artillery,  though  far  from  numerous, 
had  been  left  at  York  for  want  of  horses  to  transport  it.  Besides 
the  trained  bands  of  the  county,  raised  by  sir  John  Digby,  the 
sheriflf,  he  had  not  got  together  above  300  infSstntry.  His  cavalry, 
in  which  consisted  his  chief  strength,  exceeded  not  800,  and  were 
very  ill  provided  with  arms.  The  fi)rces  of  the  parliament  lay  at 
Northampton,  within  a  few  days'  march  of  him ;  and  consisted  of 
above  6000  men,  well  armed  and  well  ai>pointed.  Had  these  troops 
advanced  upon  him,  they  must  soon  have  dissipated  the  small  force 
which  he  had  assembled,  and  perhaps  have  for  ever  prevented  his 
collecting  an  anny;  but  the  earl  of  Essex,  the  parliamentary  general, 
had  not  yet  received  any  orders  from  his  masters.  In  this  situation, 
by  the  unanimous  desire  of  Charles's  counsellors,  the  earl  of  South- 
ampton, with  sir  Jolm  Colepeper  and  sir  William  Uvedale,  was 
despatched  to  London  with  offers  of  a  treaty  (August  25).  Both 
houses  re()lied  that  they  could  admit  of  no  treaty  with  the  king  till 
he  took  down  his  standard  and  recalled  his  proclamations,  in  which 
the  parliament  supposed  themselves  to  be  declared  traitors.  A 
second  attempt  at  negociation  had  no  better  success  (September  3). 
The  courage  of  the  parliament  was  increased  both  by  their  great 
fluperiority  of  force  and  by  two  recent  events  which  had  happened 
in  their  favour.  They  had  obtained  possession  of  Portsmouth,  the 
best  fortified  town  in  the  king«lom,  through  the  negligence  of  Goring, 
the  governor  (September  9) ;  and  the  marquis  of  Hertford,  a  noble- 


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A^  1642.  BATTLE  OF  EDOEHILL.  399 

man  of  the  greatest  quality  and  character  in  the  kingdom,  who 
had  drawn  together  some  appearance  of  an  army  in  Somersetshire, 
had  been  obliged  to  retire  into  Wales  on  the  approach  of  the  e&rl 
of  Bedford  with  the  parliamentary  forces.  All  the  dispersed  bodies 
of  the  parliamentary  army  were  now  ordered  to  march  to  Northamp- 
ton :  and  the  earl  of  Essex,  who  had  joined  them,  found  the  whole 
amount  to  15,000  men.  The  king,  sensible  that  he  had  no  army 
which  could  cope  with  so  formidable  a  force,  thought  it  prudent  to 
retire  to  Derby,  and  thence  to  Shrewsbury.  At  Wellington,  a 
day's  march  from  Shrewsbury,  he  made  a  solemn  declaration  before 
his  army,  in  which  he  promised  to  maintain  the  protestant  religion, 
to  observe  the  laws,  and  to  uphold  the  just  privileges  and  freedom 
of  parliament  (September  19).  On  the  appearance  of  commotions 
in  England,  the  princes  Rupert  and  Maurice,  sons  of  the  unfor- 
tunate palatine  and  the  princess  Elizabeth,  had  offered  their  service 
to  the  king,  their  uncle ;  and  the  former  at  that  time  commanded 
a  body  of  horse  which  had  been  sent  to  Worcester  in  order  to  watch 
the  motions  of  Essex.  Here  prince  Rupert  began  the  civil  wars  by 
routing  a  body  of  cavalry  near  that  city  (September  25).  The 
ac  ion,  though  in  itself  of  small  importance,  mightily  raised  the  repu- 
tation of  the  royalists,  and  ac(iuired  for  pi  ince  Rupert  the  character 
of  promptitude  and  courage,  qualities  which  he  eminently  displayed 
during  the  whole  course  of  the  war. 

The  king,  on  mustering  his  army,  found  it  amount  to  10,000 
men.  The  earl  of  Lindsey,  who  in  his  youth  had  sought  expe- 
rience of  military  service  in  the  Low  Countries,  was  general ;  prince 
Rupert  commanded  the  horse,  sir  Jacob  Astley  the  foot,  sir  Arthur 
Aston  the  dragoons,  sir  John  Heydon  the  artillery. 

§  2.  With  this  army  the  king  left  Shrewsbury  in  October,  and 
directed  his  march  towards  the  capital,  with  the  intention  of 
bringing  on  an  action.  He  fell  in  with  the  parliamentary  forces 
at  Edgehill,  near  Kineton,  in  the  county  of  Warwick  (October  23, 
1642).  Though  the  day  was  far  advanced,  the  king  resolved  upon 
the  attack.  After  a  desperate  struggle,  in  which  great  mistakes 
were  committed  on  both  sides,  the  battle  endtd  without  either 
party  obtaining  any  decisive  advantage.  All  night  the  two  armit  s 
lay  under  arms,  and  next  morning  they  found  themselves  in  sight 
of  each  other.  General,  as  well  as  soldier,  on  both  sides,  seemed 
averse  to  renew  the  battle.  Essex  first  drew  off,  and  retired  to 
Warwick.  The  king  returned  to  his  former  quarters.  About  1200 
men  are  said  to  have  fallen  ;  and  the  loss  of  the  two  armies,  as  far 
as  we  can  judge  by  the  op^wsite  accounts,  was  nearly  equal.  Lind- 
sey,  the  royal  general,  was  mortally  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 

The  king,  except  the  taking  of  Banbury  a  few  days  after,  had  few 


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400  CHARLES  L  Chap.  xxn. 

marks  of  victory  to  boast  of.  He  continued  his  march  to  Oxford, 
the  only  town  in  his  dominions  which  was  altogether  at  his  de- 
votion (October  26).  Hence  he  proceeded  to  Reading,  from  which 
lx)th  the  parliamentary  governor  and  garrison,  seized  with  panic, 
fled  with  precipitation  to  London.  The  parliament,  alarmed  at 
the  near  approach  of  the  royal  army,  whilo  their  own  forces  lay  at  a 
distance,  voted  an  address  for  a  treaty ;  and  the  Icing  named  Wind- 
sor as  the  place  of  conf  rence  (November  11).  Meanwhile  Essex, 
advancing  by  hasty  marches,  had  arrived  at  London.  He  committed 
the  first  breach  of  faith  by  throwing  three  regiments  into  Brentford. 
Charles  attacked  them,  and  af.er  a  sharp  action  beat  them  firom 
that  town,  and  took  about  500  prisoners  (November  12).  The  city 
trained  bands  joined  the  army  under  Essex,  which  now  amounted 
to  above  24,000  men,  and  was  much  superior  to  that  of  the  king. 
A  fter  both  armies  had  faced  each  other  a  whole  day  at  Famham 
Green,  both  drew  off.  Charles  retired  to  Reading,  and  thence  to 
Oxford  (November  29). 

In  the  early  part  of  the  next  year,  negociations  for  a  treaty  were 
continued  at  Oxford.  The  king  insisted  on  the  re-establishment  of 
the  crown  in  all  its  legal  powers,  and  on  the  restoration  of  his  con- 
stitutional prerogative.  The  parliament  required,  besides  other 
concessions,  that  the  king  should  abolish  episcopacy,  and  acquiesce 
in  their  settlemen'.  of  the  militia.  But  the  conferences  went  no 
further  than  the  fii  st  demand  on  each  side.  The  parliament,  finding 
that  there  was  no  likelihood  of  coming  to  any  agreement,  suddenly 
recalled  their  commissioners. 

§  'l.  The  campaign  of  1643  was  opened  by  the  defeat  of  the 
parliamentarians  at  Hopton  Heath  (March  19),  and  the  taking  of 
Reading  by  Essex  (April  27).  In  the  north,  wherj  lord  Fairfax 
commanded  for  the  parliament,  and  the  earl  of  Newcastle  for  the 
king,  the  latter  nobleman  united  in  a  league  for  Charles  the  counties 
of  Northumberland,  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  the  bishopric 
of  Durham,  took  possession  of  York,  and  established  the  royal 
authority  in  all  the  northern  provinces.  The  Ciistern  or  associated 
counties,  as  they  were  called,  consisting  of  Essex,  Suffolk,  Norfolk, 
Lincoln,  Cauibridge,  Huntingdon,  and  Hertford,  had  been  combined 
against  the  king  by  lord  Grey  of  Wark.  In  the  south  and  west, 
sir  William  Waller,  who  now  began  to  distinguish  himself  among 
the  generals  of  the  parliament,  took  Winchester,  Chichester,  Here- 
ford, and  Tewkesbury.  On  the  other  hand,  sir  Ralph  Hopton 
•ecured  Cornwall  for  the  king. 

Essex,  finding  that  his  army  fell  continually  to  decay  after  the 
riege  of  Reading,  was  resolved  to  remain  upon  the  defensive;  and 
the  weakness  of  the  king,  and  his  want  of  all  military  stores,  hM  also 


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AJ>.  1642-1648.  BSATH  OF  HAMPDBN.  4i01 

restrained  the  activity  of  the  royal  army.  No  aclion  had  happened 
in  that  part  of  England,  except  one  skirmish  at  Chalgrove  Field,  in 
Oxford^re,  which  of  itself  was  of  no  great  consequence,  and  was 
rendered  memorahle  only  by  the  death  of  the  famous  Hampden 
(June  18).  He  was  seen  riding  off  the  field  before  the  action  was 
finished,  his  head  hanging  down,  and  his  hands  leaning  upon  his 
horse's  neck.  He  was  shot  in  the  shoulder  with  a  brace  of  bullets, 
and  the  bone  broken.  He  died  some  days  after,  in  exquisite  pain, 
of  his  wound  (June  24) ;  nor  could  his  whole  party,  had  their  army 
met  with  a  total  oyerthrow,  have  been  struck  wiUi  greater  conster- 
nation. The  king  himself  so  highly  valued  him,  that,  either  from 
generosity  or  policy,  he  intended  to  have  sent  him  his  own  surgeon 
to  assist  at  his  cure. 

The  west  now  became  the  principal  scene  of  action.  The  king 
sent  thither  the  marquis  of  Hertford  and  prince  Maurice,  with  a 
reinforcement  of  cavalry,  who,  having  joined  the  Cornish  army, 
soon  overran  the  county  of  Devon,  and,  advancing  into  that  of 
Somerset,  began  to  reduce  it  to  ob^ence.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
parliament,  having  supplied  sir  William  Waller  with  a  complete 
army,  despatched  him  westwards.  After  some  skirmishes,  a  pitched 
battle  was  fought  at  Lansdown,  near  Bath,  with  great  loss  on  both 
sides,  but  without  any  decisive  event  (July  5) ;  and  shortly  after 
another  near  Devizes,  in  which  Waller  was  completely  defeated, 
and  forced  to  retire  to  Bristol  (July  13).  This  city  surrendered  to 
prince  Rupert  a  few  days  afterwards  (July  27) ;  and  Charles  having 
now  joined  the  army  in  the  west,  Gloucester  was  invested  on  the 
10th  of  August. 

The  rapid  progress  of  the  royalists  threatened  the  parliament 
with  immediate  subjection.  The  factions  and  discontents  among 
themselves,  in  the  city,  and  throughout  the  neighbouring  counties, 
prognosticated  some  dangerous  division  or  insurrection.  In  the 
beginning  of  this  summer  a  design  had  been  discovered  for  disarm- 
ing the  London  militia  and  obliging  the  parliament  to  accept  of 
reasonable  conditions.  Edmund  Waller,  the  poet,  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  was  at  the  head  of  it,  with  Tomkins  his  brother- 
in-law,  and  Chaloner  his  friend.  Being  seized  and  tried  by  a  coiirt- 
martial,  they  were  all  three  condemned,  and  the  two  latter  were 
executed  on  gibbets  erected  before  their  own  doors.  Waller  saved 
his  life  by  an  abject  submission,  and  was  fined  10,000Z. 

The  news  of  the  siege  of  Gloucester  renewed  the  cry  for  peace,  and 
the  parliament  seemed  disposed  to  consent  to  more  moderate  terms ; 
but  the  zealous  puritans  redoubled  their  efforts,  and  the  parliament 
was  pjrsuaded  to  make  preparations  for  the  relief  of  this  city. 
Essex,  taking  the  road  to  Brockley,  carried  with  him  a  well  ap- 


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402  CHARLES  I.  Chap,  xxn 

pointed  army  of  14,000  men,  drawing  in  the  parliamentary  forces 
quartered  at  Bedford  and  Leicester ;  and  on  his  approach  to  Glou- 
cester the  king  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege.  Being  deficient  in 
cavalry,  Essex  would  willingly  have  avoided  an  engagement,  and 
therefore  proceeded  towards  London ;  but  when  he  reached  Newbury, 
in  Berkshire,  he  found  that  the  king,  by  hasty  marches,  had  arrived 
before  him.  An  action  was  now  unavoidable,  and  was  fought  on 
both  sides  with  desperate  valour  and  steady  bravery  (September  20) 
The  militia  of  London  especially,  though  utterly  unacquainted  with 
action,  equallod  on  this  occasion  what  could  be  expected  from  the 
most  veteran  forces.  While  the  armies  were  engaged  with  the 
utmost  ardour,  night  put  an  end  to  the  action,  and  left  the  victory 
undecided.  Next  morning  Essex  proceeded  on  his  march,  and 
reached  London  in  safety.  In  the  battle  of  Newbury,  fell,  among 
others  on  the  king's  side,  Lord  Falkland,  secretary  of  state.  Falk- 
land had  at  first  stood  foremost  in  all  attacks  on  the  high  preroga- 
tives of  the  crown,  and  displayed  that  masculine  eloquence  and  un- 
daunted love  of  liberty  which,  from  his  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  sublime  spirits  of  antiquity,  he  had  greedily  imbibed ;  but  when 
civil  convulsions  proceeded  to  extremities,  and  it  became  requisite 
for  him  to  choose  his  side,  he  embraced  the  defence  of  those  limited 
powers  which  remained  to  monarchy,  and  which  he  deemed  neces- 
sary for  the  support  of  the  English  constitution.  Prom  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war  his  natural  cheerfulness  and  vivacity  became 
clouded ;  and  among  his  intimate  friends,  often,  after  a  deep  silence 
and  frequent  sighs,  he  would  with  a  sad  accent  reiterate  the  word 
"  Peace."  On  the  morning  of  the  battle  he  called  for  a  clean 
shirt,  that  if  he  were  slain  his  body  should  not  be  found  in  foul 
linen.  He  observed,  "  I  am  weary  of  the  times,  and  foresee  much 
misery  to  my  country ;  but  believe  that  I  shall  be  out  of  it  ere 
night."  The  loss  sustained  on  both  sides  in  the  battle  of  Newbury, 
and  the  advanced  season,  obliged  the  armies  to  retire  into  winter 
quarters. 

In  the  north,  during  this  summer,  two  men  on  whom  the  event 
of  the  war  finally  depended  began  to  be  remarked  for  their  valour 
and  military  conduct.  These  were  sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  son  of 
Ferdinand,  lord  Fairfax,  and  Oliver  Cromwell,  son  of  a  gentleman 
of  Huntingdon.  The  former  gained  a  considerable  advantage  at 
Wakefield  over  a  detachment  of  royalists ;  the  latter  obtained  a 
victory  at  Gainsborough  over  a  party  commanded  by  the  gallant 
Cavendish,  who  perished  in  the  action ;  but  both  these  defeats  were 
more  than  compensated  by  the  total  rout  of  lord  Fairfax  at  Ather- 
ton  Moor,  near  Bradford,  and  the  dispersion  of  his  army  (June  30^. 
After  this  victory  the  marquis  of  Newcastle,  with  an  army  of 


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i-D.  1648.  THE  COVENANT.  403 

15,000  men,  sat  down  before  Hull,  bat  was  ultimately  obliged  to 
abandon  the  siege  (October  11).  Hotham  was  no  longer  governor 
of  this  place.  He  and  his  son^  being  detected  in  a  conspiracy  to 
deliver  it  to  NewcastlOi  were  arrested  and  sent  prisoners  to  London, 
where,  without  any  regard  to  their  former  services,  they  were 
executed  two  years  after. 

§  4.  While  these  military  enterprises  were  carried  on  with  vigour 
in  England,  and  the  event  became  every  day  more  doubtful,  both 
parties  cast  their  eye  towards  the  neighbouring  kingdoms.  The 
parliament  had  recourse  to  Scotland,  the  king  to  Ireland.  The  Scots 
beheld  with  the  utmost  impatience  a  scene  of  action  of  which  they 
could  not  deem  themselves  indifferent  spectators.  The  struggle  in 
England  was  the  topic  of  every  conversation  among  them ;  and  the 
famous  curse  of  Meroz,  that  curse  so  solenmly  denounced  and  reite- 
rated against  neutrality  and  moderation,  resounded  from  all  quarters. 
Charles  having  refused  to  assemble  a  Scottish  parliament,  the  con- 
servators  of  the  peace,  an  office  newly  erected  in  Scotland,  resolved 
to  summon,  in  the  king's  name,  but  by  their  own  authority,  a  con- 
vention of  estates,  an  assembly  which,  though  it  meets  with  less 
solemnity,  has  the  same  authority  as  a  parliament  in  raising  money 
and  levying  forces.  The  English  parliament,  which  had  at  that 
time  fallen  into  great  disgrace  by  the  progress  of  the  royal  arms, 
gladly  sent  to  Edinburgh  commissioners  with  ample  powers  to  treat 
for  a  nearer  union  and  confederacy  with  the  Scottish  nation.  In 
this  negociation  the  man  chiefly  trusted  was  Vane,  who  in  eloquence, 
address,  capacity,  as  well  as  in  art  and  dissimulation,  was  not  sur- 
passed by  any  one,  even  during  that  age  so  famous  for  active  talents. 
By  his  persuasion  was  framed  at  Edinburgh  that  solemn  league 
AND  COVENANT,  which  effaced  all  former  protestations  and  vows  taken 
in  both  kingdoms,  and  long  maintained  its  credit  and  authority. 
In  this  Covenant  the  subscribers,  besides  engaging  mutually  to 
defend  one  another  against  all  opponents,  bound  themselves  to 
endeavour,  without  respect  of  persons,  to  extirpate  popery  and 
prelacy,  superstition,  heresy,  schism,  and  profaneness  to  maintain 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  parliaments,  together  with  the  king's^ 
authority ;  and  to  discover  and  bring  to  justice  all  iucentHaries  and 
malignants.  The  Scotch  had  thus  obtained  what  they  had  long 
been  aiming  at — the  establishment  of  presbyterianism  as  the 
dominant  religion  in  the  united  kingdoms,  and  the  extirpation  by 
authority  of  episcopacy ;  thus  imitating  the  conduct  of  the  king 
and  Laud,  in  denunciation  of  which  they  had  only  two  years  before 
risen  in  rebellion.  As  the  Scotch  made  the  acceptance  of  presby- 
terianism the  condition  of  their  assistance,  the  commons  made  no 
scruple  of  violatin;;  the  religious  liberty  of  the  nation.     In  place  of 


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494  CHARLES  L  Chap.  xxn. 

the  old  national  convocation  they  summoned  an  assembly  of  divines, 
consisting  of  those  who  were  earnest  supporters  of  presbyterian 
tenets,  or  supposed  to  be  strongly  inclined  to  them.  But^  unlike 
the  former  convocations  of  the  clergy,  each  of  these  members 
received  from  the  parliament  an  allowance  of  four  shilliDgs  a  day. 
The  English  parliament,  having  first  subscribed  the  Covenant 
themselves,  ordered  it  to  be  received  by  all  who  lived  under  their 
authority  (September  25).  They  expelled  from  their  preferments 
(he  whole  body  of  the  episcopal  clergy,  and  bestowed  them  on  their 
own  partisans  among  the  presbyterians.  The  Scots,  having  re- 
ceived 100,0007.  from  England,  were  now  prepared  to  carry  convic- 
tion by  the  sword.  Having  added  to  their  other  forces  the  tro(^ 
which  they  had  recalled  from  Ireland,  they  were  ready  about  the 
end  of  the  year  to  enter  England,  under  the  command  of  their 
old  general,  the  earl  of  Leven,  with  an  army  of  more  than  20,000 
men. 

The  king,  foreseeing  this  tempest  which  was  gathering  upon  him, 
cast  his  eye  towards  Ireland.  The  army  in  that  country,  by  rein^ 
forcements  from  England  and  Scotland,  now  amounted  to  50,000 
men.  The  lords  justices  and  council  of  Ireland  had  been  engaged, 
chiefly  by  the  interest  and  authority  of  Ormond,  the  commander- 
in-chief,  to  support  the  king's  cause ;  and  a  committee  of  the 
English  House  of  Commons,  which  had  been  sent  to  Ireland  in  order 
to  conduct  the  affairs  of  that  kingdom,  had  been  excluded  from  the 
council.  Ormond  now  sent  over  to  England  considerable  bodies  of 
troops,  most  of  which  continued  in  the  king's  service ;  but  a  small 
part,  having  imbibed  in  Ireland  a  strong  animosity  against  the 
catholics,  and  hearing  the  king's  party  universally  reproached  with 
popery,  soon  after  deserted  to  the  parliament. 

§  5.  That  he  might  make  preparations  during  winter  for  the 
ensuing  campaign,  Charles  summoned  to  Oxford  all  the  members  of 
either  house  who  adhered  to  his  interests ;  and  endeavoured  to  avail 
himself  of  the  name  of  parliament,  so  passionately  cherished  by  the 
English  nation  (January  22, 1644).  The  House  of  Peers  contained 
twice  as  many  members  as  that  which  sat  at  Westujinster ;  the 
House  of  Commons  counted  no  more  than  118  members.  The  par- 
liament at  Westminster  having  voted  an  eoccise  on  beer,  wine, 
and  other  commodities,  those  at  Oxford  imitated  the  example,  and 
conferred  that  revenue  on  the  king.  This  impost  had  been  hitherto 
unknown  in  England.  This  winter  died  Pym,  a  man  as  much  hated 
by  one  party  as  respected  by  the  other.  He  had  been  so  little 
studious  of  improving  his  private  fortune  in  those  civil  wars  of 
which  he  had  been  a  principal  author,  that  the  parliament  thought 
themselves  obliged  to  pay  his  debts. 


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AJk  164»-16i4      BATTLE  OF  IfABSTON  MOOR.  405 

The  military  operations  were  carried  on  with  vigour  in  several 
places,  notwithstanding  the  severity  of  the  season.  The  forces 
brought  from  Ireland  were  landed  at  Mostyn,  in  North  Wales,  and 
reduced  Cheshire ;  but  Fairfax,  by  an  unexpected  attack,  defeated 
and  captured  a  great  part  of  them  at  Nantwich  (January  25), 
and  the  parliamentary  interests  revived  in  those  north-western 
counties  of  England.  The  invasion  from  Scotland  was  attended 
with  consequences  of  much  greater  importance.  The  marquis  of 
Newcastle  at  first  succeeded  in  keeping  the  Scots  at  bay ;  but  sir 
Thomas  Fairfax,  returning  from  Cheshire  with  his  victorious  forces, 
routed  colonel  Bellasis  and  a  considerable  body  of  troops  at  Selby,  in 
Yorkshire.  Afraid  of  being  enclosed  between  two  armies,  New- 
castle, the  commander  of  the  royal  forces  in  the  north,  retreated ; 
and  Leven  having  joined  Fairfax,  they  sat  down  before  York,  to 
which  the  army  of  the  royalists  had  retired.  On  the  whole,  the 
winter  campaign  proved  un&vourable  to  the  king  in  all  quarters. 
At  the  approach  of  summer  the  earl  of  Manchester,  having  taken 
Lincoln,  imited  his  army  to  that  of  Leven  and  Fairfax ;  and  York 
was  now  closely  besieged  by  their  combined  forces.  That  city, 
though  vigorously  defended  by  Newcastle,  was  reduced  to  extre- 
mity, when  on  a  sudden  prince  Rupert  advanced  to  its  relief  with 
an  army  of  20,000  men  (July  1).  The  Scottish  and  parliamentary 
generals  raised  the  siege,  and,  drawing  up  on  Marston  Moor,  pur- 
posed to  give  battle  to  the  royalists.  Prince  Rupert  approached 
the  town  by  another  quarter,  and,  interposing  the  river  Ouse  be- 
tween him  and  the  enemy,  safely  joined  his  forces  to  those  of  New- 
castle. The  marquis  endeavoured  to  persuade  him  not  to  hazard 
an  engagement ;  but  the  prince,  having  positive  instructions  from 
the  king,  immediately  issued  orders  for  battle,  and  led  out  the  army 
to  Marston  Moor  (July  2).  Prince  Rupert,  who  commanded  the 
right  wing  of  the  royalists,  was  opposed  to  Cromwell,  who  con- 
ducted the  choice  troops  of  the  parliament,  inured  to  danger,  ani- 
mated by  zeal,  and  confirmed  by  the  most  rigid  discipline.  After 
a  sharp  combat,  the  cavalry  of  the  royalists  gave  way ;  and  snch  of 
the  infantry  as  stood  next  them  were  likewise  borne  down  and  put 
to  flight.  Newcastle's  regiment  alone,  resolute  to  conquer  or  to 
perish,  obstinately  kept  their  ground,  and  maintained,  by  their 
dead  bodies,  the  same  order  in  which  they  had  at  first  been  ranged. 
Lucas,  who  commanded  the  royalists  on  the  other  wing,  made  a 
furious  attack  on  the  parliamentary  cavalry,  threw  them  into  dis- 
order, pushed  them  upon  their  own  infantry,  and  put  that  whole  wing 
to  the  rout  When  ready  to  seize  on  their  carriages  and  baggage, 
he  perceived  Cromwell,  who  was  now  returned  from  pursuit  of  the 
other  wing.  Both  sides  were  not  a  little  surprised  to  find  that  they 
19* 


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406  CHABLES  I.  Chap.  xxii. 

must  again  renew  the  combat  for  that  victory  which  each  of  them 
thought  they  had  aheady  obtained.  The  front  of  the  battle  was 
now  exactly  counterchanged,  and  each  army  occupied  the  ground 
which  had  been  possessed  by  the  enemy  at  the  beginning  of  the 
day.  The  second  battle  was  equally  furious  and  desperate  with 
the  first ;  but,  after  the  utmost  efforts  of  courage  by  both  parties, 
victory  wholly  turned  to  the  side  of  the  )  arliament  The  prince's 
train  of  artillery  was  taken,  and  his  whole  army  driven  off  the 
field  of  battle. 

This  event  was  in  itself  a  ndghty  blow  to  the  king,  but  proved 
more  fatal  in  its  consequences.  The  marquis  of  Newcastle,  either 
disgusted  with  the  rejection  of  his  advice,  or  despairing  of  the  king's 
cause,  went  to  Scarborough,  where  he  found  a  vessel  which  carried 
him  beyond  sea.  During  the  ensuing  years,  till  the  Restoration, 
he  lived  abroad  in  great  necessity,  and  saw  with  indifference  his 
opulent  fortune  sequestered  by  those  who  assumed  the  government 
of  England.  Prince  Rupert,  with  equal  precipitation,  drew  off  the 
remains  of  his  army,  and  retired  into  Lancashire.  York  surrendered 
H  few  days  afterwards ;  and  Fairfax,  remaining  in  the  city«  estab- 
lished his  government  in  that  whole  county.  The  town  of  New- 
castle was  taken  by  the  Scottish  army  (October  29). 

While  these  events  passed  in  the  north,  the  king's  affairs  in  the 
south  were  conducted  with  more  success  and  greater  abilities. 
Ruthven,  a  Scotchman  who  had  been  created  earl  of  Brentford, 
acted  under  the  king  as  general.  Waller  was  routed  by  the  royal- 
ists at  Cropredy  Bridge,  near  Banbury  (June  29),  and  was  pursued 
with  considerable  loss.  Disheartened  with  this  blow,  his  army 
decayed  and  melted  away  by  desertion  ;  and  the  king  thought  he 
might  safely  leave  it,  and  march  westward  against  Essex.  That 
general,  having  retreated  into  Cornwall,  and  Iwing  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  the  royalists,  escaped  in  a  boat  to  Plymouth.  Balfour 
with  his  horse  passed  the  king's  outposts  in  a  thick  mist,  and 
got  safely  to  the  garrisons  of  his  own  party ;  but  the  foot,  under 
Skippon,  were  obliged  to  surrender  their  arms,  artillery,  baggage, 
and  ammunition  (September  2).  The  parliament,  however,  soon 
collected  another  army,  which  they  placed  under  the  command 
of  the  earl  of  Manchester,  who  fought  an  indecisive  action  with 
Charles  at  Newbury  (October  27). 

§  6.  During  these  operations,  contests  had  arisen  among  the  par- 
liamentary generals,  which  were  renewed  in  London  during  the 
winter  season.  There  had  long  prevailed  in  the  parliamentary 
party  a  distinction  which  now  began  to  discover  itself  with  bitter 
animosity.  The  Independents,  who  had  at  first  taken  shelter 
under  the  wings  of  the  Pbesbyterians,  now  appeared  as  a  distinct 


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JLD,  1644.      INDEPENDENTS  AND   PRESBYTERIANa  407 

party,  and  betrayed  very  different  views  and  pretensions.  Their 
numbers  were  greatly  increased  by  the  return  of  the  more  fiery 
spirits  who  had  abandoned  England  during  the  supremacy  of  Laud. 
Many  of  these,  coming  back  from  New  England,  had  carried  the 
doctrines  of  puritanism  to  the  very  verge  of  extravagance.  Thrown 
upon  their  own  designs  and  resources  on  a  foreign  soil,  and  left  to 
their  own  self-government,  they  brought  back  with  them  confirmed 
habits  of  independence,  and  inspired  the  party  they  embraced  with 
similar  sentiments.  They  rejected  all  ecclesiastictd  establishments, 
would  admit  of  no  spiritual  government  or  pastors,  and  no  inter- 
position of  the  magistrate  in  religious  concerns.  According  to  their 
principles,  each  congregation,  united  voluntarily  and  by  spiritual 
ties,  composed  within  itself  a  separate  church,  and  exercised  its  own 
jurisdiction.  The  political  system  of  the  Independents  kept  pace 
with  their  religious.  They  aspired  to  a  total  abolition  of  the  mon- 
archy, and  even  of  the  aristocracy  ;  and  projected  an  entire  equality 
of  rank  and  order  in  a  republic  quite  free  and  independent.  Hence 
they  were  declared  enemies  to  all  proposals  for  peace,  except  on 
such  terms  as  they  knew  it  was  impossible  to  obtain ;  and  they 
adhered  to  that  maxim^  which  is  in  the  main  prudent  and  political, 
that  whoever  draws  his  sword  against  his  sovereign  should  throw 
away  the  scabbard.  Sir  Harry  Vane,  Oliver  Cromwell,  Nathaniel 
Piennes,  and  Oliver  St.  John,  the  solicitor-general,  were  regarded  as 
their  leaders.  In  the  parliament  a  cojisiderable  majority,  and  a 
much  greater  in  the  nation,  were  attached  to  the  presbyterian 
party ;  and  it  was  only  by  cunning  and  deceit  at  first,  and  after- 
wards by  military  violence,  that  the  Independents  could  entertain 
any  hopes  of  success. 

Cromwell,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  accused  the  earl  of  Man- 
chester of  having  wilfully  neglected  at  Donnington  castle,  after 
Charles's  retreat  from  Newbury,  a  favourable  opportunity  of  finish- 
ing the  war,  by  refusing  him  permission  to  charge  the  king's  army 
in  their  retreat.  Manchester,  by  way  of  recrimination,  informed 
the  parliament  that  at  another  time,  Cromwell  having  proposed 
some  scheme  to  which  it  seemed  improbable  that  parliament  would 
agree,  he  insisted  and  said,  "  My  lord,  if  you  will  stick  to  honest 
men,  you  shall  find  yourself  at  the  head  of  an  army  which  shall  give 
law  both  to  king  and  parliament."  So  full  indeed  was  Cromwell  of 
these  republican  projects,  that,  notwithstanding  his  habits  of  pro- 
found dissimulation,  he  could  not  so  carefully  guard  his  expressions 
but  that  sometimes  his  favourite  notions  would  escape  him.  He 
was  persuaded  that  the  only  mode  of  carrying  them  out  was  by  re- 
modelling the  army,  but  how  to  effect  this  project  was  the  difficulty. 
The  authority  as  well  as  merits  of  Essex  were  very  great  with  the 


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408  CHAKL£S  1.  Chap.  xxn. 

parliament  Manchester,  Warwick,  and  the  other  commanders 
had  likewise  great  credit  with  the  public  ;  nor  were  there  any  hopes 
of  prevailing  over  them  but  by  laying  the  plan  of  an  oblique  and 
artificial  attack  which  would  conceal  the  real  purpose  of  their  an- 
tagonists. Accordingly,  at  the  instance  of  Cromwell,  a  committee 
was  chosen  to  frame  what  was  called  the  "  Self-denying  Ordinance," 
by  which  the  members  of  both  houses  were  excluded  from  all  civil 
and  military  employments,  except  a  few  offices  which  were  speci- 
fied. After  great  debate  it  passed  the  House  of  Commons;  the 
peers,  though  the  scheme  was  in  part  levelled  against  their  order, 
and  though  they  even  ventured  once  to  reject  it,  durst  not  persevere 
in  their  opposition.  The  Ordinance  therefore  having  passed  both 
houses  (April  3,  1645),  Essex,  Warwick,  Manchester,  Denbigh, 
Waller,  Brereton,  and  many  others,  resigned  their  commands,  and 
received  the  thanks  of  parliament  for  their  good  services.  A  pen- 
sion of  lOfiOOl.  a  year  was  settled  on  Essex. 

It  was  agreed  to  recruit  the  army  to  22,000  men,  and  ur  Thomas 
Fairfax  was  appointed  general.  A  change  was  made  in  his  com- 
mission, which  did  not  run,  like  that  of  Essex,  in  the  name  of  the 


Obrene  ti  medal  of  sir  Thomas  Fairfiiz.     oxraR  .  tho  :  paibvaz  mLU .  muT  . 
PARLi :  Dvx.     Bust  to  left. 

king  and  parliament,  but  in  that  of  the  parliament  alone ;  and  the 
article  concerning  the  safety  of  the  king's  person  was  omitted. 
Cromwell,  being  a  member  of  the  lower  house,  ought  to  have  been 
discarded  with  the  others ;  but  he  was  sent  into  the  west  with  a 
body  of  horse ;  and  shortly  afterwards,  at  the  earnest  entreaty  of 
Fairfax,  who  represented  his  services  as  indispensable,  his  commis- 
sion was  renewed  for  a  short  period,  and  ultimately  for  the  whole 
campaign.  Thus  the  Independents,  though  the  minority,  prevailed 
over  the  Presbyterians,  and  bestowed  the  whole  military  authority, 
in  appearance,  upon  Fairfax — in  reality  upon  Cromwell. 

Already  a  conference   between  the  king   and  the   parliament 
had  been  opened  at  Uxbridge  (January  30, 1645).    The  subjects  of 


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A.D.  1645.  BXECUnOK  OF  LAUD.  409 

debate  were  the  three  important  articles,  religion,  the  militia,  and 
Ireland ;  but  it  was  soon  found  impracticable  to  come  to  any  agree- 
ment with  regard  to  any  of  them.  In  the  summer  of  1643  the 
Assembly  at  Westminster,  consisting  of  121  divines  and  30  laymen, 
rejecting  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  had  drawn  up  others  in  their 
place.  Instead  of  the  liturgy  they  had  established  a  new  Directory 
for  worship,  by  which,  suitably  to  the  spirit  of  the  puritans,  no 
form  of  prayer  was  prescribed  to  the  minister.  By  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant  episcopacy  was  abjured  as  destructive  of  all 
true  piety ;  and  the  king's  commissioners  were  not  therefore  sur- 
prised to  find  the  establishment  of  presbytery  and  the  Directory 
positively  demanded,  together  with  the  subscription  of  the  Covenant 
both  by  the  king  and  kingdom.  But  Charles,  though  willing  to 
make  some  concessions,  was  not  disposed  to  go  to  such  lengths ; 
and,  as  the  parliament  would  abate  nothing,  the  negociations  on  this 
head  fell  to  the  ground.  Still  less  could  parties  now  in  a  state  of 
open  warfare  agree  upon  a  militia  bill,  by  which  the  power  of  the 
sword  must  necessarily  have  been  transferred  to  one  of  them. 

§  7.  A  little  before  the  enactment  of  the  Self-denying  Ordinance, 
archbishop  Laud  was  brought  to  the  scaffold.  From  the  time  that 
Laud  had  been  committed,  the  House  of  Commons,  engaged  in 
enterprises  of  greater  moment,  had  found  no  leisure  to  finish  his 
impeachment ;  but  they  now  resolved  to  gratify  their  vengeance  in 
the  punishment  of  this  prelate.  He  was  accused  of  high  treason  in 
endeavouring  to  subvert  the  fundamental  laws,  and  of  other  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanours.  After  a  long  trial,  and  the  examination 
of  above  150  witnesses,  whose  evidence,  however,  the  commons  had 
not  heard,  they  found  so  little  likelihood  of  obtaining  a  judicial 
sentence  against  him,  that  they  had  recourse  to  their  legislative 
authority,  and  passed  an  ordinance  for  taking  away  the  life  of 
this  aged  prelate,  on  the  ex  parte  statement  of  their  own  advocate. 
Notwithstanding  the  low  condition  into  which  the  House  of  Peers 
had  &llen,  there  appeared  some  intention  of  rejecting  this  ordinance ; 
and  the  popular  leaders  were  again  obliged  to  apply  to  the  multitude, 
and  to  extinguish,  by  threats  of  new  tumults,  the  small  remains  of 
liberty  possessed  by  the  upper  house.  Seven  peers  alone  voted  in 
this  important  question ;  the  rest,  either  from  shame  or  fear,  took 
care  to  absent  themselves.  Laud,  who  had  behaved  during  his  trial 
with  the  spirit  and  vigour  of  genius,  sunk  not  under  the  horrors  of 
his  execution  ;  but,  though  he  had  usually  professed  himself  appre- 
hensive of  a  violent  death,  he  found  all  his  fears  to  be  dissipated 
before  that  superior  courage  by  which  he  was  animated.  "  No  one," 
said  he,  "  can  be  more  willing  to  send  me  out  of  life  than  I  am 
desirous  to  go."    He  quietly  laid  his  head  on  the  block,  and  it  was 


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410  CHARLES  I.  Chap.  xxq. 

severed  from  the  body  at  one  blow  (January  10, 1645).  Sincere  he 
undoubtedly  was,  and,  however  misguided,  actuated  by  pious  motives 
in  all  his  pursuits ;  and  it  is^to  be  regretted  that  he  had  not  enter- 
tained more  enlarged  views,  and  embraced  principles  more  favourable 
to  the  general  happiness  of  society. 

§  8.  While  the  king's  affairs  declined  in  England,  the  numerous 
victories  of  the  earl  of  Montrose  in  Scotland  seemed  to  promise  him 
a  more  prosperous  issue  of  the  quarrel.  That  young  nobleman  had 
entirely  devoted  himself  to  the  king's  service,  and  with  the  aid  of  a 
few  adherents,  and  a  small  body  of  troops  brought  over  from  Ireland, 
achieved  on  a  small  scale  a  series  of  brilliant  victories  over  the 
Covenanters  in  the  north  of  Scotland.  Meanwhile  in  England, 
Fairfax,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  Cromwell,  under  his  name, 
introduced  at  last  the  New  Model  into  the  army.  From  the  same 
men  new  regiments  and  new  companies  were  formed,  different 
officers  appointed,  and  the  whole  military  force  put  into  such  hands 
as  the  Independents  could  rely  on.  At  the  same  time  a  new  and 
more  exact  discipline  was  introduced.  Never  surely  was  a  more 
singular  army  assembled.  To  the  greater  number  of  the  regiments 
chaplains  were  not  appointed ;  the  officers  assumed  the  spiritual 
duty,  and  united  it  with  their  military  functions.  The  private 
soldiers,  seized  with  the  same  spirit,  employed  their  vacant  hours 
in  prayer,  in  perusing  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  in  spiritual  confer- 
ences, where  they  compared  the  progress  of  their  souls  in  grace,  and 
mutually  stimulated  each  other  to  further  advances  in  the  great 
work  of  their  salvation.  When  they  were  marching  to  battle,  the 
whole  field  resounded  as  well  with  psalms  and  spiritual  songs, 
adapted  to  the  occasion,  as  with  the  instruments  of  military  music ; 
and  every  man  endeavoured  to  drown  the  sense  of  present  danger  in 
the  prospect  of  that  crown  of  glory  which  was  set  before  him.  The 
forces  assembled  by  the  king  at  Oxford,  in  the  west,  and  in  other 
places,  were  equal,  if  not  superior,  in  number  to  their  adversaries, 
but  actuated  by  a  very  different  spirit.  That  licence  which  had 
been  introduced  by  want  of  pay  had  risen  to  a  great  height  among 
them,  and  rendered  them  more  formidable  to  their  friends  than  to 
their  enemies. 

The  English  campaign  of  1645  opened  with  some  advantage  to 
the  royalists.  In  the  west,  the  parliamentarians  under  Welden 
succeeded  in  relieving  Taunton,  but  were  afterwards  shut  up  in 
that  place  by  Granville.  Further  north  the  king  in  person  gained 
more  distinguished  successes.  After  compelling  the  army  of  the 
parliament  to  raise  the  siege  of  Chester  (May  15),  he  assaulted 
and  took  Leicester  on  his  march  back  to  Oxford.  Meanwhile 
Oxford,  exposed  by  the  king's  absence,  had  been  invested  by 


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A.D.  1646.  BATTLE  OF  NASEBY.  411 

Fairfax ;  but,  alanned  at  Charles's  success,  Fairfax  abandoned  the 
siege,  and  marched  towards  the  king  with  an  intention  of  offering 
him  battle.  The  king  was  advancing  towards  Oxford  in  order  to 
ndse  the  siege,  which  he  apprehended  was  now  begun ;  and  both 
armies,  ere  they  were  aware,  had  advanced  within  six  miles  of  each 
other.  The  boiling  ardour  of  prince  Rupert  brought  on  an  engage- 
ment ;  and  at  Naseby,  near  Market  Harborough,  in  Northampton- 
shire, was  fought,  with  forces  nearly  equal,  a  decisive  and  well- 
disputed  action  between  the  king  and  the  parliament  (June  14).  The 
main  body  of  the  royalists  was  commanded  by  the  king  himself, 
who  displayed  all  the  conduct  of  a  prudent  general  and  all  the 
valour  of  a  stout  soldier.  The  battle  was  lost  chiefly  through  a 
mistake  of  prince  Rupert,  who,  having  routed  the  enemy's  left 
wing  under  Ireton,  was  so  inconsiderate  as  to  lose  time  in  summon- 
ing and  attacking  the  artillery  of  the  enemy,  which  had  been  left 
with  a  good  guard  of  infantry.  In  the  interval  the  royalists  were 
hard  pressed  by  the  valour  and  conduct  of  Fairfax  and  Cromwell ; 
and  when  Rupert  rejoined  the  king  he  found  the  infantry  totally 
discomfited.  Charles  exhorted  this  body  of  cavalry  not  to  despair, 
and  cried  aloud  to  them,  "  One  charge  more,  and  we  recover  the 
day."  But  the  disadvantages  imder  which  they  laboured  were  too 
evident,  and  they  could  by  no  means  be  induced  to  renew  the 
combat.  Charles  was  obliged  to  quit  the  field,  and  leave  the 
victory  to  the  enemy.  The  parliament  lost  1000  men;  Charles 
not  above  800 ;  but  Fairfax  made  600  officers  prisoners,  and  4000 
private  men,  took  all  the  king's  artillery  and  ammunition,  and 
totally  dissipated  his  infantry :  so  that  scarcely  any  victory  could 
be  more  complete  than  that  which  he  obtained.  Among  the  spoils 
was  seized  the  king's  cabinet,  with  the  copies  of  his  letters  to  the 
queen,  which  were  afterwards  garbled  and  published  by  parliament. 
After  the  battle,  the  king  retreated  with  that  body  of  horse  which 
remained  entire,  first  to  Hereford,  then  to  Abergavenny ;  and  re- 
mained some  time  in  Wales,  in  the  vain  hope  of  raising  a  body  of 
infantry  in  those  harassed  and  exhausted  quarters.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  the  campaign  he  had  sent  the  prince  of  Wales,  then  15 
years  of  age,  to  the  west,  with  the  title  of  general ;  and  had  given 
orders  that  if  he  were  pressed  by  the  enemy,  he  should  make  his 
escape  into  a  foreign  country,  and  save  one  part  of  the  royal  family 
from  the  violence  of  the  parliament.  Prince  Rupert  had  thrown 
himself  into  Bristol,  with  an  intention  of  defending  that  important 
city;  whilst  Goring  was  besieging  Taunton.  Thiiher  Fairfax 
directed  his  march,  on  whose  approach  the  royalists  raised  the 
siege,  and  reired  to  Langport,  an  open  town  in  the  county  of 
Somerset.     Fairfax,  having  beaten  them  from  this  post,  and  taken 


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412  CHARLES  I.  OHiLP.  xzxi 

successively  Bridgewater,  Bath,  and  Sherborne,  laid  siege  to  BristoL 
Much  was  expected  from  the  reputation  of  prince  Rupert,  but  a 
poorer  defence  was  not  made  by  any  town  during  the  whole  war. 
No  sooner  had  the  parliamentary  forces  entered  the  lines  by  storm 
than  the  prince  capitulated,  and  surrendered  the  city  to  Fair&x 
(September  11).  Charles,  who  was  forming  schemes  and  collecting 
forces  for  the  relief  of  Bristol,  was  astonished  at  so  unexpected  an 
event,  which  was  little  less  fatal  to  his  cause  than  the  defeat  at 
Naseby.  Full  of  indignation,  he  instantly  recalled  all  prince 
Rupert's  commissions,  and  sent  him  a  pass  to  go  beyond  sea. 

The  king's  affiiirs  were  now  fast  falling  to  ruin  in  all  quarters.  The 
Soots,  having  made  themselves  masters  of  Carlisle  after  an  obstinate 
siege,  marched  southwards  and  laid  siege  to  Hereford,  but  were 
obliged  to  raise  it  on  the  king's  approach ;  and  this  was  the  last 
glimpse  of  success  which  attended  his  arms.  Hnving  marched  to 
the  relief  of  Chester,  which  was  anew  besieged  by  the  parliamentary 
forces,  he  was  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  600  slain  and  1000 
prisoners  (September  24).  The  king,  with  the  remains  of  his 
broken  army,  fled  to  Newark,  and  thence  escaped  to  Oxford,  where 
he  shut  himself  up  during  the  winter  season  (November  5).  Before 
the  expiration  of  the  winter  Fairfax  reduced  all  the  west,  and  ccnn- 
pletely  dispersed  the  king's  army  in  that  quarter ;  while  Cromwell 
brought  all  the  midland  counties  of  England  to  obedience  xmder 
the  parliament.  The  prince  of  Wales,  in  pursuance  of  the  king's 
orders,  retired  to  Scilly,  and  thence  to  Jersey,  whence  he  joined  the 
queen  at  Paris.  News  too  arrived,  that  Montrose  himself,  after 
some  more  successes,  had  been  at  last  routed  by  a  superior  force, 
under  David  Leslie,  at  Philiphaugh,  near  Selkirk  (September  1S\ 
Montrose  escaped,  but  the  prisoners  were  butchered  in  cold  blood ; 
and  some  of  the  women,  who  were  taken  several  days  after  the 
battle,  were  drowned  by  the  direction  of  the  presbyterian  ministers. 
The  only  remaining  hope  of  the  royal  party  was  now  finally 
extinguished. 

§  9.  The  condition  of  the  king  during  this  whole  winter  was  to 
the  last  degree  disastrous  and  melancholy.  The  parliament  deigned 
not  to  make  the  least  reply  to  several  of  his  messages,  in  which  he 
desired  a  passport  for  commissioners  to  treat  of  peace.  At  last* 
after  reproaching  him  with  the  blood  spilt  during  the  war,  they 
told  him  that  they  were  preparing  bills  for  him,  and  his  passing 
them  would  be  the  best  pledge  of  his  inclination  towards  peace :  in 
other  words,  he  must  yield  at  discretion.  He  desired  a  personal 
treaty,  and  oflfered  to  come  to  London,  upon  receiving  a  safe  con- 
duct for  himself  and  his  attendants :  they  absolutely  refused  him 
admittance,  and  issued  orders  for  the  guarding,  that  is  the  seizing, 


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A.D.  1641^1646.     FLIES  TO  THE  SCOITISH  CAMP.  413 

of  his  person,  in  case  he  should  attempt  to  viat  them.  A  new  in- 
cident which  happened  in  Ireland  served  to  inflame  the  minds  of 
men.  The  king,  being  desirous  of  concluding  a  final  peace  with  the 
Irish  rebels  and  obtaining  their  assistance  in  England,  authorized 
Ormond,  the  lord-lieutenant,  to  promise  them  an  abrogation  of  all 
the  penal  laws  enacted  against  catholics ;  but  as  the  Irish  might 
probably  demand  further  concessions  than  could  be  openly  granted 
them,  the  king  gave  private  orders  to  Edward  Somerset,  earl  of  Gla- 
morgan (1643),  to  levy  men  and  to  coin  money,  and  employ  the 
revenues  of  the  crown  for  their  support ;  and  engaged  to  ratify  any 
treaty  he  might  make,  on  condition  it  was  first  communicated 
to  Ormond.  Neglecting  these  conditions,  Glamorgan,  a  zealous 
catholic,  concluded  a  peace  with  the  rebels ;  and  agreed,  in  the  king's 
name,  that  they  should  enjoy  all  the  churches  of  which  they  had 
ever  been  in  possession  since  the  commencement  of  their  insurrec- 
tion, on  condition  that  they  should  assist  the  king  in  England 
with  a  body  of  10,000  men.  The  articles  of  the  treaty  were  found 
among  the  baggage  of  the  titular  archbishop  of  Tuam,  who  was 
killed  by  a  sally  of  the  garrison  of  Sligo,  and  were  immediately 
published  by  parliament.  The  discovery  tended  much  to  render 
abortive  the  king's  negociations  for  an  accommodation. 

The  king  seemed  to  be  now  threatened  with  immediate  destruc- 
tion. Fairfax  was  approaching  with  a  powerful  and  victorious 
army,  and  was  taking  the  proper  measures  for  laying  siege  to  Ox- 
ford, which  must  infallibly  fall  into  his  hands.  In  this  desperate 
extremity  Charles  began  to  entertain  thoughts  of  leaving  Oxford, 
and  flying  to  the  Scottish  army,  which  at  that  time  lay  before 
Newark.  He  considered  that  the  Scottish  nation  had  been  fully 
gratified  in  all  their  demands,  and  had  no  further  concessions  to 
exact  from  him ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  they  were  disgusted 
with  the  English  parliament  The  progress  of  the  Independents 
gave  them  great  alarm,  and  they  were  scandalized  to  hear  their 
beloved  Covenant  spoken  of  every  day  with  less  regard  and  rever- 
ence. The  king  hoped,  too,  that  in  their  present  disposition  the 
sight  of  their  native  prince  flying  to  them  in  this  extremity  of 
distress  would  rouse  some  spark  of  generosity  in  their  bosoms,  and 
procure  him  their  favour  and  protection.  With  these  views  he  left 
Oxford  in  the  night  of  April  26,  1646,  accompanied  by  none  but 
Dr.  Hudson  and  Mr.  Ashbumham,  and  went  out  at  that  gate 
which  leads  to  London.  He  rode  before  a  portmanteau,  calling 
himself  Ashbumham's  servant,  and  arrived  at  the  Scottish  camp 
before  Newark  (May  5).  The  Scotch  general  and  commissioners 
affected  great  surprise  on  the  appearance  of  the  king ;  and,  though 
they  paid  him  all  the  exterior  respect  due  to  his  dignity,  tlisy  in 


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414 


CHABLES  L 


Chap.  xxn. 


stantly  set  a  guard  upon  him,  under  colour  of  protection,  and  made 
him  in  reality  a  prisoner.  They  informed  the  English  parliament 
of  this  unexpected  incident,  and  assured  them  that  they  had  entered 
into  no  private  treaty  with  the  king  (though  they  had,  in  fact,  been 
negociating  with  him  through  the  French  ambassador).  Hear- 
ing that  the  parliament  laid  claim  to  the  disposal  of  his  person,  they 
thought  proper  to  retire  northwards,  and  to  fix  their  camp  at  New- 
castle.  Charles  had  little  reason  to  be  pleased  with  his  situation. 
The  Scots  required  him  to  issue  orders  to  Oxford  and  all  his  other 
garrisons,  commanding  their  surrender  to  the  parliament;  and, 
sensible  that  resistance  was  to  very  little  purpose,  he  imme- 
diately complied.  Ormond,  having  received  like  orders,  delivered 
Dublin  and  other  forts  into  the  hands  of  the  parliamentary  officers. 

The  parliament  and  the  Scots  laid  their  proposals  before  the 
king,  which  were  a  little  worse  than  what  were  insisted  on  before 
the  battle  of  Naseby.  The  power  of  the  sword,  instead  of  10  years, 
which  the  king  now  offered,  was  demanded  for  20,  together  with  a 
right  to  levy  whatever  money  the  parliament  should  think  proper 
for  the  support  of  their  armies.  The  other  conditions  were,  in  the 
main,  the  same  with  those  which  had  formerly  been  offered  to  the 
king,  and  he  was  peremptorily  required  to  give  his  consent  or 
refusal  in  10  days.  The  parliament  now  entered  into  negociations 
with  the  Scots.  The  Scotch  commissioners  resolved  to  keep  the 
king  as  a  pledge  for  those  arrears  which  they  claimed  from  England. 
After  many  discussions  it  was  at  last  agreed  that,  in  lieu  of  all 
demands,  they  should  accept  of  400,000/.,  one-half  to  be  paid  in- 
stantly, another  in  two  subsequent  payments.  Great  pains  were 
taken  by  the  Scots  (and  the  English  complied  with  their  pretended 
delicacy)  to  make  this  estimation  and  payment  of  arrears  appear 
a  quite  different  transaction  from  that  for  the  delivery  of  the  kiiig's 
person,  but  common  sense  requires  that  they  should  be  regarded  as 
one  and  the  same.  Thus  the  Scottish  nation  incurred  the  obloquy 
of  selling  their  king  and  betraying  their  prince  for  money. 

The  king,  delivered  by  the  Scots  to  the  English  conmiissioners 
(January  30, 1647),  was  conducted  under  a  strong  guard  to  Holmby, 
in  Northamptonshire.  On  his  journey  the  whole  coimtry  flocked  to 
behold  him,  moved  partly  by  curiosity,  partly  by  compassion  and 
affection.*    The  commissioners  rendered  his  confinement  at  Holmby 


•  The  people  were  conyinced  that 
though  the  king  had  been  defeated,  and 
had  made  "a  long  and  bloody  war,"  saya 
the  grim  republican,  Ludlow,  ••  yet  cer- 
tainly he  must  be  in  the  right  .  .  .  in  a 
condition  to  gire  pardon,  and  not  in  need 
of  receiving  any ;  which  made  them  flock 


fh>m  all  parts  to  see  him,  as  he  was 
brought  Anom  Newcastle  to  Holmby,  fall- 
ing down  before  him,  bringing  their  sick 
to  be  touched  by  him,  and  courting  him 
as  only  able  to  restore  to  them  their  peace 
and  settlement."— Jfemoirt,  p.  72. 


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A.D.  1647.  MUTINY  OF  THE  ABMY.  416 

very  rigorous,  dismissing  his  ancient  servants,  and  cutting  ofif  all 
communication  with  his  friends  or  family.  The  parliament,  though 
earnestly  applied  to  hy  the  king,  refused  to  allow  his  chaplains  to 
attend  him,  hecause  they  had  not  taken  the  Covenant.  During 
the  time  that  the  king  remained  in  the  Scottish  army  at  New- 
castle, died  the  earl  of  Essex,  the  discarded  hut  still  powerful 
and  popular  general  of  the  parliament.  The  presbyterian  or  the 
moderate  party  among  the  commons  found  themselves  considerably 
weakened  by  his  death,  and  the  small  remains  of  authority  which 
still  adhered  to  the  House  of  Peers  were  in  a  manner  wholly  ex- 
tinguished. 

§  10.  The  dominion  of  the  parliament  was  of  short  duration.  No 
sooner  had  they  subdued  their  sovereign,  than  their  own  servants 
rose  against  them  and  tumbled  them  from  their  slippery  throne. 
They  had  rejected  the  king  only  to  find  a  more  imperious  master. 
Soon  after  the  retreat  of  the  Scots,  the  presbyterians,  seeing  every- 
thing reduced  to  obedience,  began  to  talk  of  diminishing  the  army ; 
and,  on  pretence  of  easing  the  public  burdens,  they  levelled  a  deadly 
blow  at  the  opposite  faction.  They  purposed  to  embark  a  strong  de- 
tachment for  the  service  of  Ireland,  and  they  openly  declared  their 
intention  of  making  a  great  reduction  of  the  remainder  (March). 
CJonsiderable  arrears  were  due  to  the  army ;  many  of  the  private  men, 
as  well  as  officers,  had  nearly  a  twelvemonth's  pay  still  owing  them ; 
and,  as  no  plan  was  pointed  out  by  the  commons  for  the  payment 
of  arrears,  the  soldiers  dreaded  that,  after  they  should  be  disbanded  or 
embarked  for  Ireland  (a  most  unpopular  service),  their  enemies, 
who  predominated  in  the  two  houses,  would  entirely  defraud  them 
of  their  right,  and  oppress  them  with  impunity.  On  this  ground 
or  pretence  did  the  first  commotions  begin  in  the  army.  Combina- 
tions were  formed,  and  petitions  handed  about ;  and  few  could  be 
found  to  enlist  for  Ireland.  Their  petition  to  the  pHrliament  bore 
a  very  imperious  air :  in  a  word,  they  felt  their  power,  and  resolved 
to  be  masters.  The  expedient  which  the  parliament  now  made  use 
of  was  the  worst  imaginable.  They  sent  Skippon,  Cromwell,  Ireton, 
and  Fleetwood  to  the  head-quarters  at  Saffron  Walden,  in  Essex ; 
and  empowered  them  to  make  offers  to  the  army,  and  inqviire  into 
the  cause  of  its  distempers.  These  very  generals,  at  least  the  last 
three,  were  suspected  of  secretly  fomenting  the  disorders  they  pre- 
tended to  appease.  By  their  suggestion,  a  council  of  the  principal 
officers  was  appointed  after  the  model  of  the  House  of  Peers,  and  a 
freer  representation  of  the  lower  ranks  was  composed  by  the  election 
of  two  private  men  or  petty  officers,  under  the  title  of  adjutators, 
afterwards  called  agitators,  from  each  troop  or  company.  This 
terrible  court,  when  assembled,  having  first  declared  that  they  found 


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416  CHARLES  L  Ohap.  zxa 

no  diUempers  in  the  anny,  but  many  grieponees  under  whioli  it 
laboured,  voted  the  offers  of  the  parliament  unsatisfactory;  and 
they  presently  struck  a  blow  which  at  once  decided  the  victory  in 
their  fevour.  A  party  of  400  horse  appeared  at  Holmby,  conducted 
by  one  Joyce,  who  had  once  been  a  tailor  by  profession,  but  was 
now  advanced  to  the  rank  of  comet,  and  was  an  active  agitator  in  the 
army  (June  4).  Joyce,  armed  with  pistols,  demanded  to  be  instantly 
admitted  into  the  king's  presence.  Charles  appointed  him  the  next 
morning.  On  acquainting  the  king  with  his  commands  for  the  king's 
removal,  Charles  desired  the  commissioners  might  be  sent  for.  Joyce 
replied  they  were  to  return  to  parliament.  Then  the  king  said, 
"  Give  me  a  sight  of  your  instructions."  "  That,"  said  Joyce,  "  you 
,  shall  see  presently ; "  and  drawing  up  his  troop  into  the  inner  court, 
as  near  as  he  could  to  the  king,  "  These,  ar,"  said  he, "  are  my  in- 
structions." Finding  them  proper  men,  well  mounted  and  armed, 
Charles  added,  with  a  smile,  that  his  instructions  were  in  fisdr  charac- 
ters, and  legible  without  spelling.  He  was  conducted  to  the  army, 
who  were  hastening  to  their  rendezvous  at  Triplow  Heath,  near 
Cambridge.  The  parliament  were  thrown  into  the  utmost  consterna- 
tion. Fairfax  himself,  to  whom  this  bold  measure  had  never  been 
communicated,  was  no  less  surprised  at  the  king's  arrival.  The 
parliamentary  leaders,  having  discovered  that  the  most  active  officers 
and  agitators  were  entirely  Cromwell's  creatures,  secretly  resolved 
that  next  day,  when  he  should  come  to  the  house,  an  accusation 
should  be  entered  against  him,  and  he  should  be  sent  to  the  Tower. 
Informed  of  this  design,  Cromwell  hastened  to  the  camp,  where  he 
was  received  with  acclamation.  Without  further  deliberation,  he 
advanced  the  army  upon  the  parliament,  and  arrived  in  a  few  days 
at  St.  Albans.  But  London  still  retained  a  strong  attachment  to 
presbyterianism ;  and  its  militia,  which  had  by  a  late  ordinance  been 
put  into  hands  in  which  the  parliament  could  entirely  confide,  was 
now  called  out,  and  commanded  to  guard  the  lines  which  had  been 
drawn  round  the  city  in  order  to  secure  it  against  the  king.  On 
further  reflection,  however,  it  was  thought  more  prudent  to  submit 
(June  25).  The  declaration  by  which  the  military  petitioners  had 
been  voted  public  enemies  was  erased  from  the  journal-book.  This 
was  the  first  symptom  which  the  parliament  gave  of  submission, 
and  the  army  rose  every  day  in  their  demands.  Having  obtained 
the  sequestration  of  eleven  of  the  chief  presbyterian  members,  the 
army,  in  order  to  save  appearances,  removed,  at  the  desire  of  the 
parliament,  to  a  greater  distance  from  London,  and  fixed  thdr  head- 
quarters at  Reading.  They  carried  the  king  along  with  them  in  all 
their  marches,  who  now  found  himself  in  a  better  situation  than  at 
Holmby.    All  his  friends  had  access  to  his  presence,  his  corre- 


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AJK  1647.  THE  ARMY  SUfiDUE  THE  PARLIAMENT.         4l7 

Bpondence  with  the  queen  was  not  interrupted  ;  his  chaplahis  were 
restored  to  him,  and  he  was  allowed  the  use  of  the  liturgy. 
Gromwell,  as  well  as  the  leaders  of  all  parties,  paid  court  to  him ; 
and  fortime,  notwithstanding  his  calamities,  seemed  once  agidn  to 
smile  on  him. 

§  11.  The  impatience  of  the  Londoners  brought  matters  to  a 
crisis  between  the  parliament  and  army.  At  the  instance  of  the 
latter  the  parliament  had  voted  that  the  militia  of  London  should 
be  changed,  the  presby  terian  commissioners  displaced,  and  the  com- 
mand restored  to  those  who  had  constantly  exercised  it,  during 
the  course  of  the  war.  A  petition  against  this  alteration  was 
carried  to  Westminster,  attended  by  the  apprentices  and  a  seditious 
multitude,  who  besieged  the  door  of  the  commons.  By  their  clamour, 
noise,  and  violence,  they  obliged  the  house  to  reverse  the  vote 
which  they  had  passed  so  lately.  No  sooner  was  intelligence 
of  this  tumult  conveyed  to  Reading  than  the  army  was  put  in 
motion,  to  vindicate,  as  they  said,  the  invaded  privileges  of  parlia- 
ment, agunst  the  seditious  citizens.  In  their  way  to  London  they 
were  drawn  up  on  Hounslow  Heath — a  formidable  body  20,000 
stoong,  and  determined  to  pursue  whatever  measures  their  generals 
should  dictate  to  them.  Here  the  most  favourable  event  happened 
to  quicken  and  encourage  their  advanoe.  The  speakers  of  the  two 
houses,  Manchester  and  Lenthall,  attended  by  eight  peers  and  about 
(^  commoners,  having  secretly  retired  from  the  city,  presented 
themselves,  with  their  maces  and  all  the  ensigns  of  their  dignity, 
and,  complaining  of  the  violence  put  upon  them,  applied  to  the 
army  for  defence  and  protection.  They  were  received  with  shouts 
and  acclamations ;  respect  was  paid  to  them  as  to  the  parliament 
of  England ;  and  the  army,  being  provided  with  so  plausible  a 
pretence,  advanced  to  chastise  the  rebellious  city,  and  to  reinstate 
the  violated  parliament.  Without  experiencing  the  least  resistance, 
the  army  marched  in  triumph  through  the  city,  but  preserved  the 
greatest  order,  decency,  and  appearance  of  humility  (August  6). 
They  conducted  to  Westminster  the  two  speakers,  who  took  theic 
seats  as  if  nothing  had  happened.  The  eleven  sequestered  members 
were  expelled;  seven  peers  were  impeached;  the  mayor,  one 
sheriff,  and  three  aldermen  sent  to  the  Tower;  several  citizens 
and  officers  of  the  militia  committed  to  prison ;  every  deed  of  the 
parliament  was  annulled,  from  the  day  of  the  tumult  till  the  return 
of  the  speakers.  The  lines  about  the  city  were  levelled ;  the  militia 
restored  to  the  independents ;  and,  the  parliament  being  reduced  to 
servitude,  a  day  of  solemn  thanksgiving  was  appointed  for  the 
restoration  of  its  liberty. 

The  leaders  of  the  army,  having  established  their  dominion  over 


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418  CHABLES  I.  Chap.  xx!1. 

the  parliament  and  the  city,  yentured  to  bring  the  king  to  Hampton 
Court  (August) ;  and  he  lived  for  some  time  in  that  palace  with 
an  appearance  of  dignity  and  freedom.  He  entertained  hopm  that 
his  negociations  with  the  generals  would  be  crowned  with  success. 
Some  think  that  Cromwell  and  Ireton  desired  to  save  the  king, 
and  submitted  to  him  certain  propositions  for  that  purpose;  but 
whether  honestly  or  otherwise,  it  is  impossible  to  determine.  Pro- 
bably at  the  outset  Cromwell  was  swayed  by  purer  motives ;  but 
a  man  of  such  great  sagacity  and  penetration  was  not  self-deceived, 
like  many  of  his  associates,  though  he  may  have  assisted  in  their 
deception.  Without  being  conscious  of  intentional  insincerity,  he 
must  have  found  that  power  was  more  easily  obtained  by  falling 
in  with  the  prevalent  humour  of  the  times.  If  he  outdid  his  con- 
temporaries in  military  skill,  in  personal  dash  and  valour,  in  politi- 
cal insight,  he  was  quite  resolved  that  none  of  his  captains  or  his 
rivals  for  favour — and  he  had  many — should  ravish  from  him  the 
advantages  these  qualities  secured  him,  by  pretending  to  a  greater 
amount  of  religious  inspiration  or  enthusiasm.  He  was  as  powerful 
in  prayer  as  Nye,  as  fervid  in  preaching  as  Baxter  or  Owen.  If 
Charles  in  his  misfortunes  found  it  needful  to  dissemble,  he  did  n(»t 
possess  a  monopoly  of  that  accomplishment.  Though,  then,  Crom- 
well ruled  the  army,  his  power  depended  on  the  skill  and  ability 
with  which  he  ruled  it,  by  adapting  himself  to  the  varying  passions 
of  the  moment. 

The  army  had  become  the  receptacle  of  all  the  discontented, 
violent,  and  ambitious  spirits  of  the  time.  In  proportion  as  its 
success  became  more  obvious,  every  adventurer  that  joined  it  per- 
ceived that  his  hopes  of  advancement  and  popularity  were  pro- 
portioned to  the  excess  of  his  religious  pretensions.  At  this 
time,  a  body  of  men,  called  LeveUerSf  whose  tenets  are  implied 
by  their  name,  had  obtained  paramount  influence.  They  advocated 
a  republic  of  the  wildest  kind ;  they  scorned  any  government  in 
church  or  state,  except  it  were  the  kingdom  of  Christ  Jesus,  which, 
like  Vane,  the  most  eminent  of  their  leaders,  they  considered  in- 
compatible with  the  existence  of  any  human  form  of  government 
whatever.  They  spoke  of  the  king  as  Ahab,  and  made  no  secret 
of  requiring  that  his  blood  should  be  shed.  It  was  impossible 
that  such  a  set  of  men  could  acquiesce  in  any  form  of  monarchy, 
even  of  the  most  restricted  kind ;  or  consent  to  replace  the  sceptre 
in  the  hand  of  Charles,  even  if  Cromwell  or  Ireton  had  seriously 
proposed  it.  Nor  can  it  be  imagined  that  either  of  them,  with 
their  knowledge  of  such  tendencies  in  their  most  enthusiastic  and 
devoted  adherents,  ever  really  intended  to  restore  the  king.  Charles, 
at  least,  did  not  think  so,  and  if  he  temporized,  it  was  necessary 


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A.D.  1647.  FLIES  TO  THE  ISLE  OF  WIGHT.  419 

for  his  personal  safety.  Persuaded  that  his  life  was  in  danger,  the 
king  secretly  and  suddenly  left  Hampton  Ck)urt,  attended  only  by 
three  persons  (November  12).  His  escape  was  not  discovered  till 
nearly  an  hour  after,  when  those  who  entered  his  chamber  found 
on  the  table  some  letters  directed  to  the  parliament,  to  the  general, 
and  to  the  officer  who  had  attended  him.  Charles  travelled  all 
night  through  the  forest,  and  arrived  next  day  at  Titchfield,  a  seat 
of  the  earl  of  Southampton's,  where  the  countess-dowager  resided, 
a  woman  of  honour  to  whom  the  king  knew  he  might  safely  intrust 
his  person.  As  the  ship  he  expected  was  not  ready,  he  crossed  the 
sea  on  the  13th,  and  took  refuge  with  colonel  Hammond,  the 
governor  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  who  was  nephew  to  doctor  Hammond, 
the  king's  favourite  chaplain.  By  Hammond  he  was  conducted 
to  Carisbrooke  Castle,  where,  though  received  with  groat  demonstra- 
tions of  respect  and  duty,  he  was  in  reality  a  prisoner. 

§  12.  Entirely  master  of  the  parliament  and  of  the  king,  Crom- 
well now  applied  himself  seriously  to  quell  those  disorders  in  the 
army  which  he  himself  had  so  artfully  raised.  To  wean  the  soldiers 
from  the  licentious  maxims  of  the  Levellers^  he  issued  orders  for 
discontinuing  the  meetings  of  the  agitators.  But  though  he  took 
efficient  means  to  reduce  them  to  obedience,  he  soon  found  that  he 
himself  fell  under  suspicion  with  the  army,  and  he  proceeded  to  make 
his  peace  with  them.  Accordingly,  at  the  suggestion  of  Ireton, 
he  secretly  called,  at  Windsor,  a  council  of  the  chief  officers, 
in  order  to  deliberate  concerning  the  settlement  of  the  nation, 
and  the  future  disposal  of  the  king's  person.*  In  this  conference, 
which  commenced  with  devout  prayers,  poured  forth  by  Cromwell 
himself  and  the  other  officers,  the  daring  counsel  was  first  opened 
of  bringing  the  king  to  trial.  Charles,  by  a  message  sent  from 
Carisbrooke  Castle,  had  offered  the  parliament  to  resign,  during  his 
own  life,  the  power  of  the  militia  and  the  nomination  to  all  the 
great  offices,  provided  that,  after  his  demise,  these  prerogatives 
should  revert  to  the  crown.  Coerced  by  the  independents  and 
the  army,  parliament  neglected  this  offer,  and  framed  four  proposals, 
which   they  sent  to  the  king  as  preliminaries  (December  24): 

1.  to  invest  the  parliament  with  the  military  power  for  20  years ; 

2.  to  recall  all  his  proclamations  and  declarations  against  the 
parliament;  3.  to  annul  all  the  acts,  and  void  all  patents  of  peer- 
age, which  had  passed  the  great  seal  since  it  had  been  carried  from 
London  by  lord-keeper  Littleton,  and  renounce  for  the  future  the 
power  of  making  peers  without  the  consent  of  parliament ;  4.  to 
give  the  two  houses  power  to  adjourn  as  they  thought  proper. 
The  king  having  refused  these  proposals,  upon  an  offer  of  less 

•  Clarenaon  V  614. 


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420  CHARLES  I.  Obap.  xzn 

onerous  conditions  from  the  Scots  (December  28),  it  was  voted  oj 
the  parliament  that  no  more  addresses  should  be  made  to  him,  nor 
any  letters  or  messages  received  from  him  ;  and  that  it  should  be 
treason  for  any  one,  without  leave  of  the  two  houses,  to  hold  any 
intercourse  with  him  (January  3,  1648).  By  this  vote  of  non- 
addresses  (as  it  was  called)  the  king  was  in  r^ty  dethroned,  and 
the  whole  constitution  formally  overthrown ;  and  it  having  been 
discovered  that  the  king  had  attempted  to  escape  from  Garisbrooke  . 
Castle,  Hammond,  by  orders  from  the  army,  removed  all  his  servants, 
cut  off  his  correspondence  with  his  friends,  and  shut  him  up  in 
close  confinement. 

§  13.  The  Scots  had  been  much  displeased  with  the  proceedings 
adopted  towards  the  king,  as  well  as  with  the  contempt  which  the 
independents  displayed  for  the  Covenant,  which  was  derisively  called 
in  the  House  of  Commons  *'  an  almanack  out  of  date."  They  sent 
commissioners  to  London  to  protest  against  the  four  propositions 
that  had  been  offered  to  the  king ;  and  when  they  accompanied  the 
English  commissioners  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  they  secretly  formed 
a  treaty  with  the  king,  called  The  Engagement^  for  arming  Scot« 
land  in  his  favour.  The  duke  of  Hamilton  obtained  a  vote  from 
the  Scottish  parliament  to  arm  40,000  men  in  the  king's 
support,  and  to  call  over  a  considerable  body  under  Monro,  who 
commanded  the  Scottish  forces  in  Ulster ;  and  though  he  openly 
protested  that  the  Covenant  was  the  foundation  of  all  his  measure^ 
he  secretly  entered  into  correspondence  with  the  English  royalists, 
sir  Marmaduke  Langdale  and  sir  Philip  Musgrave,  who  had  levied 
considerable  forces  in  the  north  of  England.  While  the  Scots  were 
making  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  England,  every  part  of  that 
kingdom  was  agitated  with  timiults,  insurrections,  and  con- 
spiracies. The  general  spirit  of  discontent  had  seized  the  fleet. 
Six  ships,  lying  in  the  mouth  of  the  river,  declared  for  the  king ; 
and  putting  their  admiral  ashore,  sailed  over  to  Holland,  where  the 
prince  of  Wales  took  the  command  of  them  (July,  1648). 

Cromwell  and  the  military  council  prepared  themselves  with 
vigour  for  defence,  and  the  revolts  which  had  broken  out  in  various 
parts  of  England  were  soon  either  checked  or  subdued.  A  new 
fleet  was  manned  and  sent  out,  imder  the  command  of  Warwick, 
to  oppose  the  revolted  ships.  But  while  the  forces  were  employed 
in  all  quarters,  the  parliament  regained  its  liberty,  and  the  presby- 
terian  party  recovered  th'*  ascendency  which  it  had  formerly  lost 
The  vote  of  non-addresscb  was  repealed ;  and  five  peers  and  ten 
commoners  were  sent  as  commissioners  to  Newport,  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  in  order  to  treat  with  the  king  (September  18).  When 
Charles  presented  himself  ta  this  company,  a  great  and  sensible 


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A.D.  1648.  CIVIL  WARS.  421 

alteration  was  remarked  in  his  aspect.  The  moment  hia  servants 
had  been  removed,  he  had  allowed  his  beard  and  hair  to  grow,  and 
to  hang  dishevelled  and  neglected.  His  hair  was  become  almost 
entirely  grey ;  and  his  friends,  perhaps  even  his  enemies,  beheld 
with  compassion  that  "  grey  and  discrowned  head,"  as  he  himself 
terms  it  in  a  copy  of  verses,  which  the  truth  of  the  sentiment, 
more  than  any  elegance  of  expression,  renders  very  pathetia  In 
these  negociations,  which  continued  from  September  18  to  Novem- 
ber 27,  the  king  agreed  to  most  of  the  political  conditions  proposed ; 
but  he  declined  to  take  the  Covenant  or  force  it  upon  others,  to 
abolish  episcopacy,  and  to  alienate  in  perpetuity  the  endowments  of 
the  church  of  England.  Dissatisfied  with  what  the  parliament 
had  done  and  were  doing,  the  army  carried  off  the  king  from 
Newport,  and  lodged  him  in  Hurst  Castle  (November  30). 

Hamilton,  having  entered  England  with  a  numerous  though  xm- 
disciplined  army,  durst  not  unite  his  forces  with  those  of  Langdale, 
because  the  English  royalists  had  refused  to  take  the  Covenant ; 
and  the  Scottish  presbytt-rians,  though  engaged  for  the  king,  refused 
to  join  them  on  any  other  terms.  Cromwell,  though  hu  forces 
were  not  half  so  numerous  as  those  of  the  allies,  attacked  Langdale 
by  surprise,  near  Preston,  in  Lancashire  (August  17).  Hamilton  was 
next  attacked,  put  to  the  rout,  and  pursued  to  Uttoxeter,  where  he 
surrendered  himself  prisoner  (August  20).  Cromwell  followed  his 
advantage ;  and,  marching  into  Scotland  with  a  considerable  body, 
joined  Argyle,  who  was  also  in  arms ;  and  having  suppressed  the 
moderate  presbyterians,  he  placed  the  power  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  violent  party.  The  ecclesiastical  authority,  exalted  above 
the  civil,  exercised  the  severest  vengeance  on  all  who  had  a  share 
in  Hamilton's  engagement,  as  it  was  called.  Never  in  this  island 
was  known  a  more  severe  and  arbitrary  government  than  was 
generally  exercised  by  the  patrons  of  liberty  in  both  kingdoms. 
'J'he  capture  of  Colchester  by  Fair&x  (August  27),  and  the 
barbarous  execution  of  sir  Charles  Lucas  and  sir  G^rge  Lisle,  who 
had  bravely  defended  it,  terminated  the  last  struggle  for  the  king. 

§  14.  The  catastrophe  was  now  approaching.  A  remonstrance 
was  drawn  by  the  council  of  general  officers,  and  sent  to  the  par- 
liament They  complained  of  the  treaty  with  the  king,  demanded 
that  he  should  be  "  proceeded  against  in  the  way  of  justice "  for 
the  blood  spilt  during  the  war,  and  required  a  dissolution  of  the 
present  parliament.  The  foremost  men  in  this  measure  were 
colonel  Ludlow  and  Ireton.  Fair&x  disapproved  of  it,  but  had 
not  the  spirit  to  oppose  it  (November  30).  The  parliament  lost 
not  courage,  notwithstanding  the  danger  with  which  they  were 
menacetl.  Holies,  the  present  leader  of  the  presbyterians,  war 
20 


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422  OHABLES  I.  Chap.  zxu. 

a  man  of  unconquerable  intrepidity,  and  was  seconded  by  many 
others.  It  was  proposed  by  them  that  the  generals  and  principal 
officers  should,  for  their  disobedience  and  usurpations,  be  proclaimed 
traitors  by  the  parliament.  But  the  parliament  was  dealing  with 
men  who  were  not  to  be  frightened  by  words,  or  retarded  by  any 
scrupulous  delicacy.  The  generals,  under  the  name  of  Fairfax  (for 
he  still  allowed  them  to  employ  his  name),  marched  the  army  to 
London,  and  surroimded  the  parliament  with  soldiers.  The  parlia> 
ment,  nevertheless,  proceeded  to  close  their  treaty  with  the  king ; 
and  after  a  violent  debate  of  three  days,  it  was  carried,  by  a 
majority  of  129  against  83,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  that  the 
king's  concessions  were  a  sufficient  foundation  for  the  houses  to  pro- 
ceed upon  in  the  settlement  of  the  kingdom.  Next  day  (Decem- 
ber 6),  when  the  commons  were  to  meet,  colonel  Pride,  formerly 
a  drayman,  had  environed  the  house  with  two  regiments;  and 
directed  by  lord  Grey  of  Groby,  he  seized  in  the  passage  47  mem- 
bers of  the  presbyterian  party,  and  sent  them  to  a  low  room  which 
passed  by  the  appellation  of  hdl,  whence  they  were  afterwards  carried 
to  several  inns.  Ninety-six  members  were  excluded;  none  were 
allowed  to  enter  but  the  most  determined  of  the  independents,  and 
these  exceeded  not  the  number  of  50;  **  and  thus,  when  the  two  parts 
of  the  house  were  ejected  and  imprisoned,  this  third  part,  composed 
of  the  Yanists,  the  independents,  and  other  sects,  with  the  demo- 
cratical  party,  was  left  by  Cromwell  to  do  his  business  under  the 
name  of  the  parliament  of  England."  Cromwell  returned  from 
Scotland  to  London  the  day  after,  and  installed  himself  at  White- 
hall. The  Bumpi  as  it  was  called,  instantly  reveised  the  former 
proceedings  of  the  house,  and  declared  the  king's  concessions  un- 
satisfactory. They  renewed  their  former  vote  of  non-addresses,  and 
committed  several  presbyterians  to  prison  (December  13). 

These  sudden  and  violent  revolutions  held  the  whole  nation  in 
terror  and  astonishment.  To  quiet  the  minds  of  men,  the  generals, 
in  the  name  of  the  army,  published  a  declaration  in  which  they  ex- 
pressed their  resolution  of  supporting  law  and  justicd;  and  the 
council  of  officers  took  into  consideration  a  scheme  called  the  agree- 
ment of  the  people,  being  the  plan  of  a  republic,  to  be  substituted  in 
the  place  of  that  government  which  they  had  so  violently  pulled  in 
pieces.  To  effect  this,  nothing  remained  but  the  public  trial  and 
execution  of  the  king.  Having  ordered  a  day  of  humiliation 
(December  22),  on  which  Hugh  Peters  preached,  the  commons  next 
day  resolved  to  proceed  capitally  against  the  king ;  and  on  January  2 
they  sent  up  their  vote  to  the  lords,  declaring  it  treason  in  a  king 
to  levy  war  against  his  parliament,  and  appointing  a  High  Coubt 
OF  JuBTicB  to  try  Charles  for  this  newly  invented  crime.    The 


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JLD,  1648.  HIS  TRIAL.  428 

House  of  Peers,  wbich  assembled  to  the  number  of  12,  without  one 
dissenting  ^oioe,  and  almost  without  deliberation,  rejected  the  vote 
of  the  lower  house,  and  adjourned  for  ten  days,  hoping  that  this 
delay  would  be  able  to  retud  the  furious  career  of  the  commons ; 
but  the  commons  were  not  to  be  stopped  by  so  small  an  obstacle. 
After  they  had  declared  that  the  people  are  the  origin  of  aU  just 
power,  that  the  commons  of  England  are  the  supreme  authority  of 
the  nation,  and  that  whatever  is  enacted  by  them  hath  the  force  of 
law,  without  the  consent  of  king  or  House  of  Peers  (January  4), 
the  ordinance  for  the  trial  of  Charles  Stuart,  king  of  England  (so 
they  called  him),  was  again  read  and  unanimously  assented  to 
(January  6).  During  the  proceedings,  colonel  Harrison,  the  most 
furious  enthusiast  in  the  army,  had  been  sent  with  a  strong  party 
to  conduct  the  king  to  London.  He  was  brought  to  Windsor  Castle 
(December  23).  From  thence  he  was  transferred  to  St.  James's, 
and  finally  to  Whitehall  (January  19, 1649). 

Next  day  the  high  court  of  justice  assembled  in  Westmin- 
ster HalL  It  consisted  of  133  persons,  as  named  by  the  com- 
mons, but  there  scarcely  ever  sat  above  70.  Cromwell,  Ireton, 
Harrison,  and  the  chief  officers  of  the  army,  were  members,  together 
with  some  of  the  lower  house,  and  some  citizens  of  London.  The 
judges  were  at  first  appointed  in  the  number;  but, as  they  had 
affirmed  that  it  was  contrary  to  law  to  try  the  king  for  treason, 
their  names,  and  those  of  certain  peers,  were  struck  out  Bradshaw, 
a  lawyer,  was  chosen  president.  Cook  was  appointed  solicitor  for 
the  people  of  England.  In  calling  over  the  court,  when  the  crier 
pronounced  the  name  of  Fairfax,  which  had  been  inserted  in  the 
number,  a  voice  came  from  one  of  the  spectators,  ''He  has 
more  wit  than  to  be  here.*'  When  the  charge  was  read  against 
the  king,  *'  In  the  name  of  the  people  of  England,"  the  same  voice 
exclaimed,  "  Not  a  tenth  part  of  them."  Axtell,  the  officer  who 
guarded  the  court,  giving  orders  to  fire  into  the  box  whence  these 
insolent  speeches  came,  it  was  discovered  that  lady  Fairfax  was 
there,  and  that  it  was  she  who  had  had  the  courage  to  utter  them. 

The  pomp,  the  dignity,  the  ceremony  of  this  transaction,  cor- 
responded to  the  greatest  conception  that  is  suggested  in  the  annals 
of  history.  The  solicitor,  in  the  name  of  the  commons,  repre- 
sented that  Charles  Stuart,  being  admitted  king  of  England,  and 
intrusted  with  a  limited  power,  yet  nevertheless,  from  a  wicked 
design  to  erect  an  unlimited  and  tyrannical  government,  had  traitor- 
ously and  maliciously  levied  war  against  the  present  parliament, 
and  the  people  whom  they  represented ;  and  was  therefore  impeached 
as  a  tyrant,  traitor,  murderer,  and  a  public  and  implacable  enemy 
to  the  commonwealth.    The  king  was  then  called  on  for  his  answer. 


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424  CHARLES  I.  Ohap.  zdi. 

Though  long  detained  a  prisoner,  and  now  produced  as  a  criminal, 
(Siarles  sustained,  by  his  magnanimous  courage,  the  majesty  of  a 
monarch.  With  great  temper  nnd  dignity  he  declined  to  submit 
to  the  juiisdiction  of  the  court.  Three  times  was  he  produced  beftn^ 
the  court,  and  as  often  declined  its  jurisdiction.  On  the  fourth 
(January  25),  the  judces  examined  some  witnesses,  by  whom  it  was 
proyed  that  the  king  had  appeared  in  arms  against  the  forces  com"- 
missioned  by  the  parliament.  Charles  then  demanded  a  conference 
with  the  two  houses.  This  was  refused,  and  judgment  was  pro- 
nounced upon  him  (Saturday,  January  27). 

It  is  confessed  that  the  king's  behaviour  during  this  last  scene  of 
his  life  did  honour  to  his  memory ;  and  that  in  all  appearances  before 
his  judges  he  never  forgot  his  part,  either  as  a  prince  or  as  a  man. 
The  soldiers,  instigated  by  their  superiors,  were  brought,  though 
with  difficulty,  to  cry  aloud  for  justice.  "  Poor  souls  1 "  said  the 
king  to  one  of  his  attendants,  *'  they  would  do  as  much  agiunst 
their  commanders,  were  the  occasion  given."  One  of  the  soldiers,  as 
the  king  passed,  exclaimed,  "  God  bless  you,  sir !  "  whereupon  one 
of  his  officers  struck  him  on  the  head  with  his  cane.  **  The  punish- 
ment, methinks,*'  said  the  king,  "  exceeds  the  offence." 

The  Scots  protested  against  the  proceedings ;  the  Dutch  inter- 
ceded in  the  king's  behalf ;  the  prince  of  Wales  sent  a  blank  sheet 
of  paper,  subscribed  with  his  name  and  sealed  with  his  arms,  on 
which  his  father's  judges  might  write  what  conditions  they  pleased 
as  the  price  of  his  life.  But  all  solicitations  were  found  fhiitless 
with  men  whose  resolutions  were  remorseless  and  irrevocable. 

§  15.  Two  days  were  allowed  the  king  between  his  sentence  and 
his  execution.  This  i nterval  he  passed  with  great  tranquillity,  chiefly 
in  reading  and  devotion.  All  his  family  that  remained  in  England 
were  allowed  access  to  him.  It  consisted  only  of  the  princess 
Blizabeth  and  of  prince  Henry,  afterwards  duke  of  Gloucester,  for 
the  duke  of  York  had  made  his  escape.  The  palace  of  Whitehall 
was  destined  for  his  execution,  to  which  place  Charles  was  brought 
on  foot  from  St.  James's  like  a  common  criminal.  The  scaffold 
was  erected  in  front  of  the  central  window  of  the  banqueting-hall ; 
and  when  Charles  stepped  out  upon  the  scaffold,  through  a  passage 
broken  in  the  wall,  he  found  it  so  surrounded  with  soldiers  that  he 
could  not  expect  to  be  heard  by  any  of  the  people.  He  addressed 
therefore  his  discourse  to  the  few  persons  who  were  about  him; 
justified  his  own  innocence  in  the  late  fatal  wars,  though  he  acknow- 
ledged the  equity  of  his  execution  in  the  eye  of  his  Maker ;  and 
observed  that  an  unjust  sentence,  which  he  had  suffered  to  take 
effect,  was  now  punished  by  an  unjust  sentence  upon  himself. 
When  he  was  preparing  himself  for  the  block,  bishop  Juxon,  who 


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A.D.  J  649.  HIS   EKECUTION.  425 

had  been  allowed  to  attend  him,  called  to  him,  **  There  is  but  one 
stage  more.  This  stage  is  turbulent  indeed  and  troublesome,  but 
very  short,  and  which  in  an  instant  will  lead  you  a  most  long  way, 
from  earth  to  heayen,  where  you  shall  find  great  joy  and  solace." 
"  I  go,"  replied  the  king,  "  from  a  corruptible  to  an  inconiiptible 
crown,  where  can  be  no  trouble,  none  at  all."  "  You  shall  exchange," 
said  Juxon,  **  a  temporal  crown  for  an  eternal  one ;  it  is  a  good 
change."  The  king  then  said  unto  the  executioner,  **  Is  my  hair  as 
it  should  be  ?  "  Whereupon  he  put  oflF  his  cloak,  and  his  George, 
which  he  gave  to  Juxon,  sajring,  "  Remember ! "  At  two  in  the 
afternoon  his  head  was  seyered  by  one  blow  from  his  body.  A  man 
in  a  vizor  performed  the  office  of  executioner ;  another,  in  a  like 
disguise,  held  up  to  the  spectators  the  head  streaming  with  blood, 
and  cried  aloud, "  This  is  the  head  of  a  traitor ! "  (January  30, 1649> 

A  deep  groan  burst  from  the  multitude.  The  crowd  sway^ 
hither  and  thither.  Many  with  a  desire  of  dipping  their  handker- 
chiefs in  the  blood  that  flowed  from  the  scaffold,  were  trampled  oi^ 
and  driven  back  by  the  soldiers.  An  incident  is  recorded,  during 
the  execution,  which  might  have  graced  the  pages  of  Livy.  A 
flight  of  wild  ducks,  hovering  oyer  the  scaffold,  could  not  be 
driven  off  by  the  swords  of  the  soldiers.  When  the  king's  head 
was  severed  from  his  body,  one  of  the  number  suddenly  swooped 
down,  dipped  its  beak  in  the  blood,  and  immediately  disappeared 
with  its  companions. 

Charles  was  of  a  comely  presence ;  of  a  sweet,  but  melancholy, 
aspect.  His  face  was  regular,  handsome,  and  well-complexioned ; 
his  body  strong,  healthy,  and  justly  proportioned ;  and  being  of  a 
middle  stature,  he  was  capable  of  enduring  the  greatest  fatigues. 
He  excelled  in  horsemanship  and  other  exercises ;  and  he  possessed 
all  the  exterior  as  well  as  many  of  the  essential  qualities  which  form 
an  accomplished  prince.  His  greatest  misfortune  was  a  distrust  of 
his  own  judgment,  and  a  habit  of  deferring  to  others  of  inferior 
capacity  to  his  own.  This  often  made  him  waver  and  change  his 
resolution,  not  unfrequently  for  the  worse,  but  always  with  the  dis- 
advantage of  disappointing  those  who  advised  him,  and  of  appearing 
insincere.  But  dissimulation  in  one  form  or  another  was  the  com- 
mon vice  of  the  age,  "  which  the  extreme  hypocrisy  of  many  among 
his  adversaries,"  as  Hallam  remarks,  might  palliate  in  his  case 
and  in  the  difficulties  of  his  position,  though  it  could  not  excuse. 
At  his  trial  he  was  not  allowed  council  or  assistance  of  any 
kind,  and  his  funeral  was  indecently  hurried  on  from  the  dread  of 
a  popular  reaction. 

In  a  few  days  the  commons  passed  votes  to  abolish  the  House 
of  Peers  and  the  monarchy  as  useless  parts  of  the  constitution,  and 


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426 


CHARLES  I. 


Chap,  xxit. 


they  ordered  a  new  great  seal  to  be  engraved,  on  which  their  house 
was  represented,  with  this  legend — on  the  fibst  year  of  free- 
dom, BT  qod'b  BLESSiKa,  RESTORED,  1648.  The  fomis  of  all  public 
business  were  changed  from  the  king's  name  to  that  of  the  keepers 
of  the  liberties  of  England.  It  was  declared  high  treason  to  pro- 
claim, or  any  otherwise  acknowledge,  Charles  Stuart,  commonly 
called  prince  of  Wales.  The  duke  of  Hamilton,  as  earl  of  Cam- 
bridge in  England,  lord  Capel,  and  the  earl  of  Holland,  were  con- 
demned and  executed  some  weeks  after. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


ICON  BASILrK^ 

Sbortlf  After  the  exeoottoo  of  Charles 
I.  appeared  a  work  entitled  **Icod  Ba- 
8ilik6  (etKMy  fiaaiXuiii,  kimffly  imagti)^  or 
a  Portraiture  of  His  Sacred  MBJesiy  in 
bia  Solitude  and  Sofferings."  It  consists 
of  meditations  or  soliloquies  on  the  king's 
calamities,  and  was  generally  believed  at 
the  time  to  be  the  composition  of  Charles 
himself.  It  made  a  great  impression  on 
the  public  met  with  a  great  sale,  and  In 
the  middle  of  lant  centurj  it  was  com- 
puted that  47  editions,  or  48,500  copies, 
had  l)ecn  issued  (Jos.  Ames,  in  London 
Manazine  for  1756).  In  1649  Milton,  who 
was  commissioned  by  the  parliament  to 
answer  it,  treated  it  as  a  genuine  work. 
Lord  Ani^esey  left  a  memorandum  in  his 
handwriting  that  he  was  told  in  1675,  both 
by  Charles  li.  and  by  the  duke  of  York, 
that  the  work  was  not  written  by  their 
father,  but  by  Dr.  Ganden.  Bumci  was 
assured  by  James,  in  1673,  that  the  book 
was  Qauden's  composi  Uon.  Yet  Iwth  of 
these  princes  authorised  the  book  to  be 
published  as  the  king's  in  the  editions 
of  their  father's  works.  In  a  letter  to 
chancellor  Hyde,  January  21,  1660, 
Qaaden  claims  the  authorship,  and 
says  he  sent  it  to  the  king,  who 
adopted  it  as  his  own.  Clarendon,  *^tate 
Fc^eri.  iii.  Sup.  xxix.  On  the  other 
hand  Uie  most  important  evidence  is  that 
of  sir  Thomas  Herbert,  who  closely 
•ttanded  ths  king  throughont  his  tiooblfla. 


«*  At  this  time  it  was  (as  is  presumed) 
he  composed  his  book,  called  Suspiria 
RegdUo^  published  soon  after  hb  death, 
and  entitled  Jht  King't  Pourtraietmre  in 
hU  Sotitude,  etc.,  which  MS.  Mr.  Herbert 
found  amongst  those  books  his  Mi^esty 
was  pleased  to  give  Aim,  those  excepted 
which  he  bequeathed  to  his  children  .  .  . 
in  regard  Mr.  Herbert,  though  he  did  not 
see  the  king  write  that  book,  his  Mi^jesty 
being  always  private  when  he  writ,  yet 
comparing  it  with  hi*  handwriting  in 
other  things  [he]  found  Utoveiy  like,  as 
induces  his  belief  that  it  was  his  (the 
king's)  own  handwriting."  Herbert's 
Memoirtt  from  which  this  extract  is  taken, 
appeared  in  1678,  18  years  after  the 
publication  of  the  **  Icon  Basilike ;  **  and 
if  it  had  been  written  by  Gauden,  or  a 
surreptitious  copy  been  palmed  upon  the 
world,  it  is  scarcely  likely  that  Herbert, 
so  faithful  to  his  master's  memory,  would 
have  omitted  all  notice  of  these  circum- 
stances. The  probable  solution  is  that 
Charles  adopted  and  modified  Gaudcn's 
MS.  Evidences  from  ^tyle  are  worth 
little.  Hallam  thinlcs  the  book  unworthy 
of  the  king,  and  attributes  it  from  likeness 
of  style  to  Gauden.  Burnet  thinks  "  that 
no  man.  from  a  likeness  of  style,  would 
think  him  (Gauden)  capable  of  writing 
M  extraordinary  a  book."  Dr.  C.  Word»> 
worth  claims  the  authorship  for  king 
Charles.  On  the  other  side,  see  Hallam*s 
OonUitutional  Hittory,  U.  230. 


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t^ttem  Ibr  a  crown  of  the  protector  Oliver  GromwelL  Obv. :  olivab  .  d  .  q  .  b  .  p. 
▲NO  .  Mco .  HiB  &c  PRO.  Bust  of  protectoT  to  left.  Bev. :  pax  .  qvjibrvb  .  bsllo. 
Crowned  shield  with  arms  of  England,  Sootlaod,  and  IrolaDd*  and  the  coat  of  Cromwell 
in  an  eacotobeon  of  pretence :  aboye,  1M8. 


CHAPTER  XXTTT. 

THE  COMMONWEALTH,      1649-1660. 

§.  1.  State  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireknd.  §  2.  CromweU's  campaign 
in  Ireland.  §  3.  Charles  II.  in  Scotland.  Cromwell's  campaign  in 
Scotland.  Battle  of  Dunbar.  $  4.  Charles  crowned  at  Scone.  He 
advances  into  England.  Battle  «f  Worcester.  Flight  and  escape  of 
Charles.  §  5.  Settlement  of  the  Commonwealth.  §  6.  Dutch  war. 
Blake  and  Tromp.  §  7.  Cromwell  expels  the  parliament.  §  8. 
Barebone's  parliament.  Cromwell  protector.  {  9.  Defeat  of  the  Dutch 
and  peace  with  Holland.  §  10.  Cromwdl'8  administration.  His  first 
parliament.  Royalist  insurrection.  War  with  Spain.  §  11.  Blake's 
naval  exploits.  Jamaica  conquered.  Death  of  Blake.  §  12.  Crom- 
well's third  parliament.  He  refuses  the  crown.  The  "  humble  petition 
and  advice."  §  13.  Dunkirk  taken.  Discontents  and  insurrections. 
§  14.  Cromwell's  sickness,  death,  and  character.  §  15.  His  foreign 
policy.  §  16.  Richard  Cromwell  protector.  §  17.  Long  parliament 
restored  and  expelled.  Committee  of  safety.  §  18.  General  Monk 
declares  for  the  parliament.  The  parliament  restored.  Monk  enters 
London.  Long  parliament  dissolved.  §  Itt.  A  new  parliament.  The 
Restoration 

§  1.  The  deatti  of  the  king  was  followed  by  a  dissolution  of  the 
constitution,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical.  Nominally,  the  Rump 
remained  supreme,  but  every  man  had  framed  for  himself  the  model 
of  a  republic ;  every  man  had  adjusted  his  own  system  of  religion. 
The  millenarians,  or  fifth  monarchy  men,  required  that  govern- 
ment itself  should  be  abolished,  and  all  human  powers  be  laid  in 
the  dust,  in  order  to  pave  the  way  for  the  dominion  of  Christ,  whose 
second  coming  they  suddenly  expected.     One  party  declaimed 


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428  THE  COMMONWEALTH.  Chap,  xxnt 

a«;aiu8t  tithes  and  a  hireling  priesthood  ;  another  inveighed  against 
the  law  and  its  professors.  The  royalists,  consisting  of  the  nobles 
and  more  considerable  gentry,  were  inflamed  with  the  highest 
resentment  and  indignation  against  those  ignoble  adversaries  wlio 
had  reduced  them  to  subjection.  The  presbyterians,  whose  credit 
at  first  supported  the  arms  of  the  parliament,  were  enraged  to  find 
that,  by  the  treachery  or  superior  cunning  of  the  sectaries  and  in- 
dependents, the  fruits  of  all  their  labours  had  been  ravished  from 
them.  The  young  king,  poor  and  neglected,  living  sometimes  in 
Holland,  sometimes  in  France,  sometimes  in  Jersey,  comforted  him- 
self amidst  his  present  distresses  with  the  hopes  of  better  fortune. 

The  only  solid  support  of  the  republican  independent  faction 
was  an  army  of  nearly  45,000  men.  But  this  army,  formidable 
from  its  discipline  and  courage,  as  well  as  its  numbers,  was  actuated 
by  a  spirit  that  rendered  it  dangerous  to  the  assembly  which  had 
assumed  the  command  over  it.  Cromwell  alone  was  able  to  guide 
and  direct  all  these  unsettled  humours.  But  though  he  retained 
for  a  time  all  orders  of  men  under  a  seeming  obedience  to  the 
parliament,  he  was  secretly  paving  the  way  to  his  own  imlimited 
authority. 

The  Rump  parliament,  consisting  of  50  members,  began  gradually 
to  assume  more  the  air  of  a  legal  power.  It  re-admitted  a  few  of 
the  excluded  and  absent  members,  but  only  on  condition  that  they 
should  sign  an  approbation  of  whatever  had  been  done  in  their 
absence  with  regard  to  the  king's  trial.  It  issued  writs  for  new 
elections,  in  places  where  it  hoped  to  have  interest  enough  to 
bring  in  its  own  friends  and  dependents ;  and  it  named  an  executive 
council  of  state,  41  in  number,  of  which  Bradshaw  was  appointed 
the  president,  and  Milton  foreign  secretary.  As  soon  as  it  should 
have  settled  the  nation,  it  professed  its  intention  of  restoring 
the  power  to  the  people,  from  whom  it  pretended  all  power  wa& 
derived.  The  functions  of  this  council  embraced  government  at 
home,  the  army  and  navy,  superintendence  of  trade  and  negocia- 
tious  with  foreign  powers. 

The  si*iuation  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  alone  gave  any  immediate 
disquietude  to  the  new  republic.  Alter  the  successive  defeats  of 
Montrose  and  Hamilton,  and  the  ruin  of  their  parties,  the  whole 
authority  in  Scotland  fell  into  the  hands  of  Aj^le.  Invited 
by  the  English  parliament  to  model  their  government  into  a  re- 
publican form,  the  Scots  resolved  still  to  adhere  to  monarchy,  which, 
by  the  express  terms  of  their  Covenant,  they  had  engaged  to  defend. 
After  the  execution,  therefore,  of  the  king,  they  immediately 
proclaimed  his  son  and  successor  Charles  II.  (Febuary  6);  bat 
upon  condition  of  his  strict  observance  of  the  Covenant    The 


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A.D.  1649.     CROMWELL'S  CAHPAIGK  IN  IRELAND.  429 

affiun  of  Ireland  demanded  more  immediate  attention.  When 
Charles  I.  was  a  prisoner  among  the  Scots,  he  sent  <mler8  to 
Onnond,  if  he  could  not  defend  himself,  rather  to  suhmit  to  the 
English  tlian  the  Irish  rebels ;  and  accordingly,  the  lord-lieutenant, 
being  reduced  to  extremities,  delivered  up  Dublin,  Drogheda,  Dun- 
dalk,  and  other  garrisons,  to  colonel  Jones,  who  took  possession  of 
them  in  the  name  of  the  English  parliament.  Onnond  himself 
went  over  to  England,  and  after  some  time  joined  the  queen  and 
prince  of  Wales  in  France.  Meanwhile  the  Irish  catholics,  dis- 
gusted with  the  indiscretion  and  insolence  of  Rinuccini,  the  papa) 
nuncio,  and  dreading  the  power  of  the  English  parliament,  saw 
no  resource  or  safety  but  in  giving  support  to  the  declining  authority 
of  the  king.  The  earl  of  Clanricarde  secretly  formed  a  combination 
among  the  catholics.  He  sent  to  Paris  a  deputation,  inviting 
Ormond  to  return  and  take  possession  of  his  government. 

Ormond,  on  his  arrival  in  March,  had  at  first  to  contend  with 
many  difficulties.  But  in  the  distractions  which  attended  the  final 
struggle  in  England,  the  republican  faction  totally  neglected  Ireland, 
and  allowed  Jones,  and  the  forces  in  Dublin,  to  remain  in  the 
utmost  weakness  and  necessity.  The  lord-lieutenant,  having  at 
last  assembled  a  considerable  army,  advanced  upon  the  parlia- 
mentary garrisons.  D\mdalk,  Drogheda,  and  several  other  towns 
surrendered  or  were  taken.  Dublin  was  threatened  with  a  siege ; 
and  the  affairs  of  the  lieutenant  appeared  in  so  prosperous  a  con- 
dition, that  the  young  king  entertained  thoughts  of  coming  in 
person  into  Ireland. 

When  the  English  commonwealth  was  brought  to  some  tolerable 
settlement,  men  turned  their  eyes  towards  the  neighbouring 
island.  After  the  execution  of  the  king,  Cromwell  himself  began 
to  aspire  to  a  command  where  so  much  glory,  he  saw,  might  be 
won,  and  so  much  authority  acquired ;  and  he  was  appointed  by 
the  parliament  lieutenant  and  general  of  Ireland  (June  2Z), 

§  2.  He  applied  himself,  with  his  wonted  vigilance,  to  make 
preparations  for  his  expedition.  He  sent  a  reinforcement  of  4000 
men  to  Jones,  who  unexpectedly  attacked  Ormond  near  Dublin ; 
chased  his  army  off  the  field ;  seized  all  their  tents,  baggage,  ammu- 
nition ;  and  returned  victorious  to  Dublin,  after  killing  600  men, 
many  in  cold  blood,  and  taking  above  2000  prisoners  (August  2). 
This  loss,  which  threw  some  blemish  on  the  military  character  of 
Ormond,  was  irreparable  to  the  royal  cause.  Hearing  of  Jones's 
success,  Cromwell  soon  after  arrived  with  fresh  forces  in  Dublin, 
where  he  was  welcomed  with  shouts  and  rejoicings  (August  15). 
He  hastened  to  Drogheda,  which,  though  well  fortified,  was  taken 
by  assault,  Cromwell  himself,  along  with  Ireton,  leading  on  hi  ft 
20* 


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430  THE   COMMONWEALTH.  Chap,  xxm 

men.  A  cruel  slaughter  was  made  of  the  garrison,  orders  having 
been  issued  to  give  no  quarter  (September  10).  All  priests  and 
monks  were  put  to  death  without  distinction.  Cromwell  pretended 
to  retaliate,  by  this  sevire  execution,  the  cruelty  of  the  Irish 
massacre ;  but  he  well  knew  that  almost  the  whole  garrison  was 
English.  "  The  enemy,"  as  he  stated  in  his  letter  to  parliament, 
"were  about  3000  strong.  We  refused  them  quarter.  ...  I  believe 
we  put  to  the  sword  the  whole  number  of  the  defendants.  I  do 
not  think  30  of  the  whole  number  escaped  with  their  lives ;  those 
that  did  are  in  safe  custody  for  the  Barbadoes  ^ — that  is,  slavery  in 
the  West  Indies.  Parliament  ordered  a  thanksgiving  service  for 
such  a  glorious  victory.  Wexford  was  taken  (October  9),  and  the 
same  severity  exercised  as  at  Drogheda,  between  2000  and  3000 
being  put  to  the  sword.  Every  town  before  which  Cromwell  pre- 
sented himself  now  opened  its  gates  without  resistance.  Next 
spring  he  made  himself  master  of  Kilkenny  and  Clonmel,  the  only 
places  where  he  met  with  any  vigorous  resistance.  Ormond  soon 
after  left  the  island,  and  delegated  his  authority  to  Clanricarde, 
who  found  affairs  so  desperate  as  to  admit  of  no  remedy.  The 
Irish  were  glad  to  embrace  banishment,  and  more  than  40,000 
sought  refuge  in  foreign  service. 

§  3.  While  Cromwell  proceeded  with  such  uninterrupted  suooees 
in  Ireland,  which  in  the  space  of  nine  months  he  had  almost  en- 
tirely subdued,  fortune  was  preparing  for  him  a  new  scene  of 
victory  and  triumph  in  Scotland.  Charles,  by  the  advice  of  his 
friends,  who  thought  it  ridiculous  to  refuse  a  kingdom  merely  from 
regard  to  episcopacy,  had  been  induced  to  accept  the  crown  of 
Scotland  on  the  terms  offered  by  the  commissioners  of  the  Cove- 
nanters. But  what  chiefly  determined  him  to  comply,  was  the 
account  brought  him  of  the  fate  of  Montrose,  which  blasted  all  his 
hopes  of  recovering  his  inheritance  by  force.  That  gallant  but 
unfortunate  nobleman,  having  received  assistance  from  some  of 
the  northern  powers,  had  landed  in  the  Orkneys  with  about  500 
men,  most  of  them  Germans.  He  armed  several  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Orkneys,  and  carried  them  over  with  him  to  Caithness ;  but 
was  disappointed  in  his  hopes  that  affection  to  the  king's  service, 
and  the  fame  of  his  former  exploits,  would  make  the  Highlanders 
flock  to  his  standard.  Strahan,  one  of  the  generals  of  the  Cove- 
nanters, fell  unexpectedly  on  Montrose,  who  had  no  horse  to  bring 
bini  intelligence.  The  royalists  were  put  to  flight,  all  of  them  were 
either  killed  or  taken  prisoners,  and  Montrose  himself,  having  put 
on  the  disguise  of  a  peasant,  was  perfidiously  delivered  into  the 
hands  of  his  enemies  by  a  friend,  named  Aston,  to  whom  he  had 
intrusted  4i8  person.    In  this  disguise  he  was  carried  to  Edinburgh^ 


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A.D  1650.  CHAliLES   II.   IN   SCOTLAND.  431 

amid  the  insults  of  his  enemies;  when  he  was  tried  and  con- 
demned by  the  parliament,  and  hanged  with  every  c'rcumstanoe  of 
ignominy  and  cruelty  (May  21, 1650). 

In  this  extremity  Charles  set  sail  for  Scotland ;  but  beforo  ho 
was  permitted  to  land  he  was  required  to  sign  the  Covenant. 
Many  sermons  and  lectures  were  made  to  him,  exhorting  him  to 
persevere  in  that  holy  confederacy.  He  soon  found  that  he  was 
considered  as  a  mere  pageant  of  state,  and  that  the  few  remains 
of  royalty  which  he  possessed  served  only  to  draw  on  him  the 
greater  indignities.  He  was  constrained  by  the  Covenanters  to 
issue  a  declaration,  wherein  he  desired  to  be  deeply  humbled  and 
afflicted  in  spirit,  because  of  his  father's  opposing  the  Covenant  and 
shedding  the  blood  of  Grod's  people  throughout  his  dominions ;  he 
lamented  the  idolatry  of  his  mother,  and  the  toleration  of  it  in  his 
fi&ther's  house ;  and  professed  that  he  would  have  no  enemies  but 
the  enemies  of  the  Covenant.  Still  the  Covenanters  and  the  clergy 
were  diffident  of  his  sincerity ;  and  he  found  his  authority  entirely 
annihilated,  as  well  as  his  character  degraded.  He  was  consulted 
in  no  public  measure;  and  his  favour  was  sufficient  to  discredit 
any  pretender  to  office  or  advancement. 

As  soon  as  the  English  parliament  found  that  the  treaty  between 
the  king  and  the  Scots  would  probably  terminate  in  an  accommo- 
dation, they  made  preparations  for  a  war,  which,  they  saw,  would 
in  the  end  prove  inevitable.  Cromwell,  having  broken  the  force 
and  courage  of  the  Irish,  was  sent  for ;  and  he  left  the  command  of 
Ireland  to  Ireton.  It  was  expected  that  Fairfax,  who  still  retained 
the  name  of  general,  would  continue  to  act  against  Scotland.  But 
he  entertained  insurmountable  scruples  against  invading  the  Scots, 
whom  he  considered  as  united  to  England  by  the  sacred  bands  of 
the  Covenant.  Accordingly,  he  resigned  his  commission,  which 
was  bestowed  on  Cromwell,  who  was  declared  captain-general  of  all 
the  forces  in  England.  Cromwell  crossed  the  Tweed  (July  16),  and 
entered  Scotland  with  an  army  of  16,000  men.  Leslie,  the  Scotch 
general,  entrenched  himself  in  a  fortified  camp  between  Edinburgh 
and  Leith,  and  took  care  to  remove  everything  from  the  country 
which  could  serve  for  the  subsistence  of  the  English  army.  Crom- 
well, who  had  advanced  to  the  Scottish  camp,  and  vainly  en- 
deavoured to  bring  Leslie  to  a  battle,  began  to  be  in  want  of 
provisions,  which  reached  him  only  by  sea.  He  therefore  retired 
to  Dunbar.  Leslie  followed  him,  and  encamped  on  Down  Hill, 
which  overlooked  that  town.  There  lay  many  difficult  passes 
between  Dunbar  and  Berwick,  and  of  these  Leslie  had  taken  pos- 
session. The  English  general  was  reduced  to  extremities.  He  had 
even  embraced  a  resolution  of  sending  by  sea  all  his  foot  and 


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482  THE  OOMMONWEALTH.  Chap.  Tgm 

artillery  to  England,  and  of  breaking  through,  at  all  hazards,  with 
his  cavalry.  The  madnees  of  the  Scottish  ecclesiagtics  sayed  him 
from  this  loss  and  dishonour.  Night  and  day  the  ministers  had 
been  wrestling  with  the  Lord  in  prayer,  as  they  termed  it ;  and 
they  fancied  that  the  sectarian  and  heretical  army,  together  widi 
Agag,  meaning  Cromwell,  was  delivered  into  their  hands.  Upon 
the  faith  of  these  visions,  they  forced  their  general,  in  spite  of  his 
remonstrances,  to  descend  into  the  plain,  with  the  view  of  attack- 
ing the  English  in  their  retreat.  Cromwell  saw  the  Scots  in 
motion,  and  their  lioe  widely  and  loosely  extended ;  and  exdwn- 
ing  (as  some  say^  **  The  Lord  hath  delivered  them  into  our 
hands! "  gave  orders  for  the  attack  (September  3, 1650).  Unable 
to  close  their  ranks,  the  Soots,  though  double  in  number  to  the 
English,  were  totally  defeated  and  pursued  with  great  slaughter.  No 
victory  could  have  been  more  complete.  About  8000  of  the  enemy 
were  slain,  and  9000  taken  prisoners.  Cromwell  pursued  his  advan- 
tage, and  took  possession  of  Edinburgh  and  Leith.  The  remnant 
of  the  Scottish  army  fled  to  Stirling.  The  approach  of  the  wint^ 
season,  and  an  ague  whioh  seized  Cromwell,  kept  him  from  pushing 
the  victory  further. 

§  4.  This  defeat  of  the  Soots  was  not  unacceptable  to  the  royalists. 
Charles  was  crowned  at  Scone  (January  1, 1651)  with  great  pomp 
and  solemnity.  But  amidst  all  this  ap|)earance  of  respect,  Charles 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  most  rigid  Covenanters,  and  was 
little  better  than  a  prisoner.  As  soon  as  the  season  would  permit, 
the  Scottish  army  was  assembled  under  Hamilton  and  Leslie ;  and 
the  king  was  allowed  to  join  the  camp  before  Stirling.  Cromwell, 
having  failed  to  bring  Uie  Scottish  generals  to  an  engagement, 
crossed  the  Forth,  and  took  Perth,  the  seat  of  government 
(August  2). 

Charles  now  embraced  a  resolution  worthy  of  a  young  prince  con- 
tending for  empire.  Having  the  way  open,  he  resolved  immediately 
to  march  into  England,  and  persuadeil  most  of  the  generals  to  enter 
into  the  same  views.  But  Argyle  obtained  perrai8SK>n  to  retire  to 
his  own  home.  The  army,  to  the  number  of  14,000  men,  rose  from 
their  camp,  and  advanced  by  great  journeys  towards  the  south 
(July  31).  Cromwell  was  surprised  at  this  movt^nient  of  the  royal 
army ;  but  he  quickly  repaired  his  oversight  by  his  vigilance  and 
activity,  and,  leaving  Monk  with  7000  men  to  complete  the  reduction 
of  Scotland,  he  followed  the  king  with  all  possible  expedition. 

Charles  found  himself  disappointed  in  his  expectations  of  increas- 
ing his  army.  The  Soots,  terrified  at  the  prospect  of  so  hazardous 
an  enterprise,  fell  off  in  great  numbers.  The  English  presbyterians 
and  royalists,  having  no  warning  given  them  of  the  king's  iq^icoach, 


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A.D.  1650-1651.   FUaHT  AND  ESCAPE  OF  CHABLBS.        483 

were  not  prepared  to  join  him.  When  he  arriyed  at  Worcester  he 
found  that  his  forces,  extremely  harassed  hy  a  hasty  and  fatiguing 
march,  were  not  more  numerous  than  when  he  rose  from  his  camp  at 
Stirling.  With  an  army  of  ahout  30,000  men,  Cromwell  fell  upon 
Worcester  (August  28),  and,  attacking  it  on  all  sides,  after  a 
desperate  resistance  of  four  or  five  hours,  hroke  in  upon  the  dis- 
ordered royalists  (September  3).  The  streets  of  the  city  were 
strewed  with  dead.  The  whole  Scottish  army  was  either  killed 
or  taken  prisoners.  Fifteen  hundred  were  sold  for  slaves.  The 
country  people,  inflamed  with  national  antipathy,  put  to  death 
the  few  that  escaped  from  the  field  of  battle. 

The  king  left  Worcester  at  six  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and, 
without  halting,  travelled  about  26  miles,  in  company  with  50  or 
60  of  his  friends.  To  provide  for  his  safety,  he  thought  it  best  to 
separate  himself  from  his  companions;  and  he  left  them  without 
conmiunicating  his  intentions  to  any  of  them.  By  the  earl  of 
Derby *8  advice,  he  went  to  Boscobel,  a  lone  house,  on  the  borders  of 
Staffordshire,  inhabited  by  one  Penderell,  a  farmer.  To  this  nuin 
Charles  intrusted  himself.  Though  death  was  denounced  against 
nil  who  concealed  the  king,  and  a  great  reward  promised  to  any  one 
who  should  betray  him,  he  maintained  unshaken  fidelity.*  He 
took  the  assistance  of  his  four  brothers,  equally  honourable  with 
himself;  and,  having  clothed  the  king  in  a  garb  like  their  own,  they 
led  him  to  the  neighbouring  wood,  put  a  bill  into  his  hand,  and 
pretended  to  employ  themselves  in  cutting  fiiggots.  Some  nights 
Charles  lay  upon  straw  in  the  house,  and  fed  on  such  homely 
fare  as  it  afforded.  For  better  concealment,  he  mounted  an  oak, 
where  he  sheltered  himself  among  the  leaves  and  branches  for  24 
hours.  He  saw  several  soldiers  pass  by.  All  of  them  were  intent 
on  searching  for  the  king ;  and  some  expressed,  in  his  hearing,  their 
earnest  wishes  of  seizing  him.  This  tree  was  afterwards  deuominated 
the  BoycU  Oak,  and  for  many  years  was  regarded  by  the  neighbour- 
hood with  great  veneration.  Charles  passed  through  many  other 
adventxires,  assumed  different  disguises,  in  every  step  was  exposed 
to  imminent  perils,  and  received  daily  proofs  of  uncorrupted  fidelity 
and  attachment.  The  sagacity  of  a  smith,  who  remarked  that  his 
horse's  shoe  had  been  made  in  the  north,  not  in  the  west,  as  he 
pretended,  once  detected  him,  and  he  narrowly  escaped.  At  Shore- 
ham,  in  Sussex,  a  vessel  was  at  last  found,  in  which  he  embarked, 
and  after  41  day^'  concealment  he  arrived  safely  at  Fecamp  in 
Normandy  (October  17).  No  fewer  than  40  men  and  women  had, 
at  different  times,  been  privy  to  his  concealment  and  escape. 

*  Two  of  th«  deMeDdanU  of  this  family  eUll  noaire  pcmioni  for  their  Mrv'cea  on 
this  oocuion. 


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434  THE  COMMONWEALTH.  Chap,  xxiiil 

f  6.  Notwithstaudhig  the  late  wars  and  bloodshed,  and  the  present 
fiu^ions,  the  prowess  of  England  had  never,  in  any  period,  appeared 
more  formidable  to  the  neighbouring  kingdoms  than  it  did  at  this 
time,  llie  right  of  peace  and  war  was  lodged  in  the  same  hands 
with  the  power  of  imposing  taxes ;  a  numerous  and  well-disciplined 
army  was  on  foot ;  and  excellent  officers  were  found  in  every  branch 
of  service.  The  confusion  into  which  all  things  had  been  thrown 
had  given  opportunity  to  men  of  low  stations  to  break  through 
their  obscurity,  and  to  raise  themselves  by  their  valour  to  com- 
mands which  they  were  well  qualified  to  exerdse,  but  to  which 
their  birth  could  never  have  entitled  them.  Blake,  a  man  of  great 
courage  and  generous  disposition,  who  had  defended  Lyme  and 
Taunton  with  unshaken  obstinacy  against  the  late  king,  was  made 
an  admiral ;  and  though  he  had  hitherto  been  accustomed  only  to 
land-service,  into  which  he  had  not  entered  till  past  50  years 
of  age,  he  soon  raised  the  naval  glnry  of  the  nation  to  a  greater 
hoght  than  it  had  ever  attained  in  any  former  period.  A  fleet  was 
put  under  his  command,  with  which  he  chased  into  the  Tagus 
prince  Rupert,  to  whom  the  king  had  intrusted  that  squadron  which 
had  deserted  to  him.  The  king  of  Portugal  having  refused  Blake 
admittance  and  aided  prince  Rupert  in  making  his  escape,  the 
English  admiral  made  prize  of  20  Portuguese  ships  richly  laden ; 
and  he  threatened  still  further  vengeance.  The  king  of  Portugal, 
dreading  so  dangerous  a  foe  to  his  newly  acquired  dominion,  made 
all  possible  submission  to  the  haughty  republic,  and  was  at  last 
admitted  to  negociate  for  a  renewal  of  his  alliance.* 

All  the  settlements  in  America,  except  New  England,  which  had 
been  planted  entirely  by  the  puritans,  adhered  to  the  royal  party, 
even  after  the  settlement  of  the  republic,  but  were  soon  subdued. 
With  equal  ease  Jersey,  GKiemsey,  Scilly,  and  the  Isle  of  Man,  w«re 
brought  under  subjection ;  and  the  sea,  which  had  been  much 
infested  by  privateers  from  these  islands,  was  rendered  safe  to 
English  commerce.  The  countess  of  Derby  defended  the  Isle  of 
Man,  and  with  great  reluctance  yielded  to  unavoidable  necessity 
(November,  1661).  Ireton,  the  new  deputy  of  Ireland,  at  the  head 
of  an  army  30,000  strong,  prosecuted  the  work  of  subduing  the 
revolted  Irish ;  and  he  defeated  them  in  many  encounters,  which, 
though  of  themselves  of  no  great  moment,  proved  fatal  to  their 
declining  cause.  He  died  of  the  plague  at  Limerick,  after  he  had 
captured  that  town  (November,  1651).  The  command  of  the  army 
in  Ireland  devolved  on  lieutenant-general  Ludlow.  The  civil 
government  of  the  island  was  intrusted  to  four  commissioners, 

*  The  fleet  oommanded  1^  BUka  lud,  for  the  most  part,  been  bailt  bj  Charlet  I, 
out  of  the  sbip-moiiey. 


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AJ>.  1651.  DUTCH  WAR.  435 

whose  chief  concern  was  to  dispossess  the  native  Irish  of  thdr  pro- 
perty, and  confer  it  on  English  settlers.*  Thousands  embraced 
voluntary  exile;  others,  especially  women  and  children,  were 
shipped  to  the  American  plantations;  those  who  remained  were 
driven  from  the  more  fertile  districts  into  Connaught,  and  their 
lands  were  distributed  amongst  the  parliamentary  t^oldiers. 

The  successes  which  attended  Monk  in  Scotland  were  no  less 
decisive.  After  taking  Stirling  Castle  (whence  the  national  records 
and  regalia  were  conveyed  to  London),  and  gaining  other  advan- 
tages, he  carried  Dimdee  by  assault ;  and,  following  the  example  of 
Cromwell,  put  all  the  inhabitants,  consisting  of  800,  to  the  sword 
(September  1,  1651).  Warned  by  this  example,  Aberdeen,  St. 
Andrews,  Inverness,  and  other  towns  and  forts,  yielded,  of  their 
own  accord,  to  the  enemy.  Argyle  made  his  submission  to  the 
English  commonwealth;  and  Scotland,  which  had  hitherto,  by 
means  of  its  situation,  poverty,  and  valour,  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence, was  reduced  to  total  subjection.  The  English  parliament 
sent  sir  Harry  Vane,  St.  John,  and  other  commissioners,  to  settle 
that  kingdom.  Estates  were  confiscated,  taxes  imposed,  the  people 
disarmed,  their  preachers  silenced;  and,  to  carry  out  more  com- 
pletely this  appearance  of  national  humiliation,  English  judges  were 
appointed  to  administer  the  laws. 

§  6.  By  the  total  reduction  and  pacification  of  the  British 
dominions,  the  parliament  had  leisure  to  look  abroad,  and  to  exert 
their  vigour  in  foreign  enterprises.  The  Dutch  were  the  first  that 
felt  the  weight  of  their  arms.  After  the  death,  in  1650,  of 
William,  prince  of  Orange,  who  had  married  Mary,  daughter  of 
Charles  I.,  and  whose  policy  had  been  favourable  to  the  royal 
cause,  the  parliament  thought  that  the  time  had  arrived  for  cement- 
ing a  closer  confederacy  with  the  Dutch  repubhcan  party,  which 
was  now  in  the  ascendant.  St.  John,  chief  justice,  who  was  sent 
over  to  the  Hague,  had  entertained  the  idea  of  forming  a  kind  of 
coalition  between  the  two  republics  ^  but  the  States  offered  only 
to  renew  the  former  alliances  with  England.  The  haughty  St. 
John,  disgusted  with  this  disappointment,  as  well  as  incensed 
by  many  affronts  which  had  been  offered  him  with  impunity  by  the 
retainers  of  the  palatine  and  Orange  families,  and  indeed  by  the 
populace  in  general,  returned  into  England,  and,  by  his  iufluence 
over  Cromwell,  determined  the  parliament  to  change  the  proposed 
alliance  into  a  furious  war  against  the  United  Provinces.  To  cover 
these  hostile  intentions  the  parliament  embraced  such  measures  as 
they  knew  would  give  disgust  to  the  States.  They  framed  the 
famous  act  of  navigation  (October  9,  1661),  by  which  all  nationi 
were  prohibited  from  importing  mto  England  any  goods,  except 


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486  THE  OOMMOirWSALTH.  OsukP.  zxm. 

in  English  bottoms,  cr  in  the  Teseels  of  the  county  where  the 
goods  were  produced.  *  By  this  law  the  Dutch  were  ■  principally 
affected,  because  they  subsisted  chiefly  by  being  the  general  carriers 
and  factors  of  Europe.  Letters  of  reprisal  were  granted,  to  several 
merchants,  who  complained  of  injuries,  and  above  80  Dutch  ships 
were  made  prizes.  Tromp,  an  admiral  of  great  renown,  with  a 
fleet  of  42  sail,  being  forced  by  stress  of  weather,  as  he  alleged,  to 
take  shelter  in  the  roads  of  Dover,  there  met  with  Blake,  who  oom- 
manded  an  Fngliwh  fleet  much  inferior  in  number.  Who  was  the 
aggressor  in  the  action  which  ensued  between  these  two  admirals, 
both  of  them  men  of  such  prompt  and  fiery  dispositions,  it  is  not 
easy  to  determine.  Blake,  though  his  squadron  consisted  only  of 
15  vessels,  reinforced,  after  the  battle  began,  by  eight  more  imder 
captain  Bourne,  maintained  the  fight  with  bravery  for  five  hours, 
and  sunk  one  ship  of  the  enemy,  and  took  another  (May  19, 1652). 
Night  parted  the  combatants,  and  the  Dutch  fleet  retired  towards 
the  coast  of  Holland.  The  Dutch  despatched  their  pensionary 
Pauw  to  conciliate  matters ;  but  the  imperious  parliament  would 
hearken  to  no  explanations  or  remonstrances.  They  demanded 
that,  without  any  further  delay  or  inquiry,  reparation  should  be 
made  for  all  the  damages  which  the  English  had  sustained.  When 
this  demand  was  not  complied  with,  they  despatched  orders  f<Hr 
commencing  war  against  the  United  Provinces  (July  8).  Several 
naval  engagements  followed.  Sir  Qeorge  Ayscue,  though  he  com- 
manded only  40  ships,  engaged,  near  Plymouth,  the  famous  De 
Ruyter,  who  had  under  him  50  ships  of  war,  with  30  merchantmen 
(August  10).  Night  parted  them  in  the  greatest  heat  of  the 
action.  De  Ruyter  next  day  sailed  off  with  his  convoy.  The 
English  fleet  had  been  so  shattered  in  the  fight,  that  it  was  not 
able  to  pursue.  Near  the  coast  of  Kent,  Blake,  seconded  by  Bourne 
and  Penn,  met  a  Dutch  squadron  nearly  equal  in  numbers,  com- 
manded by  De  Witt  and  De  Ruyter  (September  28).  A  battle  was 
fought  much  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Dutch.  Their  rear-admiral's 
ship  was  boarded  and  taken.  Two  other  vessels  were  sunk,  and  one 
blown  up.  The  Dutch  next  day  made  sail  towards  Holland.  On 
November  28,  Tromp,  seconded  by  De  Ruyter,  met,  near  the 
Goodwins,  with  Blake,  whose  fleet  was  inferior  to  the  Dutch,  but 
who  resolved  not  to  decline  the  combat.  In  this  action  the  Dutch 
had  the  advantage,  and  Blake  himself  was  wounded.  After  this 
victory,  Tromp,  in  bravado,  fixed  a  broom  to  his  mainmast,  as  if 
he  were  resolved  to  sweep  ike  sea  entirely  of  all  English  vessels. 

In  order  to  wipe  off  tiiis  disgrace,  great  preparations  were  made 
in  England.  A  gallant  fleet  of  80  sail  was  fitted  out  Blak« 
•ommanded,  with  Monk  under  him,  who  had  been  sent  for  fix>m 


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▲J).  1^2-1658.  CROMWELL  EXP£LS  THE  PABLTAMKNT.  437 

Scotland.  When  the  English  lay  off  Toriland  (February  18, 1653), 
they  deecried,  near  break  of  day,  a  Dutch  fleet  of  78  yessels  sailing 
up  the  Channel,  along  with  a  convoy  of  300  merchantmen.  Tromp, 
and  under  him  De  Ruyter,  commanded  the  Dutch.  This  battle 
was  the  most  furious  that  had  yet  been  fought  between  these  war- 
like and  rival  nations.  Three  days  was  the  combat  continued  with 
the  utmost  rage  and  obstinacy ;  and  Blake,  who  was  victor,  gained 
not  more  honour  than  Tromp,  who  was  vanquished.  The  Dutch 
admiral  made  a  skilful  retreat,  and  saved  all  the  merchant-ships 
except  30.  He  lost,  however,  11  ships  of  war,  had  2000  men  slain« 
and  near  1500  taken  prisoners.  The  English,  though  many  of  their 
ships  were  extremely  shattered,  had  but  one  sui^  Their  slain 
were  not  much  inferior  in  number  to  those  of  the  enemy. 

§  7.  Meanwhile  the  parliament,  no  longer  apprehensive  of  domestic 
war,  had  proposed,  at  the  close  of  1651,  to  reduce  the  number  of  the 
army.  In  1652  they  attempted  to  carry  this  project  into  execution. 
Cromwell,  perceiving  that  the  parliament  entertained  a  jealousy  of 
his  power  and  ambition,  and  was  resolved  to  bring  him  to  sub- 
ordination under  its  authority,  determined  to  prevent  it.  The 
same  year  he  summoned  a  general  council  of  officers,  in  which  it 
was  voted  to  frame  a  remonstrance  to  parliament  (August  13) 
After  complaining  of  the  arrears  due  to  the  army,  they  desired  the 
parliament  to  reflect  how  many  years  it  had  sat,  and  that  it 
was  now  full  time  for  it  to  give  place  to  others.  They  therefore 
desired  it  to  summon  a  new  parliament,  and  establish  that  free 
and  equal  government  which  it  had  so  long  promised  the  people. 
The  parliament  took  this  remonstrance  in  ill  part,  and  much  alter- 
cation ensued  (March,  1653).  At  last,  Cromwdl  being  informed 
that  it  had  come  to  a  resolution  not  to  dissolve,  but  to  fill  up 
the  house  by  new  elections,  immediately  hastened  thither,  and 
carried  with  him  a  body  of  300  soldiers.  Some  of  them  he 
placed  at  the  door,  some  in  the  lobby,  some  on  the  stairs.  He 
first  addressed  himself  to  his  friend  St.  John,  and  told  him  that 
be  had  come  with  a  purpose  of  doing  what  grieved  him  to  the  very 
8()ul,  and  what  he  had  earnestly  with  tears  besought  the  Lord  not 
to  impose  upon  him ;  but  there  was  a  necessity,  in  order  to  the 
glory  of  6K)d  and  good  of  the  nation.  He  then  sat  down  for  some 
time,  and  heard  the  debate.  Presently  he  beckoned  Harrison,  and 
told  him  that  he  now  judged  the  parliament  ripe  for  dissolution. 
"  Sir,"  said  Harrison,  "  the  work  is  very  great  and  dangerous ;  I 
desire  you  seriously  to  consider,  before  you  engage  in  it.**  "  You 
say  well,"  replied  the  general;  and  thereupon  sat  still  about  a 
quarter  of  an  hour.  When  the  question  was  ready  to  be  |>ut,  he 
said  again  to  Harrison,  **  This  is  the  time :  I  must  do  it.**    And 


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438  THE  COMMONWEALTH.  Chap.  zzm. 

suddenly  starting  up,  he  commenced  in  a  tone  of  forced  fiftlTnn<»««, 
but  ended  in  loading  the  parliament  with  the  vilest  reproaches,  for 
their  tyranny,  oppres»ion,  and  robbery.  Then  stamping  with  his 
foot,  which  was  a  signal  for  the  soldiers  to  enter,  "  For  shame," 
said  he  to  the  members,  "get  you  gone;  give  place  to  honester 
men ;  to  those  who  will  more  faithfully  discharge  their  trust.  You 
are  no  longer  a  parliament :  I  toll  you,  you  are  no  longer  a  parlia- 
ment The  Lord  has  done  with  you.  He  has  chosen  other  instru- 
ments for  carrying  on  His  work.'*  Sir  Harry  Vane  exclaiming 
against  this  proceeding,  he  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  **  0  sir  Harry 
Vane,  sir  Harry  Vane  !  The  Lord  deliver  me  from  sir  Harry  Vane ! " 
Taking  hold  of  Martin  by  the  cloak,  "  Thou  art  a  whoremaster," 
said  he.  To  another,  "  Thou  art  an  adulterer."  To  a  third,  "  Thou 
art  a  drunkard  and  a  glutton ;  "  "  And  thou  an  extortioner,"  to  a 
foiuth.  He  then  commanded  a  soldier  to  seize  the  mace.  '*  What 
shall  we  do  with  this  fool's  bauble  ?  Here,  take  it  away.  It  is  you," 
said  he,  addressing  himself  to  the  house,  **  that  have  forced  me  upon 
this.  I  have  sought  the  Lord  night  and  day,  that  He  would  rather 
slay  me  than  put  mc  upon  this  work."  Having  commanded  the 
soldiers  to  clear  the  hall,  he  himself  went  out  the  last,  and, 
ordering  the  doors  to  be  locked,  departed  to  his  lodgings  in  White- 
hall (April  20,  1653).  To  such  ignominy  was  the  celebrated  Long 
Parliament  reduced. 

As  the  Rump  was  hated,  the  indignation  entertained  by  the  people 
against  this  manifest  usurpation  was  not  so  violent  as  might  have 
been  expected.  Congratulatory  addresses,  the  first  of  the  kind,  were 
made  to  Cromwell  by  the  fleet,  by  the  army,  even  by  many  of  the 
chief  corporations  and  counties  of  England ;  but  especially  by  the 
several  congregations  of  saints  or  independents  dispersed  throughout 
the  kingdom. 

§  8.  Cromwell,  however,  thought  it  requi^te  to  establish  some- 
thing which  might  bear  the  face  of  a  commonwealth ;  and  without 
any  more  ceremony,  he  formed  himself,  with  eight  others  of  his 
officers  and  four  civilians,  into  a  council  of  state.  By  their  advice 
he  sent  summonses  to  1-8  persons  of  different  towns  and  counties 
in  England,  to  five  of  Scotland,  and  to  six  of  Ireland  (June  8).  He 
pretended,  by  his  sole  act  and  deed,  to  devolve  upon  them  the  whole 
authority  of  the  state.  This  legislative  power  they  were  to  exercise 
during  15  months,  and  they  were  afterwards  to  choose  the  same 
number  of  persons  who  might  succeed  them  in  that  high  and  im- 
portant office.  In  this  as^mbly,  which  voted  themselves  a  parlia- 
ment (July  4),  were  many  persons  of  the  rank  of  gentlemen ;  but 
the  greater  part  were  fifth  monarchy  men,  anabaptists,  and  in- 
dependents.   They  b^an  with  seeking  God  by  prayer.    They  con- 


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AJ).  1655.        CROBffWELL  APPOINTED  PKOTECTOB.  439 

templated  some  extraordinary  schemes  of  legislation,  but  had  not 
leisure  to  finish  any,  except  that  which  established  the  legal 
solemnization  of  marriage  by  the  civil  magistrate  alone.  Among 
the  fanatics  of  the  house  there  was  an  active  member,  much 
noted  for  his  long  prayers,  sermons,  and  harangues.  He  was  a 
leather-seller  in  London,  named  Praise^Ood  Barebone.  This 
ridiculous  name  struck  the  fiincy  of  the  people,  and  they  commonly 
called  this  assembly  Barebone^s  ParliamentfOT  the  Little  Parliament. 
The  parliament  was  obsequious  enough.  Besides  the  executive, 
it  transferred  the  highest  judicial  powers  to  Cromwell  and  his 
council.  It  abrogated  the  high  court  of  chancery  (August  5). 
It  constituted  a  new  high  commission  court  in  the  form  of  a 
high  court  of  justice  for  trials  of  offenders  against  the  common- 
wealth (August  10).  It  empowered  the  council  of  state  to  revise 
acts  of  treason.  To  put  an  end  to  this  force  of  government,  it  re- 
solved (December  13)  that,  as  its  further  sitting  was  no  longer  for 
the  good  of  the  commonwealth,  it  was  requisite  to  deliver  up  to 
the  lord-general,  Cromwell,  the  powers  it  had  received  from  him. 
This  was  formally  proposed  by  Sydenham,  an  independent.  Rous, 
the  speaker,  who  was  one  of  Sydenham's  party,  forthwith  left 
the  chair,  followed  by  several  members,  and  the  few  who  remained 
in  the  house  were  ejected  by  colonel  White,  with  a  pa'-ty  of 
soldiers.  Cromwell  at  first  refused  the  offer  ;  but  the  resignation 
of  their  powers  being  signed  by  the  majority  of  the  house,  he 
accepted  the  trust,  and  a  deed  was  drawn  up,  called  the  Instru- 
ment of  Oovernmentj  which  received  the  approval  of  the  council 
of  officers.  By  this  instrument  Cromwell  received  the  title  of 
"  His  Highness  the  Lord  Protector "  (December  16),  and  a  council 
was  appointed  of  not  more  than  21,  nor  less  than  13  persons,  who 
were  to  enjoy  their  office  during  life  or  good  behaviour.  The 
legislative  power  was  vested  in  the  protector  and  a  parliament. 
The  protector  was  bound  to  summon  a  parliament  every  three 
years,  and  allow  them  to  sit  five  months,  without  adjournment, 
prorogation,  or  dissolution.  The  bills  which  they  passed  were  to 
be  presented  to  the  protector  for  his  assent;  but  if  within  20 
days  it  were  not  obtained,  they  were  to  become  laws  by  the 
authority  of  parliament  alone.  The  number  of  members  was 
determined  at  400  for  England,  and  30  each  for  Scotland  and 
Ireland.  A  standing  army  of  20,000  foot  and  10,000  horse  was 
established  for  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  funds  were  as- 
8i.zned  for  its  support.  The  protector  was  to  enjoy  his  office  during 
life,  to  treat  with  foreign  states,  and  make  peace  or  war  with  the 
assent  of  his  council.  He  had  the  disposal  of  the  military  and 
naval  power,  and  the  appointment  of  great  officers  of  state,  with 


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440  THE  COMMONWEALTH.  Chap  zxis. 

the  oonsent  of  parliament.  Penally,  on  his  death  the  place  was 
immediately  to  be  supplied  by  the  council.  Thus,  in  fact,  the 
sovereign  authority  of  which  parFiament  had  deprived  the  king 
was  transferred  to  the  protector  and  the  general  of  its  armies. 
With  such  a  power  at  his  back,  the  authority  of  the  protector 
was  virtually  and  practically  absolute,  and  the  forms  of  the  con- 
stitution depended  solely  on  nis  will. 

§  9.  In  spite  of  these  distracted  scenes,  the  military  prowess  of 
England  was  exerted  with  vigour ;  and  never  did  it  appear  more 
formidable  to  foreign  nations.  The  English  fleet  gained  several 
victories  over  the  Dutch,  in  the  last  of  which  Tromp,  while 
gallantly  animating  his  men,  was  shot  through  the  heart  with  a 
musket  ball  (July  31,  1653).     Monk  and  Penn  commanded  in 


MedAl  given  for  eerrloe  in  the  Mtioa  with  the  Dutch,  July  31, 1653.  Obv. :  a  oaral 
battle:  above,  fob  sximuiT  skbvicb  in  bavixo  t  TRnrvpH  ftbrsd  ik  pioht  wh  t 
DvcH  nr  ivLT  1663.    Rev. :  arms  of  the  three  kingdoms  suspended  on  an  anchor. 

this  engagement,  Blake  being  ill  on  shore.  The  States,  over- 
whelmed with  the  expense  of  the  war,  terrified  by  their  losses  and 
defeats,  were  extremely  desirous  of  an  accommodation ;  and  a  peace 
was  at  last  signed  by  Cromwell  (April  5, 1654).  A  defensive  league 
was  made  between  the  two  republics,  and  the  honour  of  the  flag  was 
yielded  to  the  English. 

§  10.  The  new  parliament  summoned  by  the  protector  met  on 
September  3,  1654.  The  elections  had  been  conducted  agreeably 
to  the  instrument  of  government,  and  precautions  were  taken  to 
form  a  house  subservient  to  the  wishes  of  the  protector.  All  persons 
who  had  in  any  way  assisted  the  king,  presbyterians,  episcopalians, 
or  royalists,  were  declaied  incapable  of  serving.  The  smaller 
boroughs   were   deprived  of    the   franchise.     Of   400    members. 


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AJ>.  1654-1655.     CBOMWELL'S  FIBST  PARLIAMENT.  441 

which  leprasented  England,  250  were  chosen  by  the  counties; 
the  rest  were  elected  by  London  and  the  more  considerable  cor- 
porations. The  lower  populace,  as  easily  guided  or  deceived,  were 
excluded  from  the  elections.  An  estate  of  200L  value  was  necessary 
to  entitle  any  one  to  a  vote.  Further,  in  imitation  of  the  old  regal 
practice,  Cromwell  and  his  officers  nominated  144  of  the  members 
for  the  united  knigdoms,  including  themselves. 

But  the  protecror  soon  found  that  he  did  not  possess  the  con- 
fidence of  this  parliamenL  Having  heard  his  speech,  three  hours 
long,  and  chosen  Lenthall  for  their  speaker,  they  immediately 
entered  into  a  discussion  of  the  pretended  instrument  of  govern- 
ment, and  of  that  authority  which  Cromwell,  by  the  title  of 
protector,  had  assumed  over  the  nation.  The  greatest  liberty  was 
used  in  arraigning  this  new  dignity ;  and  even  the  personal 
character  and  conduct  of  Cromwell  escaped  not  without  censure. 
The  protector  was  surprised  and  enraged  at  this  refractory  spirit. 
On  September  12  he  had  the  parliament  doors  locked  and 
guarded,  and  sending  for  the  members  to  the  painted  chamber, 
with  an  air  of  great  authority  inveighed  against  their  conduct.  He 
told  them  that  he  had  received  his  office  from  Ood  and  the  people, 
and  none  but  Gbd  and  the  people  should  take  it  from  him — un- 
consciously admitting  that  parliament,  though  mainly  of  his  own 
choice,  did  not  represent  the  people.  It  was  not  to  be  expected, 
he  added,  that  when  he  assured  them  that  they  were  a  free  parlia- 
ment, they  were  free  in  any  other  sense  than  as  they  should  act 
under  that  government  He  was  im willing  to  violate  their  privileges, 
but  necessity  had  no  law.  If  he  had  studied  to  devise  a  justification 
for  Charles  I.,  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  him  to  have  found 
words  more  significant  or  more  appropriate.  He  then  obliged  the 
members  to  sign  an  agreement  in  recognition  of  his  authority.  A 
hundred  of  the  members  reflised ;  the  rest,  after  some  hesitation, 
submitted  •  but  retaining  the  same  independent  spirit  which  they 
had  discovered  in  their  first  debates,  Cromwell  dissolved  the  house 
in  a  confused  and  angry  harangue  (January  22, 1665). 

The  discontent  discovered  by  this  parliament  encouraged  the 
royalists  to  attempt  an  insurrection,  which  was  soon  put  down, 
and  served  only  to  strengthen  Cromwell's  government.  He. issued 
an  edict  (October,  1655),  with  the  consent  of  his  council,  for  ex- 
acting the  tenth  penny  from  the  royalists,  in  order,  as  he  pretended, 
to  make  them  pay  the  expenses  to  which  their  mutmous  disposition 
continually  exposed  the  nation.  To  raise  this  imposition,  which 
commonly  passed  by  the  name  of  decimation,  the  protector  ap- 
pointed 1 2  major-generals,  and  divided  the  whole  kingdom  of  England 
into  80  many  military  jurisdictions.    These  men,  assisted  by  com- 


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4!42  THE  COMMONWEALTH.  Chap,  xxui 

missioDers,  had  power  to  subject  whom  they  pleased  to  decimation, 
to  levy  all  the  taxes  imposed  by  the  protector  and  his  oouncil,  and 
to  imprison  any  person  who  should  be  exposed  to  their  jealousy  or 
suspicion ;  nor  was  there  any  appeal  from  them  but  to  the  protector 
himself  and  his  council.  In  short,  they  acted  as  if  absolute  masters 
of  the  property  and  person  of  every  subject. 

Meanwhile  the  resentment  displayed  by  the  English  parliament 
at  the  protection  afforded  by  France  to  Charles,  induced  that  court 
to  change  its  measures.  Anne  of  Austria  had  become  regent  of 
France,  in  the  minority  of  her  son  Louis  XIV.,  and  cardinal 
Mazarin  had  succeeded  Richelieu  in  the  ministry.  Charles  was 
treated  by  them  with  so  much  neglect  and  indifference,  that  he 
thought  it  more  decent  to  withdraw,  and  prevent  the  indignity  of 
being  desired  to  leave  the  kingdom.  He  went  first  to  Spa,  thence 
he  retired  to  Cologne,  where  he  lived  two  years  on  a  small  pension 
paid  him  by  the  court  of  France,  and  on  some  contributions  sent 
him  by  his  friends  in  England. 

The  French  ministry  deemed  it  still  more  necessary  to  pay  defer- 
ence to  the  protector  when  he  assumed  the  reins  of  government. 
They  were  now  at  war  with  Spain,  and  wished  to  defeat  the  in- 
trigues of  that  court,  which,  being  reduced  to  greater  distress  than 
the  French  monarchy,  had  been  still  more  forward  in  their  advances 
to  the  prosperous  parliament  and  protector.  Cromwell  resolved  for 
several  reasons  to  unite  his  arms  to  those  of  France.  The  extensive 
empire  and  yet  extreme  weakness  of  Spain  in  the  West  Indies,  the 
vigorous  courage  and  great  naval  power  of  England,  made  him 
hope  that  he  might,  by  some  gainful  conquest,  render  for  ever 
illustrious  that  dominion  which  he  had  assumed  over  his  country. 
Should  he  fail  of  these  durable  acquisitions,  the  Indian  treasures, 
which  must  every  year  cross  the  ocean  to  reach  Spain,  were,  he 
thought,  a  sure  prey  to  the  English  navy,  and  would  support  his 
military  force,  without  his  laying  new  burthens  on  the  discontented 
people.  These  motives  of  policy  we»e  probably  seconded  by  his 
religious  principles ;  and  as  the  Spaniards  were  more  bigoted  papists 
than  the  French,  and  had  refused  to  mitigate  on  Cromwell's  solici- 
tation the  rigours  of  the  Inquisition,  he  hoped  that  a  holy  and 
meritorious  war  with  such  idolaters  could  not  fail  of  protection  from 
Heaven. 

§  11.  Actuated  by  these  motives,  he  concluded  a  treaty  offensive 
with  France  (October  24),  stipulating  that  neither  Charles  nor  the 
duke  of  York  should  be  suffered  to  remain  in  that  kingdom.  He 
equipped  two  considerable  squadrons,  one  of  which,  consisting  of  30 
capita]  ships,  was  sent  into  the  Mediterranean  under  Blake,  whose 
fame  was  now  spread  over  Europe.    Blake  sailed  to  Algiers,  and 


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AJX  1655-1657.  DEATH  OF  BLAKE.  443 

ocnnpelled  the  dey  to  restrain  his  piratical  subjects  from  further 
violences  on  the  English.  He  then  presented  himself  before  Timis, 
where,  incensed  by  the  insolence  of  the  dey,  he  destroyed  the 
castles  of  Porto  Farino  and  Gk>letta,  sent  a  numerous  detachment 
of  sailors  in  their  long-boats  into  the  harbour,  and  bumed  every 
ship  which  lay  there.  This  bold  action  filled  all  that  part  of  the 
world  with  the  renown  of  English  valour. 

The  other  squadron  was  not  equally  successfuL  It  was  com- 
manded by  Penn,  and  carried  on  board  4000  men,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Venables.  An  attack  upon  St  Domingo  was  repulsed  with 
loss  and  disgrace ;  but  Jamaica  surrendered  to  them  without  ^  blow 
(May,  1655).  Penn  and  Venables  returned  to  England,  and  were 
both  of  them  sent  to  the  Tower  by  the  protector,  who,  though  com- 
monly master  of  his  fiery  temper,  was  thrown  into  a  violent  passion 
at  this  disappointment.  He  had,  however,  made  a  conquest  of 
greater  importance  than  he  was  himself  at  that  time  aware  of;  and 
Jamaica  has  ever  since  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  English. 

As  soon  as  the  news  of  this  expedition,  which  was  an  unwar- 
rantable violation  of  treaty,  arrived  in  Europe,  the  Spaniards  de- 
clared war  against  England,  and  seized  all  the  ships  and  goods  of 
English  merchants  of  which  they  could  make  themselves  masters. 
Blake,  with  whom  Montague  was  now  joined  in  command,  prepared 
himself  for  hostilities  against  the  Spaniards,  and  lay  some  time  ofif 
Cadiz  in  expectation  of  intercepting  the  treasure-fleet,  but  was  at 
last  obliged,  for  want  of  water,  to  make  sail  towards  Portugal. 
Captain  Stayner,  however,  whom  he  had  left  on  the  coast  with  a 
squadron  of  seven  vessels,  took  two  ships  valued  at  nearly  2,000,000 
of  pieces  of  eight  (September  9, 1656). 

The  next  action  against  the  Spaniards  was  more  honourable, 
though  less  profitable,  to  the  nation.  Blake  pursued  a  Spanish 
fleet  of  16  ships  to  the  Canaries,  where  he  found  them  in  the  bay 
of  Santa  Cruz,  defended  by  a  strong  castle  and  seven  forts.  Blake 
was  rather  animated  than  daunted  with  this  appearance.  The  wind 
seconded  his  courage,  and,  blowing  full  into  the  bay,  brought  him 
in  a  moment  among  the  thickest  of  his  enemies.  After  a  resistance 
of  four  hours,  the  Spaniards  yielded  to  English  valour,  and  aban- 
doned their  ships,  which  were  set  on  fire,  and  consumed  with  all 
their  treasure.  The  wind,  suddenly  shifting,  carried  the  English 
out  of  the  bay,  where  they  left  the  Spaniards  in  astonishment  at 
the  happy  temerity  of  their  audacious  visitors  (April  20,  1657). 
This  was  the  last  and  greatest  action  of  Blake.  He  was  worn  out 
with  dropsy  and  scurvy,  and  hastened  home,  that  he  might  yield 
up  his  breath  in  his  native  country,  but  expired  within  sight  of 
land.    N«ver  man,  so  zealous  for  a  faction,  was  so  much  respecteJ 


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444  THE  COliMONWEALTH.  Chap.  xxin. 

and  esteemed  even  by  the  opposite  parties.  He  was  by  principle 
an  inflexible  republican ;  and  the  late  usurpations,  amidst  all  the 
trust  and  caresses  which  he  received  from  the  ruling  powers,  were 
thought  to  be  very  little  grateful  to  him.  "  It  is  still  our  duty,"  he 
said  to  the  seamen,  "to  fight  for  our  country,  into  what  hands 
soever  the  government  may  fall."  The  protector  ordered  him  a 
pompous  funeral  at  the  public  charge :  but  the  tears  of  his  country- 
men were  the  most  honourable  panegyric  on  his  memory. 

§  12.  As  the  last  parliament  did  not  prove  more  compliant,  not- 
withstanding all  the  precautions  taken  by  the  protector,  he  dismissed 
it,  waiving  all  ceremony,  with  the  announcement  that  its  continu- 
ance was  not  for  the  good  of  the  nation  (January  22,  1655),  and 
dispensed  with  so  useless  an  encumbrance  until  September  17, 1656, 
when  a  deficit  of  800,000^.  made  him  anxious  to  obtain  its  assist- 
ance. In  summoning  this  third  parliament,  he  used  every  art  in 
order  to  influence  the  elections,  and  fill  the  house  with  his  own 
creatures;  yet,  notwithstanding  all  these  precautions,  he  still 
foimd  that  the  majority  would  not  be  favourable  to  him.  Accord- 
ingly, on  their  assembling,  he  set  guards  at  the  door,  who  permitted 
none  to  enter  but  such  as  produced  a  warrant  from  his  council ; 
and  the  council  rejected  about  100,  who  either  refused  a  recognition 
of  the  protector's  government,  or  were  on  other  accounts  obnoxious 
to  him.  They  protested  against  so  egregious  a  violence,  as  subversive 
of  all  liberty;  but  every  application  for  redress  was  disr^arded. 
The  majority,  by  means  of  these  arts  and  violences,  was  friendly  to 
the  protector,  who  now  began  to  aspire  to  the  crown ;  and  in  order 
to  pave  the  way  to  this  advancement,  he  resolved  to  sacrifice  his 
major-generals,  whom  he  knew  to  be  extremely  odious  to  the  nation. 
On  the  19th  of  January,  1657,  it  was  moved  by  one  Aske  "  that  his 
highness  would  be  pleased  to  take  upon  him  the  government 
according  to  the  ancient  constitution"  The  proposition  was  not 
received  without  murmurs.  It  was  asked  whether  the  house  in- 
tended to  set  up  again  the  kingly  government  it  had  been  so  zeal- 
ous in  putting  down.  But  the  design  was  too  agreeable  to  Crom- 
well to  be  set  aside.  Colonel  Jephson  was  employed  to  sound  the 
inclinations  of  the  house ;  and  the  result  appearing  favourable,  a 
motion  in  form  was  made  by  alderman  Pack,  one  of  the  city  members, 
for  investing  the  protector  with  the  dignity  of  king  (February  23). 
This  motion  excited  great  disorder,  and  divided  the  house.  The 
chief  opposition  came  from  the  usual  adherents  of  the  protector, 
the  major  generals,  and  such  officers  as  depended  on  them ;  and 
particularly  from  Lambert,  a  man  of  deep  intrigue,  and  of  great 
Interest  in  the  army,  who  had  long  entertained  the  ambition  of 
succeeding  Cromwell  in  the  protectorship.    The  bill,  entitled  an 


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A.D.  1655-165a    CBOMWELL  REFUSES  THE  CROWN.  445 

humble  petition  and  advice,  was  voted  by  a  majority  of  123  against 
62,  and  a  committee  was  appointed  to  reason  with  the  protector, 
and  to  overcome  his  scruples.  The  conference  lasted  several  days. 
The  difficulty  consbted  not  in  persuading  Cromwell,  whose  incli- 
nation, as  well  as  judgment,  was  entirely  on  the  side  of  the  committee. 
The  opposition  which  Cromwell  most  dreaded  was  that  which  he 
met  with  in  his  own  family,  and  from  men  who,  by  interest  as  well 
as  inclination,  were  the  most  devoted  to  him.  Fleetwood  had  mar- 
ried his  daughter ;  Desborough,  his  sister :  yet  these  men,  actuated 
by  principle  alone,  could  by  no  persuasion,  artifice,  or  entreaty,  be 
induced  to  consent  that  he  should  be  invested  with  regal  dignity. 
Colonel  Pride  procured  a  petition  against  the  office  of  king,  signed 
by  a  majority  of  the  officers  who  were  in  London  and  the  neigh- 
bourhood. A  sudden  mutiny  in  the  army  was  justly  dreaded,  and, 
after  the  agony  and  perplexity  of  long  doubt,  Cromwell  was  at  last 
obliged  to  refuse  the  crown.  The  provisions,  however,  of  the 
humble  petition  and  advice  were  retained  as  the  basis  of  the  repub- 
lican establishment,  instead  of  the  former  instrument  of  government. 
By  the  new  deed  the  protector  had  the  power  of  nominating  his 
successor ;  he  had  a  perpetual  revenue  assigned  him  ;  and  he  had 
authority  to  name  another  house,  who  should  enjoy  their  seats 
during  life,  and  exercise  some  of  the  functions  of  the  former  house 
of  peers  (May  26,  1657).  Cromwell,  as  if  his  power  had  just  com- 
menced from  this  popular  consent,  was  inaugurated  anew  in  West- 
minster Hall,  after  the  most  solemn  and  most  pompous  manner 
(June  26).    Shortly  after,  Lambert  was  deprived  of  his  post. 

Richard,  eldest  son  of  the  protector,  was  now  brought  to  court, 
introduced  into  public  business,  and  thenceforth  regarded  by  many 
as  his  heir  in  the  protectorship.  Cromwell  had  two  daughters  un- 
married :  one  of  them  he  now  gave  in  marriage  to  Mr.  Rich,  the 
grandson  and  heir  of  his  great  friend,  the  earl  of  Warwick,  with 
whom  he  had,  in  every  fortune,  preserved  an  uninterrupted  intimacy 
and  good  correspondence.  The  other  he  married  to  the  viscount 
Faulconbridge,  of  a  family  formerly  devoted  to  the  royal  party.  The 
parliament  assembled  again  on  January  20, 1658,  consisting,  as  in  the 
times  of  monarchy,  of  two  houses.  Cromwell  had  summoned  a  House 
of  Peers,  which  consisted  of  60  members.  They  were  composed  of 
five  peers  of  ancient  date,  of  several  gentlemen  of  fortune  and  dis- 
tinction, and  of  some  officers  who  had  risen  from  the  meanest 
stations.  The  proceedings  of  the  houses  were  brought  to  a  dead- 
lock, the  commons  declining  to  allow  the  title  of  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  unable  to  determine  by  what  appellation  Ihey  should  be  called. 
But  Cromwell  soon  found  that,  by  bringing  so  great  a  number  of 
bis  friends  and  adherents  into  the  other  house,  he  had  lost  the 
21 


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446  THE  COMMONWEALTH.  Chap.  xxm. 

majority  among  the  national  representatives.  Dreading  combina* 
tions  between  them  and  the  malcontontB  in  the  army,  he  dissolTed 
the  parliament,  telling  them  that  he  would  not  undertake  the 
government  unless  there  might  he  some  other  persons  {the  lords)  who 
might  interpose  between  himself  and  the  House  of  Commons^  and 
prevent  tumultuous  and  popular  spirits  (February  4). 

§  13.  He  still  pursued  his  war  of  conquest.  In  1658  si^e  was 
laid  to  Dunkirk ;  and  when  the  Spanish  army  advanced  to  relieve 
it,  the  combined  armies  of  France  and  England  marched  out  of  their 
trenches,  and  fought  the  battle  of  the  Dunes,  where  the  Spaniards 
were  totally  defeated  (June  4).  Dunkirk  was  by  agreement 
delivered  to  Cromwell. 

But  his  situation  at  home  kept  him  in  perpetual  disquietude. 
His  military  enterprises  had  exhausted  his  revenue,  and  involved 
him  in  considerable  debt.*  The  royalists,  he  heard,  had  renewed 
their  preparations  for  a  general  insurrection.  Ormond  had  come  over 
to  England ;  sir  William  Waller  and  many  heads  of  the  presby- 
terians  had  secretly  entered  into  the  engagement,  and  Fairfax  was 
expected  to  join.  Even  the  army  was  infected  with  the  general 
spirit  of  discontent ;  and  some  sudden  and  dangerous  eruption  was 
every  moment  to  be  dreaded.  This  conspiracy,  however,  was  di»- 
covered,  and  promptly  suppressed.  Ormond  was  obliged  to  fly,  and 
he  deemed  himself  fortunate  to  have  escaped  so  vigilant  an  adminis- 
tration. Great  numbers  were  thrown  into  prison.  A  high  court  of 
justice  was  erected  anew  for  the  trial  of  those  criminals  whose  guilt 
was  most  apparent,  for  the  protector  would  not  trust  a  common 
jury.  Sir  Henry  Slingsby  and  doctor  Hewitt  were  condemned  and 
beheaded  (June  8). 

The  conspiracy  of  the  millenarians  in  the  army  struck  Cromwell 
with  still  greater  apprehensions,  and  he  lived  in  continual  dread 
of  assassination.  The  death  of  Mrs.  Claypole,  his  favourite  daughter, 
a  lady  endued  with  many  humane  virtues  and  amiable  accompUsh- 
ments,  depressed  his  mind  and  poisoned  his  enjoyments.  All 
composure  had  now  fled  from  him.  Common  fame  reported  that 
he  never  moved  a  step  without  strong  guards  attending  him ; 
that  he  wore  armoiu-  under  his  clothes,  and  further  secured  himself 
by  offensive  weapons^  which  he  always  carried  about  him.  He 
returned  from  no  place  by  the  direct  road,  or  by  the  same  way 
which  he  went.  Every  journey  he  performed  with  hurry  and  pre- 
cipitation. Seldom  he  slept  above  two  nights  together  in  the  same 
chamber :  and  he  never  let  it  be  known  beforehand  in  what  chambet 
he  intended  to  repose. 

•  His  average  revenue  was  2,000,0001.  ft  jU3t\   that  of  Ohcrlas   L.  Ism  than 
1,000,0001. ;  that  of  Charles  II.»  1,260,0001. 

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AJ>.  1668.  CROMWELL'S  DEATH.  447 

§  14.  ERs  body  began  to  be  affected  from  the  contagion  of  his 
mind,  and  his  health  sensibly  declined.  He  was  seized  with  a  slow 
fever,  which  changed  into  a  tertian  ajzue.  For  the  space  of  a  week 
no  dangerous  symptoms  appeared ;  and  in  the  intervals  of  the  fits 
he  was  able  to  walk  abroad.  At  length  the  symptoms  began  to 
wear  a  more  fatal  aspect,  and  the  physicians  were  obliged  to  break 
silence,  and  to  declare  that  the  protector  could  not  survive  the  next 
fit  with  which  he  was  threatened.  The  council  was  alarmed.  A 
deputation  was  sent  to  know  his  will  with  regard  to  his  successor. 
They  asked  him  whether  he  did  not  mean  that  his  eldest  son, 
Richard,  should  succeed  him  in  the  protectorship.  A  simple 
affirmative  was,  or  seemed  to  be,  extorted  from  him.  Soon  after, 
on  the  3rd  of  September  (1658),  the  very  day  on  which  he  had 
gained  the  victories  of  Dunbar  and  Worcester,  he  fell  into  a  pro- 
found lethargy,  at  the  close  of  which  he  uttered  a  deep  sigh  and 
expired,  between  three  and  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  A 
violent  tempest,  which  immediately  preceded  his  death,  served  as 
a  subject  of  discourse  to  the  vulgar — his  partisans  and  his  enemies 
endeavouring  by  forced  inferences  to  interpret  it  as  a  confirmation 
of  their  particular  prejudices. 

If  we  survey  the  moral  character  of  Cromwell  with  that  indul- 
gence which  is  due  to  the  blindness  and  infirmities  of  the  human 
species,  we  shall  not  be  inclined  to  load  his  memory  with  such  violent 
reproaches  as  those  which  his  enemies  have  usuaUy  thrown  upon 
it.  In  the  murder  of  the  king,  the  most  atVocious  of  all  his  actions, 
he  was  too  clear-sighted  to  be  misled  by  those  republican  and 
religious  illusions,  which  might  induce  his  followers  to  believe  it 
was  a  meritorious  action.  He  had  not  intended  or  even  anticipated 
it  in  the  outset  of  his  career.  Nor,  probably,  if  he  could  have 
chosen  his  own  path,  would  he  have  ever  consented  to  it.  But  he 
was  led  on  step  by  step  into  a  position  from  which  he  could  not 
extricate  himself  or  his  party  with  safety  except  by  putting  Charles 
to  death.  His  subsequent  usurpations  were  the  effect  of  necessity, 
as  well  as  of  ambition  ;  nor  is  it  easy  to  see  how  the  various  factions 
could  at  that  time  have  been  restrained  without  a  mixture  of  mili- 
tary and  arbitrary  authority.    But  such  are  the  evils  of  a  civil  war. 

§  15.  His  conduct  in  foreign  affairs  was  full  of  vigour  and  enter- 
prise. It  was  his  boast  that  he  would  render  the  name  of  an 
Englishman  as  much  feared  and  revered  as  ever  was  that  of  a 
Roman ;  and  as  his  countrymen  found  some  reality  in  these  pre- 
tensions, the  gratification  of  their  national  vanity  made  them  bear 
with  more  patience  the  indignities  and  calamities  imder  which  they 
laboured.  The  protestant  zeal  which  animated  the  presbyteriani 
and  independents  was  gratified  by  the  manner  in  which  Cromwell 
supported  the  Vaudois  against  the  duke  of  Savoy. 


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448  THE  COMMONWEALTH.  Chap.  xxm. 

In  his  general  behayiour  he  midntfuned  the  dignity  of  his  station 
without  either  affectation  or  ostentation,  and  supported  before 
strangers  that  high  idea  with  wliich  his  great  exploits  and  pro- 
digious fortune  had  impressed  them.  At  times  he  would  indulge 
in  actions  that  bordered  on  buffoonery,  even  with  his  officers  of 
state,  either  to  conceal  his  true  feelings  or  relax  that  tension  of 
mind  which  was  habitual  with  him.  The  manners  of  his  court 
were  serious  and  regular,  but  strongly  infected  with  the  puritanical 
tone  of  his  age.  He  would  gladly  have  rid  himself  of  many 
of  the  turbulent  spirits  to  whose  unrestrained  enthusiasm  he  owed 
his  -exaltation.  But  he  had  none  to  support  him  in  this  design,  or 
to  fill  their  places.  The  nobility  held  aloof;  the  ancient  gentry  were 
attached  to  the  king  and  the  church  of  England,  whilst  the  main 
body  of  the  presbyterians  hated  him  bitterly. 

Cromwell  was  in  the  60th  year  of  his  age  when  he  died.  He 
was  of  a  robust  frame,  of  a  manly,  though  not  of  an  agreeable, 
aspect.  He  left  only  two  sons,  Richard  and  Henry;  and  three 
daughters.  His  father  died  when  he  was  very  young.  His  mother 
lived  till  after  he  was  protector,  and,  contrary  to  her  wish,  he 
buried  her  with  great  pomp  in  Westminster  Abbey.  To  educate 
her  numerous  family  she  had  been  obliged  to  set  up  a  brewery 
at  Huntingdon,  which  she  managed  to  good  advantage.  Hence 
Cromwell,  in  the  invectives  of  that  age,  is  often  stigmatized  with 
the  name  of  the  brewer.  She  was  of  a  good  family,  of  the  name 
of  Stuart,  remotely  allied,  as  is  supposed  by  some,  to  the  royal 
family. 

§  16.  Cromwell  left  the  nation  in  the  utmost  embarrassment  and 
disorder.  Never  in  the  worst  period  of  the  Stuarts  had  government 
assumed  a  more  arbitrary  shape.  His  rule  was  regarded  with 
aversion  by  presbyterians  and  royalists,  with  good  reason.  But 
even  his  own  officers,  and  especially  the  anabaptists,  considered  him 
as  a  traitor  to  his  former  and  their  present  principles.  Men  like 
sir  Harry  Vane  held  him  forth  to  reprobation  as  a  greater  obstacle 
to  real  liberty  and  the  reign  of  righteousness  than  Charles  had  ever 
been.  His  favourite  officers  rallied  round  his  dying  bed,  caballing 
and  intriguing  among  themselves ;  waiting  until  the  last  gasp  should 
leave  his  body,  before  they  grasped  at  the  sceptre  which  was  fedling 
from  his  dying  hand.  Richard,  his  eldest  son,  bom  1626,  was  a  young 
man  of  no  experience.  He  was  given  to  field  six)rts,  was  indolent, 
incapable,  and  irresolute.  The  council,  however,  recognized  his 
succession.  Fleetwood,  in  whose  favour  it  was  supposed  Cromwell 
had  formerly  made  a  will,  professed  to  renounce  all  claim  to  the 
protectorship.  Henry,  Richard's  brother,  who  governed  Ireland 
with  popularity,  insured  him  the  obedience  of  that  kingdom. 


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UX  1659.  BICHABD  GAOMWELL  PBOTECTOK.  449 

Monkf  whose  tuthority  was  well  established  in  Scotland,  proclaimed 
the  new  protectee.  The  army  and  the  fleet  acknowledged  his  title ; 
and  above  90  addresses,  from  the  counties  and  most  consider- 
able corporations,  congratulated  him  on  his  accession,  in  all  the 
terms  of  dutiful  allegiance.  A  new  parliament  (January  27, 1659) 
proceeded  to  examine  the  humble  petition  and  advice ;  and,  after 
great  opposition  aod  many  vehement  debates,  it  was  at  length,  Mdth 
much  difficulty,  carried  by  the  court  party.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
most  influential  officers  of  the  army,  and  even  Fleetwood,  brother- 
in-law  to  the  protector,  were  caballing  against  him;  and  were 
joined  by  the  whole  republican  party  among  the  soldiers,  which  was 
still  considerable.  Above  all,  the  intrigues  of  Lambert  inflamed 
those  dangerous  humours,  and  threatened  the  nation  with  some 
great  /x>nvul8ion.  Richard  was  prevailed  \i\ym  to  give  an  un- 
guarded consent  for  calling  a  general  council  of  officers,  who  pro- 
posed that  the  whole  military  power  should  be  intrusted  to  some 
person  in  whom  they  might  all  confide. 

The  parliament,  not  less  alarmed  than  the  protector,  voted  that 
there  should  be  no  meeting  or  general  council  of  officers,  except  with 
the  protector's  consent,  or  by  his  orders.  This  vote  brought  affairs 
immediately  to  a  rupture.  The  officers  hastened  to  Richard  and 
demanded  of  him  the  dissolution  of  the  parliament.  Desborough 
threatened  him  if  he  refused.  The  protector  wanted  resolution  to 
deny,  or  ability  to  resist.  The  parliament  was  dissolved  (April  22). 
And  though  Richard  remained  nominally  protector  a  few  weeks 
longer,  all  his  real  authority  was  gone. 

§  17.  The  council  of  officers  now  resolved,  after  much  debate,  on 
restoring  what  retnained  of  the  Long  Parliament.  Its  numbers 
were  small ;  but  being  all  of  tl^em  men  of  violent  ambition,  some  of 
them  men  of  experience  and  capacity,  they  were  resolved,  since  they 
enjoyed  the  title  of  the  supreme  autiiority,  not  to  act  a  subordinate 
part  to  those  who  acknowledged  themselves  as  their  servants.  They 
voted  that  all  commissions  should  be  received  from  the  speaker,  and 
be  assigned  by  him  in  the  name  of  the  house.  These  precautions 
gave  great  disgust. 

Encouraged  by  these  dissendons,  the  royalists  determined  on  a 
rising  in  several  counties ;  but  their  plans  were  betrayed,  and  the 
only  project  which  took  effect  was  that  of  sir  George  Booth  for  the 
seizing  of  Chester.  He  was,  however,  soon  routed  and  taken 
prisoner  by  Lambert  (August  19),  and  the  parliament  had  no 
further  occupation  than  to  fill  the  jails  with  their  open  or  secret 
enemies.  This  success  hastened  the  ruin  of  the  parliament. 
Alarmed  at  the  proceedings  of  Lambert  and  his  £Eiction,  they  voted 
thut  they  would  have  no  more  general  officers.     On  this  Lambert 


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450  '^^  COMMONWKAXTH.  Chap.  zxm. 

and  the  other  ofiQcers  expelled  the  Bump  (October  13X  ftud  elected 
a  oominittee  of  23  persons,  whom  they  invested  with  sovereigD 
authority,  imder  the  name  of  a  committee  of  m/ety.  Throughout 
the  three  kingdoms  there  prevailed  nothing  but  melancholy  fears ; 
among  the  nobility  and  gentry,  of  a  bloody  massacre  and  exter- 
mination ;  for  the  rest  of  the  people,  a  perpetual  servitude  oeneath 
military  despotism  of  the  worst  kind ;  whilst  the  condition  of  Charles 
seemed  totally  desperate.  But  amidst  all  these  gloomy  prospects, 
fortune,  by  a  surprising  revolution,  was  now  paving  the  way  for  the 
king  to  mount  in  peace  and  triiunph  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 

§  18.  General  Monk  still  held  the  supreme  military  command  in 
Scotland.  After  the  army  had  expelled  the  parliament,  he  protested 
against  the  violence,  and  resolved,  as  he  proposed,  to  vindicate  their 
invaded  privileges.  Deeper  projects,  either  in  the  king's  favour  or 
his  own,  were  from  the  beginning  suspoctjd  to  be  the  motive  of  his 
actions.  How  early  he  entertained  designs  for  the  king's  restoration 
is  not  certainly  known.  It  is  likely  that  as  soon  as  Richard  was 
deposed  he  foresaw  that,  without  such  an  expedient,  it  would  be 
impossible  ever  to  bring  the  nation  to  a  regular  settlement.  But 
his  conduct  was  full  of  dissimulation,  and  no  less  was  requisite  for 
effecting  the  difficult  work  which  he  had  undertaken.  All  the 
officers  in  his  army,  of  whom  he  entertained  any  suspicion,  he 
immediately  cashiered ;  and,  hearing  that  Lambert  was  marching 
northwards  with  a  large  body  of  forces,  he  amused  the  conmiittee 
with  offers  of  negociation. 

Meanwhile  these  military  sovereigns  found  themselves  surrounded 
on  all  hands  with  inextricable  difficulties.  The  city  established  a 
kind  of  separate  government,  and  assumed  the  supreme  authority 
within  itself.  While  Lambert's  forces  were  assembling  at  New- 
castle, Hazelrig  and  Morley  took  possession  of  Portsmouth,  ana 
declared  for  the  parliament.  Admiral  Lawson,  with  his  squadron, 
came  into  the  river,  and  followed  their  example.  Hearing  of  this 
important  event,  Hazelrig  and  Morley  left  Portsmouth  and  ad- 
vanced towards  London.  The  city  regiments,  solicited  by  their  own 
officers,  who  had  been  cashiered  by  the  committee  of  safety,  revolted 
again  to  the  parliament.  Lenthall,  the  speaker,  invited  by  the 
officers,  again  assumed  authority,  and  summoned  together  the  parlia- 
ment, which  twice  before  had  been  expelled  with  so  much  reproach 
and  ignominy  (December  26).  Monk  now  advanced  into  England 
with  his  army.  In  all  coimties  through  which  he  passed  the  gentry 
flocked  to  him  with  addresses,  expressing  their  earnest  desire  that 
he  would  be  instrumental  in  restoring  the  nation  to  peace  and  tran- 
quillity. He  entered  London  without  opposition  (February  3, 1660X 
was  introduced  to  the  house,  and  thanks  were  given  him  by  Lenthall 


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AJ>.  166a  LONG  PARLIAMENT  DISSOLVED.  461 

for  the  eminent  services  which  he  had  rendered  his  country.  Monk's 
conduct  was  at  first  ambiguous.  He  appeared  ready  to  obey  all  the 
commands  of  the  parliament,  and  marched  into  the  city  to  seize 
several  leading  citizens  who  had  refused  obedience  to  the  orders 
of  the  house;  but  two  days  afterwards  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the 
parliament,  requiring  them,  in  the  name  of  the  citizens,  soldiers, 
and  whole  commonwealth,  to  issue  writs  within  a  week  for  filling 
their  house,  and  to  fix  the  time  for  their  own  dissolution  and  the 
assembling  of  a  new  parliament.  The  excluded  members,  upon  the 
general's  invitation,  returned  to  the  house,  and  immediately  appeared 
to  be  the  majority ;  most  of  the  independoitB  left  the  place  (February 
21).  The  restored  members  renewed  the  general's  commission, 
and  enlarged  his  powers ;  and,  after  passing  some  other  measures 
for  the  present  settlement  of  the  kingdom,  they  dissolved  them- 
selves, and  issued  writs  for  the  immediate  assembling  of  a  new 
parliament.  A  council  of  state  was  appointed,  consisting  of  men 
of  cliaracter  and  moderation,  who  conferred  on  Montague,  a  royalist, 
in  conjunction  with  Monk,  the  command  of  the  fleet ;  and  secured 
the  naval  as  well  as  military  forces  in  hands  favourable  to  the  public 
settlement  (March  3).  Notwithstanding  all  these  steps,  Monk  still 
maintained  the  appearance  of  zeal  for  a  commonwealth,  and  had 
hithert<»  alldwed  no  channel  of  correspondence  between  himself  and 
the  king  to  be  opened ;  but  he  now  sent  a  verbal  message  by  sir  John 
Grenville,  assuring  the  king  of  his  services,  giving  advice  for  his 
conduct,  and  exhorting  him  instantly  to  leave  the  Spanish  territories 
and  retire  into  Holland.  He  wds  apprehensive  lest  Spain  might 
detain  him  as  a  pledge  for  the  recovery  of  Dunkirk  and  Jamaica. 
Charles,  who  was  at  Bnissels,  followed  these  directions,  and  very 
narrowly  escaped  to  Breda.  Had  he  delayed  his  journey,  he  had 
certainly,  under  pretence  of  honour  and  respect,  been  arrested  by 
the  Spaniards.    (Supplement,  Nt)te  VI.) 

§  19.  The  elections  for  the  new  parliament  went  everywhere  in 
favour  of  the  king's  party.  The  presbyterians  and  the  royalists, 
being  united,  formed  the  voice  of  the  nation,  which,  without  noisC; 
but  with  infinite  anlour,  called  for  the  king's  restoration.  When 
the  parliament  met  (April  25) — which,  from  its  not  being  regularly 
summoned,  was  called  the  Convention  Parliament — they  chose  sir 
Harbottle  Grim  Jtone  as  speaker.  On  the  27th  April  a  motion  for 
the  restoration  of  the  king  was  mad"  by  colonel  King,  a  presbyterian. 
Mid  Mr.  Finch.  On  the  1st  of  May,  Monk  gave  directions  to 
Annesley,  president  of  the  coimctl,  to  inform  the  house  that  sir  John 
Grenville,  a  servant  of  the  king's,  had  been  sent  over  by  his  majesty, 
and  was  now  at  the  door  with  a  letter  to  the  commons.  The  loudest 
acclamations  were  excited  by  this  intelligence.     Grenville  was 


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452  THE  COMMONWEALTa  Geip.  xzm. 

called  in ;  tlie  letter,  aooompanied  with  a  declaration,  was  greedily 
read.  Without  one  moment's  delay,  and  without  a  contradictory  vote, 
a  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  an  answer ;  and,  in  order  to 
spread  the  same  satisfaction  throughout  the  kingdom,  it  was  voted 
that  the  letter  and  declaration  should  be  published  immediately. 
It  offered  a  general  amnesty,  within  40  days,  without  any  exce|>- 
tions  but  such  as  should  afterwards  be  made  by  parliament;  it 
promised  liberty  to  tender  consciences  in  matters  of  religion  which 
did  not  disturb  the  peace  of  the  kingdom  ;  it  submitted  to  the  arbi- 
tration of  the  same  assembly  the  inquiry  into  all  grants,  purchases, 
and  alienations ;  and  it  assured  the  soldiers  of  all  their  arrears,  and 
promised  them  for  the  future  the  same  pay  which  they  then  enjoyed. 
Such  was  the  celebrated  Declaration  of  Breda. 

The  lords,  perceiving  the  spirit  by  which  the  kingdom,  as  well  as 
the  commons,  was  animated,  had  hastened  to  reinstate  themselves  in 
their  ancient  authority,  and  to  take  their  share  in  the  settlement  of 
the  nation.  Soon  afterwards  the  two  houses  attended,  while  the 
king  was  proclaimed  with  great  solemnity,  in  Palace-yard,  at  White- 
hall, and  at  Temple  Bar  (May  8,  1660).  A  committee  of  lords  and 
commons  was  then  despatched  to  invite  his  majesty  to  return  and 
take  possession  of  the  government.  Charles  embarked  at  Scheveling 
on  board  a  fleet  commanded  by  the  duke  of  York.  At  Dover  he  was 
met  by  Monk,  whom  he  coniially  embraced.  The  king  entered 
London  on  the  29th  of  May,  which  was  also  his  birthday.  The  fond 
imaojinations  of  men  interpreted  as  a  happy  omen  the  concurrence 
•C  two  such  joyful  periods. 


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Medal  of  Cbarlee  II.  and  Catherine  of  Braganm,  probably  relating  to  the  qaeen'i 
dowrj.  Oby. ;  oabolub  .  kt  .  CATHABnrA  .  kbx  .  sr  .  KaooiA.  Boats  of  king  and 
queen  to  lighk    Bev. :  diffvsvs  .  is .  oebb  .  bbitaiikv»  .  1070.    A  globe. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
GHABLBS  n.^  5. 1630;  r.  1660-1685,  ob  from  1649,  Aocx)RDiNa  to 

LEGAL    RBGKONINO.      FROM    THE   BB8T0BATI0N  TO   THS  PBACB  OF 
KIMBOUBN,  A.D.  1660-1678. 

{  1.  Character  of  Charles  II.  The  ministry.  Act  of  Indemnity.  Trial  of 
the  regicides.  Disbanding  of  the  army.  §  2.  Chancellor  Clarendon 
PreUcy  restored.  Affairs  of  Scotland.  §  .S.  Conference  at  the  Savoy. 
Act  of  Uniformity.  §  4.  Charles  marries  Catharine  of  Portugal.  Trial 
and  execution  of  Vane.  §  5.  Presbyterian  clergy  ejected.  Dunkirk 
sold.  Declaration  of  Indulgence.  §  6.  Triennial  Act  repealed.  War 
with  Holland.  Naval  victory.  Plague  of  I^ndon.  Five-mile  Act. 
§  7.  Great  sea  fight.  Fire  of  London.  Disgrace  at  Chatham.  Peace 
of  Breda.  §  8.  Fall  of  Clarendon.  §  9.  The  Cabal.  The  triple  alliance. 
Secret  treaty  of  Dover.  §  10..  Blood's  crimes.  The  duke  of  York 
declares  himself  a  papist.  §  11.  The  bankers'  funds  in  the  exchequer 
seized.  War  with  Holland.  Battle  of  Southwold  Bay.  Successes  of 
Louis  XIV.  Massacre  of  the  De  Witts.  Prince  of  Orange  stadtholder. 
§  12.  The  Test  Act.  Peace  with  Holland.  §  13  Earl  of  Danby  prime 
minister.  His  policy.  Parliamentary  struggles.  §  14.  The  continental 
war.  Marriage  of  the  prince  of  Orange  and  princess  Mary.  Peace  of 
Kimeguen. 

§  1.  When  Charles  II.  ascended  the  throne  of  his  ancestors,  he  was 
thirty  years  of  age.  He  possessed  a  vigorous  constitution,  a  fine 
shape,  a  manly  figure,  a  graceful  air ;  and  though  his  features  were 
harsh,  yet  was  his  countenance  in  the  main  lively  and  engaging. 
To  a  r^y  wit  and  quick  comprehension  he  united  a  just  under- 
standing and  a  keen  ohservation  both  of  men  and  things.  The 
easiest  manners,  the  most  unaffected  politeness,  the  most  engaging 
21*  y 


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464  OHAKLBS  IL  Chap,  xxk^ 

ff&Bty,  aooompanied  his  conversalion  and  addresa  Accustomed 
during  his  exile  to  live  among  his  courtiers  rather  like  a  ooropanion 
than  a  monarch,  he  retained,  even  while  on  the  throne,  that  open- 
ness and  affability  which  were  capable  of  reconciling  the  most 
determined  republicans  to  his  royal  dignity. 

Into  his  council  were  admitted  the  most  eminent  men  of  the 
nation,  without  regard  to  former  distinctions.  The  presbyterians, 
equally  with  the  royalists,  shared  his  flavours.  The  earl  of  Man 
Chester,  the  former  friend  of  Cromwell,  was  appointed  lord  cham- 
berlain, and  lord  Say  privy  seal ;  Calamy  and  Baxter,  pre«byterian 
clergymen,  were  even  made  chaplains  to  the  king.  Admiral  Mon- 
tague, created  earl  of  Sandwich,*  was  entitled,  from  his  recent 
services,  to  great  favour,  and  he  obtained  it.  Monk,  created  duke 
of  Albemarle,t  had  performed  such  signal  services,  that,  according 
to  a  vulgar  and  malignant  observation,  he  ought  rather  to  have 
expected  hatred  and  ingratitude ;  yet  was  he  ever  treated  by  the 
king  with  great  marks  of  distinction.  But  the  king's  principal 
ministers  and  favourites  were  chosen  from  his  ancient  friends  and 
supporters.  Sir  Edward  Hyde,  created  earl  of  Clarendon,  was  chan- 
cellor and  prime  minister ;  the  marquis,  created  duke,  of  Ormond 
was  steward  of  the  household;  the  earl  of  Southampton,  high 
treasurer ;  sir  Edward  Nicholas,  secretary  of  state.  Agreeable  to 
the  present  prosperity  of  public  affairs  was  the  universal  joy  and 
festivity  diffused  throughout  the  nation.  The  melancholy  austerity 
of  the  puritans  fell  into  discredit,  together  with  their  principles. 
The  royalists,  who  had  ever  affected  a  contrary  disposition,  found 
in  their  recent  success  new  motives  for  mirth  and  gaiety ;  and  it 
now  belonged  to  them  to  give  repute  and  fashion  to  their  manners. 

One  of  the  king's  first  acts  was  a  declaration  of  general  pardon  to 
all  who  chose  to  accept  it  within  forty  days,  "  excepting  only  such 
persons  as  shall  hereafter  be  excepted  by  parliament.*'  On  May  14 
an  order  was  made  by  the  convention  parliament  that  the  late  king's 
judges  should  bo  secured,  colonel  Tomlinson  excepted.  Nineteen 
surrendered  themselves,  and  their  lives  were  spared.  Some  were 
taken  in  their  flight ;  others  escaped  beyond  sea.  Those  who  had 
an  immediate  hand  in  the  late  king's  death  were  excepted  from  the 
act  of  indemnity  :  Cromwell,  Ireton,  Bradshaw,  and  others  now 
dead,  were  attainted,  and  their  estates  forfeited.  Twenty  in  all, 
with  Vane  and  Lambert,  though  none  of  the  regiddes,  were  at  first 
excepted ;  but  the  commons,  in  compliance  with  popular  demand. 


*  He  was  the  ancestor  ot  the  present 
Mfl  of  Sandwich. 

f  This  tUe  kceme  extinct  upon  the 
death  oC  the  acoond  duke  in  1688.    'fbe 


present  earl  of  Albemarle  is  a  descendant 
of  Eeppel,  creatod  ewi  cf  Albemaile  fn 
16M. 


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ASK  1660-166L     DISBANBINO  OV  THE  ABBfT.  455 

continued  to  augment  the  list.  All  who  had  sat  in  any  illegal 
high  court  of  justice  were  disabled  froa*.  bearing  offices. 

The  parliament  voted  that  the  settled  revenue  of  the  crown,  for 
all  charges,  should  be  IfiOOfiOQi,  a  year.  They  abolished  the  feudal 
tenure  of  knights'  service  and  its  incidents^  as  marriage,  relief,  and 
wardship,  and  also  purveyance,  and  in  lieu  thereof  settled  upon  the 
king  an  hereditary  excise  duty.*  Indeed,  it  would  have  been  im- 
possible to  restore  these  onerous  burdens  after  their  disuse  during 
the  time  of  the  commonwealth.  Tonnage  and  poundage  were 
granted  to  the  king  during  life. 

Before  the  parliament  adjourned  (S^tember  13),  it  resolved  on 
the  punishment  of  the  regicides.  They  were  arraigned  before  34 
commissioners  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Twenty-nine  were  tried 
and  condemned,  but  only  six  of  the  late  king's  judges  were  executed. 
These  were  Harrison,  Scot,  Garew,  Clement,  Jones,  and  Scroop. 
Axtel,  who  had  guarded  the  high  court  of  justice ;  Hacker,  who 
commanded  on  the  day  of  the  king's  execution ;  Cook,  the  solicitor 
for  the  people  of  England ;  and  Hugh  Peters,  the  fanatical  preacher, 
who  had  inflamed  the  army,  were  tried,  condemned,  and  suffered 
by  order  of  the  house  at  the  same  time  (October  19).  At  their 
desire,  on  the  anniversary  of  Charles  I.'s  execution,  the  bodies  of 
Cromwell,  Ircton,  and  Bradshaw  were  disinterred,  hanged  on  the 
gallows  at  Tyburn,  then  decapitated,  and  their  heads  fixed  on  West- 
minster Hall. 

After  a  recess  of  nearly  two  months  the  ]iarliament  met ;  and 
having  despatched  the  necessary  business,  the  king,  in  a  speech  full 
of  the  most  gracious  expressions,  thought  proper  to  dissolve  them 
(December  29,  1G60).  By  the  advice  of  Clarendon  the  army  was 
disbanded.  No  more  troops  were  retained  than  a  few  guards  and 
garrisons,  about  1000  horse  and  4000  foot.  The  church  of  England 
was  restored.  Eight  bishops  still  remained  alive,  and  were  replaced 
in  tlieir  sees ;  the  ejected  clergy  recovered  their  livings ;  the  liturgy 
was  again  admitted  into  the  churches;  but  at  the  same  tinic  a 
declaration,  containing  a  promise  of  some  reforms,  was  issued,  in 
order  to  give  contentment  to  the  preebyterians  and  preserve  an  ai' 
of  moderation  and  neutrality. 

§  2.  Affairs  in  Scotland  hastened  with  still  quicker  steps  than 
those  in  England  towards  a  settlement  and  a  compliance  with  the 
king.  The  Scotch  parliament  met  January  1, 1661.  It  rescindedall 
the  statutes  passed  in  1640  and  subsequently.  By  this  act  legisla- 
tion returned  to  the  state  in  which  it  was  left  in  1639.  The  Covenant 
was  renounced ;  the  kmg's  supremacy  was  asserted  in  all  cases,  civil 

•  The  principal  •xoise  duties  were  npoa  I  dteable  artlde.  but  did  not  yield  mooh  t« 
liqaon  and  beer.    Tea  was  also  an  ex-  |  tbe  reyenoe  in  the  rei^  of  Charles  H. 


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456  CHABLES  n.  Ohap.  xzit. 

orecclesiastieaL  The  lords  of  articles  were  reinstated  and  episcopacy 
restored.  James  Sharp,  who  had  heen  commissioned  by  the  pres- 
byterians  in  Scotland  to  manage  their  interest  with  the  king,  was 
persuaded  to  abandon  that  party;  and,  as  a  reward  for  his  com- 
pliance, was  created  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews.  The  parliament 
now  resolved  to  single  out  as  victims  of  their  severity  the  marquis 
of  Argyle,  and  one  Guthrie,  a  preacher,  who  had  urged  the  execution 
of  Montrose,  both  of  whom  seemed  to  be  more  deeply  implicated 
than  others  in  the  late  rebellion.  But,  as  the  acts  of  indemnity 
passed  by  the  late  king  in  1641,  and  by  the  present  in  1651,  seemed 
obstacles  to  the  punishment  of  Argyle,  he  was  tried  for  his  com- 
pliance with  the  usurpation.  Some  letters  of  'his  to  Monk  were 
produced,  which  could  not,  by  any  equitable  construction,  imply 
the  crime  of  treason.  The  parliament,  however,  scrupled  not  to 
pass  sentence  upon  hiniy  and  he  died  with  great  constancy  and 
courage  (May  27). 

§  3.  Meanwhile,  in  England,  a  conference  was  held  in  the  Savoy 
(April  15— July  25,  1661),  between  12  bishops  and  12  leaders 
among  the  presbyterian  ministers,  with  an  intention  of  bringing 
about  an  accommodation  between  the  two  parties ;  but  the  result 
was  unsuccessful,  and  each  party  separated  more  confirmed  than 
ever  in  their  several  opinions.  The  temper  of  the  new  parliament, 
which  assembled  in  May,  1661,  hastened  the  decision  of  the  question. 
Not  more  than  56  members  of  the  presbyterian  party  had  obtained 
seats  in  the  lower  house,  and  they  were  not  able  either  to  oppose 
or  retard  the  measures  of  the  majority.  The  Covenant,  together 
with  the  acts  for  erecting  the  high  court  of  justice,  for  subscribing 
the  engagement,  and  for  declaring  England  a  commonwealth,  were 
ordered  to  be  burnt  by  the  hands  of  the  hangman.  The  bishops 
were  restored  to  their  seats  in  parliament.  The  command  of  the 
militia  was  declared  to  be  solely  vested  in  the  crown.  The  preamble 
to  this  statute  went  so  fa  as  to  renounce  all  right  even  of  defensive 
arms  against  the  king.  By  passing  the  Corporation  Act  in  this 
session,  parliament  compelled  all  corporate  bodies  to  receive  the 
sacrament  according  to  the  rites  of  the  church  of  England,  to  re- 
nounce the  Covenant,  and  to  take  the  oath  of  Non-Resistance ;  * 
following,  in  this  and  its  other  religious  acts,  the  example  set  by 
the  Long  Parliament  in  respect  to  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant. 

In  the  next  year  (1662)  the  Act  of  UNiFORMrrv  was  passed. 
Among  other  of  its  clauses,  it  was  enacted  that  no  person  should 
hold  preferment  in  the  church  of  England,  or  administer  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  Supper,  unless  he  had  been  episcopally  ordained 
in  tho  form  and  manner  enjoined  by  the  Book  of  Common  Prayed 
*  Foi  further  ieinila  see  Not«8  «nd  lUnstntloiw  (A). 


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▲J>.  1662.  HIS  MABBIAQE.  457 

He  was  also  to  declare  his  assent  to  the  said  book ;  to  take  the  oath 
of  canonical  obedience;  abjure  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant; 
and  renounce  the  right  of  taking  arms,  on  any  pretence  whatsoever, 
against  the  king.  This  act,  which  received  the  royal  assent  on 
May  19,  and  was  to  come  into  operation  on  St.  Bartholomew's 
Day  (August  24),  reinstated  the  church  in  the  same  condition  in 
which  it  stood  before  the  commencement  of  the  civil  wars.  It 
has  been  urged  that  some  such  act  was  necessary  if  the  church 
of  England  was  to  continue  and  preserve  uniformity  in  its  teaching 
and  ministrations*  Its  benefices  had  been  usurped,  in  the  late 
troubles,  and  freely  given  away  to  men  who  were  most  acceptable 
to  those  in  power,  for  the  violence  of  their  denunciations  against 
its  doctrines  and  its  discipUne.  Innumerable  heresies  had  sprung 
up,  partly  the  result  of  ignorance,  partly  in  tbe  absence  of  all 
authority,  and  were  freely  disseminated  from  the  pulpit.  Such,  at 
that  time,  was  the  judgment  of  the  nation  as  represented  by  parlia- 
ment, and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  was  represented  falsely. 
§  4.  On  the  king's  restoration  proposals  were  received  from 
Portugal  for  renewal  of  the  alliance  which  the  protector  had  made 
with  that  country.  To  bind  the  friendship  closer,  an  offer  was 
made  of  the  Portiiguese  princess,  Catharine  of  Braganza,  and  a  por- 
tion of  500,000/.,  together  with  two  fortresses,  Tangier  in  Africa, 
and  Bombay  in  tho  BmI  Indies.  The  marriage  was  solemnized  by 
bishop  Sheldon  (May  20,  1662).  But  though  Catharine  was  a 
princess  of  virtue,  she  was  never  able,  either  by  the  graces  of  her 
person  or  her  mind,  to  render  herself  agreeable  to  the  king.  Pur- 
suant to  an  address  of  the  Conmions,  Lambert  and  Vane  were  now 
bx>ught  to  triaL  The  indictment  of  Vane  did  not  comprehend 
any  of  his  actions  during  the  life  of  the  late  king:  it  extended 
only  to  his  behavioiu*  after  the  late  king's  death,  as  member  of 
the  council  of  state,  and  secretary  of  the  navy.  Vane  wanted 
neither  courage  nor  capacity  to  avail  himself  of  this  advantage. 
He  pleaded  the  ikmous  statute  of  Henry  VII.,  in  which  it  was 
enacted  that  no  man  should  be  questioned  for  his  obedience  to 
the  king  de  facto.  He  urged  that,  whether  the  established  govern- 
ment were  a  monarchy  or  a  commonwealth,  the  reason  of  the  thing 
was  still  the  same ;  and  maintained  that  the  commons  were  the 
root  and  foundation  of  all  lawful  authority.  But  the  zeal  he 
had  displayed  in  bringing  Straflbrd  to  his  death,  steeled  men's 
hearts  against  him.  His  courage  deserted  him  not  upon  his  con- 
demnation. Lest  pity  for  his  sufferings  should  make  an  impression 
on  the  populace,  drummers  were  placed  under  the  scaffold,  whose 
noise,  as  he  began  to  launch  out  in  reflections  on  the  government, 
drowned  his  voice  (June  14)     Lambert,  though  also  condemned, 


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468 


CHABLSB  IL 


Obay.  xxit. 


was  reprieved  at  €b»  bar;  and  the  jud^  aeciAred  that,  if  Vaoe^s 
behaviour  had  been  equally  dutiful  and  submisBive,  he  would  have 
experienced  like  lenity  from  the  king.  Lambert  survived  his  con- 
demnation thirty  years.  He  was  confined  to  the  isle  of  Guernsey, 
where  he  amused  himself  with  piunting  and  botany.  He  died  a 
Roman  catholic. 

§  5.  The  fatal  St  Bartholomew  approached  (August  24),  the  day 
when  the  clergy  were  obliged^  by  the  late  law,  either  to  relinquish 
their  livings  or  to  sign  the  articles  required  of  them.  A  large 
number  relinquished  their  cures,  and  sacrificed  their  interest  to 
their  religious  convictions.  Bishoprics  were  ofiered  to  Galamy, 
Baxter,  and  Reynolds,  leaders  among  the  presbyteriaos ;  but  the 
last  only  could  be  prevailed  on  to  accept  promotion. 

In  June,  1663,  arohl^op  Juxon  died,  and  was  succeeded  bj 
Sheldon,  bishop  of  London.  This  year,  for  the  last  time,  the  clergy 
granted  four  subsidies  to  the  crown;  for  from  this  date,  though 
never  formally  relinquishing  their  ancient  right  of  taxing  them* 
selves,  they  were  taxed  ¥dth  the  laitv  by  their  representatives  in 
parliament  With  a  view  of  mitigacfng  the  rigours  of  the  act  of 
uniformity,  a  declaration  was  issued  by  the  king  on  the  26th  of 
December,  1662,  in  which  he  mentioned  the  promises  of  liberty 
of  conscience  contained  in  the  declaration  of  Breda ;  and  he  expressed 
his  intention  of  making  it  his  special  care  to  incline  the  parliament 
to  concur  with  him  in  some  such  act  for  that  purpose  as  might 
enable  him  to  exercise,  with  a  more  universal  satisfaction,  that 
power  of  dispensing  with  the  penalties  of  the  law,  in  case  of 
dissenters,  which  he  conceived  to  be  inherent  in  him.*  In  confor- 
mity with  this  design,  at  the  meeting  of  parliament  (February 
18, 1663),  the  king  made  a  speech  intimating  his  desire  of  granting 
some  indulgence  to  dissenters.  But  the  commons  were  not  inclined 
to  concede  it  They  petitioned  against  it  (February  18),  and  on 
the  1st  of  April  followed  up  their  opposition  by  an  address,  thak 
all  popish  priests  and  Jesuits  might  be  banished  the  kingdom. 
Whether  they  began  to  suspect  the  king  of  an  inclination  to  Roman* 
ism,  and  were  even  then  aware  that  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York; 
had  embraced  that  faith,  is  nncertain.f 

Notwithstanding  the  supplies  voted  to  Charles,  his  treasury  WM 


•  The  Ditptnting  amd  fkupending 
Pmoeri^  M  they  are  called,  were  cUimed 
both  by  Ghariea  II  and  James  II.  The 
iHtpetuing  Power  ooDsista  In  the  exemp- 
tion or  particular  persons,  under  special 
drcntnRtanccfi,  from  the  operation  of  penal 
laws ;  the  Suspending  Power  in  nnUliying 
the  antire  operation  of  any  itatata  or  any 


number  of  statntes.  (Amos,  T%e  JBtig* 
lish  Conttitution  in  the  Reign  qf  Chariei 
U.  p  19.  seq.)  Charles  II.  mate  a 
■econd  attempt  in  1672  to  suapeiMl  tba 
penal  laws  against  nonconformists,  flat 
below,  p.  468. 

t  The  duke  did  not  avow  IdaaonTnioii 
nntuieea. 


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AJ>.  166^1664.    TRIENNIAL  ACT  REPEALED.        459 

still  yeiy  empty  and  very  much  indebted.  The  forces  sent  over  to 
Portugal,  and  the  fleets  maintained  in  order  to  defend  it,  had  already 
cost  the  king  nearly  double  the  money  which  had  been  paid  as  the 
queen's  portion.  The  time  fixed  for  payment  of  his  sister's  portion 
to  the  duke  of  Orleans  was  approaching.  Tangier  had  become  an 
additional  burden  to  the  crown,  and  Dunkirk  cost  120,000Z.  a  year. 
Clarendon  advised  the  accepting  of  a  sum  of  money  in  lieu  of  a  place 
which  he  thought  the  king,  from  the  narrow  state  of  his  revenue, 
was  no  longer  able  to  retain  ;  and  a  bargain  was  at  length  concluded 
with  Prance  for  400,00(W.  (November,  1662).  The  artillery  and 
stores  were  valued  at  a  fifth  of  the  sum.  The  net  was  unpopular,  but 
the  impolicy  of  the  sale  consisted  only  in  its  having  been  made  to 
France.     (Supplcmuut,  Note  VII.) 

§  6.  Next  session  the  parliament  (March,  1664)  brought  in  a  bill 
for  repealing  the  triennial  act ;  and  in  lieu  of  the  former  securities 
passed  a  bill  "  for  assembling  and  holding  of  ]  arlianients  once  in 
three  years  at  least."  By  the  act  of  uniformity,  every  clergyman 
who  should  cfficiate  without  being  properly  qualified  was  punishable 
by  fine  and  imprisonment.  To  give  efl*ect  to  this  act,  a  statute  was 
passed  for  "  preventing  and  suppressing  seditious  conventicles."  It 
provided  that,  wherever  five  persons  above  those  of  the  same  house- 
hold should  assemble  in  a  religious  congregation,  every  one  of  them 
should  be  liable,  for  the  first  offence,  to  be  imprisoned  three  months, 
or  pay  5Z, ;  for  the  second,  to  be  imprisoned  six  months,  or  pay  10^. ; 
and  for  the  third,  to  be  transjwrted  seven  years,  or  pay  luO/.  A 
second  conventicle  act,  passed  six  years  later  (1670),  reduced  the 
penalties  on  hearers,  but  inflicted  a  fine  on  preachers  and  those  who 
lent  their  houses  for  this  purpose.  The  commons  likewise  presented 
an  address  to  the  king,  complaining  of  the  wrongs  offered  to  the 
English  trade  by  the  Dutch,  and  promising  to  assist  the  king  with 
their  lives  and  fortunes  in  asserting  the  rights  of  his  crown 
against  all  opposition  whatsoever.  This  was  the  first  open  step 
towards  the  Dutch  war.  The  rivalship  of  commerce  had  produced 
among  the  English  a  violent  enmity  against  the  neighbouring  re- 
public. The  English  merchants  had  the  mortification  to  find  that 
all  attempts  to  extend  their  trade  were  still  turned  by  the  vigilance 
of  their  rivals  to  their  loss  and  dishonour,  and  their  indignation  in- 
creased when  they  considered  the  superior  naval  power  of  England. 
The  duke  of  York  was  eagerly  in  favour  of  the  war  with  Holland, 
and  desired  an  opportunity  of  distinguishing  himself.  The  trade  of 
the  new  African  company  was  checked  by  the  settlements  of  the 
Dutch.*     The  king  yielded  to  the  wishes  of  the  nation  ;  war  was 

»  QnineM  were  now  flnt  ooined  in  EDglaod  of  the  gold  brougbi  from  tbeaetUcment 
•fthat  DAme. 


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460  CHARLKS  n.  Cbaf.  zxiv. 


Medal  of  James  dake  of  York,  afterwards  Jamea  IL,  commemorating  the  HtTtl  Vldtey 

over  the  Dutch,  June  3,  1665. 
ObTerae :  iacobus  .  dvx  .  bbos  .  bt  .  albak  .  dom  .  maok  .  ADMnuiLLua .  amqum  .  tax. 
Bust  to  ri^t. 

declared  with  the  Dutch  (February  22, 1665).  To  support  it  par- 
liament vuted  two  millions  and  a  half,  the  largest  supply  that  bad 
ever  yet  been  given  to  any  king  of  England. 

The  English  fleet,  consisting  of  08  sail,  was  commanded  by  the 
duke  of  York,  and  under  him  by  prince  Rupert  and  the  earl  of 
Sandwich.  Opdam  was  admiral  of  the  Dutch  navy,  of  nearly  equal 
force.  A  battle  was  fought  in  Solebay  off  the  coast  of  Suffolk 
(June  3).  In  the  heat  ol  action,  when  engaged  in  close  fight  with 
the  duke  of  York,  Oj>dam's  ship  blew  up.  This  accident  much 
discouraged  the  Dutch,  who  fled  towards  their  own  coast.  The 
vanquished  had  1 9  ships  sunk  and  taken ;  the  victors  lost  only  one. 
In  this  war  the  method  of  fighting  in  line  was  first  introduced  into 
naval  tactics  by  the  duke  of  York.  The  French  monarch,  alarmed 
lest  the  English  should  establish  an  uncontrollable  dominion  over 
the  sea  and  over  commerce,  resolved  to  support  the  Dutch  in  the 
unequal  contest  in  which  they  were  engaged,  and  declared  war 


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166^       THB  PLAGUE  OF  LONDON.  461 


R«TerM :  HBO  iBtnor  or  tsbr».    A  Naval  Engagement :  In  fh>Dt  the  Admiral's  ships 
beneath,  iivmii  1665. 

against  England.   (January  16, 1666).    He  was  joined  by  the  king 
of  Denmark. 

In  this  year  the  plague  broke  out  in  London  with  great  violence. 
In  July  the  weekly  deaths  were  1100 ;  they  increased  to  10,000  a 
week  in  September ;  and  not  less  than  100,000  persons  were  com- 
puted to  have  perished  in  the  course  of  the  year.  In  consequence 
of  the  plague,  the  king  summoned  the  parliament  to  Oxford ;  and 
they  voted  him  1,'. 50,000?.,  to  be  levied  in  two  years  by  monthly 
assessments.  In  the  same  session  was  i>as8ed  the  FrvB-MiT.E  Act, 
by  which  it  was  enacted  that  any  dissenting  teacher  who  had  not 
subscribed  the  declaration  required  by  the  act  of  uniformity,  and 
refused  to  subscribe  the  oath  of  non-resistance,  should  not,  except 
in  travelling,  come  within  five  miles  of  any  corporate  town  sending 
members  to  parliament,  or  of  any  place  where  he  had  formerly 
preached.  The  penalty  was  a  fine  of  40L,  and  six  months'  im- 
prisonment. Many  of  the  nonconformists  after  their  ejection 
obtained  a  living  by  keeping  schools,  but  this  resource  was  denied 


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462  CHARLES  H.  CteAP.  zziT. 

them,  under  colour  of  removing  them  from  places  where  their  in- 
fluence might  be  dangerous. 

§  7.  After  France  had  declared  war,  England  was  evidently  over- 
matched in  force.  Louis  had  given  orders  to  the  duke  of  Boiufort, 
his  admiral,  to  sail  from  Toulon  with  40  sail.  Monk,  now  duke  of 
Albemarle,  and  prince  Rupert  commanded  the  English  fleet,  which 
exceeded  not  74  sail.  Albjinarle  detached  prince  Rupert  with 
20  ships  in  order  to  opi^iose  the  duke  of  Beaufort.  It  had  been 
reported  that  the  Dutch  fleet  was  not  ready  for  sea ;  but  Albemarle, 
to  his  great  surprise,  descried  oflf  the  North  Foreland  the  Dutch 
fleet  of  more  than  80  sail,  under  De  Kuyter  and  Tromp,  son  of  the 
famous  admiral.  Nevertheless  he  gave  orders  to  attack.  The 
battle  that  ensued  is  one  of  the  most  memorable  that  we  read  of  in 
story,  whether  we  consider  its  long  duration  or  the  desperate  courage 
with  which  it  was  fought  (June  1-4, 1666).  Albemarle  made  here 
some  atonement  by  his  valour  for  the  rashness  of  the  attempt  On 
the  first  day  darkness  parted  the  combatants  before  any  decided 
result  had  been  achieved.  On  the  second  day  16  fresh  ships  joined 
the  Dutch  fleet  during  the  action ;  and  the  English  were  so  shattered 
that  their  fighting  ships  were  reduced  to  2ft,  and  they  found  them- 
selves obliged  to  retreat  towards  their  own  coast.  Next  morning 
the  English  were  compelled  to  continue  their  retreat.  About  two 
o'clock  the  Dutch  had  come  up  and  were  ready  to  renew  the  fight, 
when  a  new  fleet  was  descried  from  the  south,  crowding  all  sail  ta 
reach  the  scene  of  action.  It  was  prince  Rupert's  fleet ;  and  Albe- 
marle, who  had  received  intelligence  of  the  prince's  approach,  bent 
his  course  towards  him.  Unhappily  the  Prince  Bt^ydlf  a  ship  of 
100  guns,  the  largest  in  the  fleet,  ran  on  the  Galloper  sands,  and 
was  obliged  to  strike.  Next  morning  the  battle  began  afresh,  with 
more  equal  force  than  ever,  and  with  equal  valour.  After  long 
cannonading,  the  fleets  came  to  a  close  combat,  which  was  continued 
with  great  violence  till  they  were  i^arted  by  a  mist  The  English 
retired  first  into  their  harbours,  and  victory  remained  uncertain.  It 
was  the  conjunction  alone  of  the  French  that  could  give  a  decisive 
superiority  to  the  Dutch.  In  order  to  facilitate  this  conjunction,  De 
Ruy  ter,  having  repaired  his  fleet,  posted  himself  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames.  The  English,  under  prince  Rupert  and  Albemarle,  were 
not  long  m  coming  to  the  attack  (July  25).  The  numbers  of  each 
fleet  amounted  to  about  80  sail ;  and  the  valour  and  experience  of 
the  commanders,  as  well  as  of  the  seamen,  rendered  the  engagement 
fierce  aiid  obstinate.  The  battle  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Dutch ; 
and  De  Ruyter,  full  of  indignation  at  yielding  the  sui^eriority  to 
the  enemy,  frequently  exclaimed,  "  My  God!  what  a  wretch  am  II 
.Among  so  many  thousand  bullets,  is  tiiere  not  one  to  put  an  end  to 


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AJD.  1666-1667.  THE  FIRE  OF  LONDOK.  468 

my  miserable  life?**  All  that  night  and  next  day  the  English 
pressed  upon  the  rear  of  the  Dutch,  and  it  was  only  by  the  redoubled 
efforts  of  De  Ruyter  that  the  latter  saved  themselves  in  their  har- 
bours. The  English  now  rode  incontestable  masteia  of  the  sea,  and 
insulted  the  Dutch  in  their  havens. 

During  this  war  a  calamity  happened  in  London  which  threw  the 
people  into  great  consternation.  A  fire,  breaking  out  in  a  baker's 
house  near  the  bridge,  spread  itself  on  all  sides  with  such  rapidity 
that  no  efforts  could  extinguish  it  till  it  had  laid  in  ashes  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  city.  Four  days  and  nights  did  the  fire  advance 
(September  2-5),  and  it  was  only  by  the  'blowing  up  of  houses  that 
it  was  at  last  extinguished  The  king^  and  the  duke  used  their 
utmost  endeavours  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  flames,  but  all  their 
efforts  were  unsuccessfuL  About  400  streets  and  13,000  houses 
were  reduced  to  ashes.  The  causes  of  this  calamity  were  evident. 
The  narrowness  of  the  streets  of  London,  where  the  houses  were 
almost  entirely  built  of  wood,  the  dryness  of  the  season,  and  a 
violent  east  wind  r  these  were  so  many  concurring  circumstances 
which  rendered  it  easy  to  divine  the  reason  of  the  destruction.  But 
the  multitude  was  not  satisfied  with  this  obvious  account.  As  the 
papists  were  the  chief  objects  of  public  detestation,  the  rumour 
which  threw  the  guilt  on  them  was  favourably  received  by  the  people. 
No  proof,  however,  or  even  presumption,  after  the  strictest  inquiry 
by  a  committee  of  parliament,  ever  appeared  to  authorize  such  a 
calumny;  yet,  in  order  to  give  countenance  to  the  popular  prejudice, 
the  inscription  engraved  by  authority  on  the  Monument  ascribed 
this  calamity  to  that  hated  sect.  Though  the  ruins  of  the  city 
extended  over  486  acres,  the  fire  proved  in  the  issue  beneficiaL 
Care  was  taken  to  make  the  streets  wider  and  more  regular  than 
before,  and  London  became  much  more  healthy.  The  plague, 
which  used  to  break  out  with  great  fury  twice  or  thrice  every 
contury,  and  indeed  was  always  lurking  in  some  comer  or  other  of 
the  city,  has  never  appeared  since  that  calamity.  Li  this  fire  old 
St.  Paul's  was  destroyed,  and  as  the  books  published  during  that 
year  were  stored  under  its  vaults,  they  perished  in  the  flames. 

The  fruitless  and  destructive  nature  of  the  war,  combined  with  the 
plague  and  fire,  disposed  the  English  cabinet  to  make  advances  for 
a  peace.  Conferences  were  opened  at  Breda  in  May,  1667.  Money 
was  icarce  in  consequence  of  the  embarrassments  occasioned  by  the 
plague  and  the  fire,  and  the  large  ships  were  laid  up  in  the  hopes 
of  peace.  De  Witt,  who  governed  the  Dutch  republic  at  this  time, 
saw  that  it  was  a  favourable  opportunity  for  striking  a  blow  which 
might  at  once  restore  to  the  Dutch  the  honour  lost  during  the  war, 
and  severely  revenge  thoee  injuries  which  he  ascribed  to  the  wanton 


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464  CHABLES  IL  Chap.  xxit. 

ambition  and  injustice  of  the  English.    Instigated  also  by  the 
English  R'fug.es  in  Holland,  he  refused  an  azmistice,  protracting  the 
negociations  at  Breda,  whilst  he  hastened  the  naval  preparationa. 
The  Dutch  fleet  appeared  in  the  Thames  under  the  command  of  De 
Bnyter.    The  new  fort  of  Sheemess,  built  to  replace  the  strong 
castle  of  Queenborough,  foclish.y  dismantled  by  thr  commonwealth, 
was  destroyed  (June  11).    Taking  lae  advantage  of  a  spring  tide 
and  an  easterly  wind,  the  Dutch  pressed  on  and  broke  the  chain 
which  had  been  dravm  acro.^  the  Medway,  thjugh  the  passage  had 
been  obstructed  by  sunken  vessels.     Three  ships  which  guarded 
the  chain  were  destroyed ;  several  more  were  damaged,  others  were 
burned  at  Chatham  (June  13).    The  Dutch  f?ll  down  vhe  Medway 
without  receiving  any  considerable  damage ;  and  :t  was  apprehended 
that  they  might  next  tide  sail  up  the  Thames,  and  extend  their 
hostilities  even  to  London  bridge.     Thirteen  ships  were  sunk  at 
Woolwich,  four  at  Blackwall ;  platforms  were  raised  in  many  places, 
furnished  with  artillery ;  the  trained  bands  were  called  out  i  and  eveiy 
place  was  in  a  violent  agitation,     llie  Dutch  sailed  next  to  Ports- 
mouth, where  they  made  a  fruitless  attempt ;  they  met  with  no 
better  success  at  Plymouth ;  they  insulted  Harwich ;  they  ^iled 
again  up  the  Thames  as  far  as  Tilbury,  where  they  were  repulsed. 
The  whole  coast  was  in  alarm  ;  and  had  the  French  thought  proper 
at  this  time  to  join  the  Dutch  fleet  and  to  invade  England,  conse- 
quences the  most  fatal  might  justly  have  been  apprehended.    But 
Louis  had  no  intention  to  push  the  victory  to  such  extremities : 
his  interest  required  that  a  balance  should  be  kept  between  the  two 
maritime  powers,  not  that  an  uncontrolled  superiority  should  be 
given  to  either. 

The  second  Dutch  war  was  ended  by  the  treaty  of  Breda  (July  21, 
1667).  The  acquisition  of  New  York,  formerly  New  Amsterdam^ 
captured  by  sir  Robert  Holmes  (August  27, 1664),  was  one  of  the 
chief  advantages  the  English  reaped  from  the  war.  By  the  same 
treaty  Nova  Scotia  was  given  up  to  France  in  return  for  Antigua, 
Monserrat,  and  St.  Kitts. 

§  8.  On  the  11th  of  August  the  great  seal  was  taken  from  the 
earl  of  Clarendon,  who  had  always  been  the  king's  most  trusty 
adviser,  and  was  given  to  sir  Orlando  Bridgman  On  the  15th  of 
October  both  houses  returned  the  king  thanks  fbr  Clarendon's 
dismifisaL  Although  the  duke  of  York  exerted  his  utmost  interest 
in  behalf  of  his  father-in-law,  these  proceedings  against  the  dis- 
graced minister  were  followed  up  by  an  impeachment  agidnst  him, 
opened  in  the  House  of  Commons  by  ^Ir.  Edward  Seymoiu*  (Novem- 
ber 12).  He  was  accused,  amongst  other  offences,  of  venality  and 
cruelty  in  his  office  as  chancellor,  of  acquiring  enormous  wealtfai 


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A.I>.  1667.  THE  CABAL.  465 

and  selling  Dunkirk  to  the  French.  Most  of  the  cnarges  were  £ftlse 
or  frivolous;  but  some  could  not  so  easily  be  disproved;  and  the 
minds  of  men  were  so  much  irritated  against  him  that  they  were 
ready  to  condemn  him  on  very  insufficient  evidence.  During  his 
administration  he  had  offended  both  parties;  by  cavaliers  and 
presbyterians  he  was  equally  disliked ;  and  his  severe  and  unbend- 
ing manners  unfitted  him  to  mix  in  a  gay  and  licentious  court. 
The  marriage  of  his  daughter,  Anne  Hyde,  with  the  duke  of  York, 
the  heir  presumptive  to  the  throne,  did  not  tend  to  render  Clarendon 
less  austere  and  inflexible,  or  to  conciliate  adversaries.  At  the  sug- 
gestion of  Charles,  the  earl  withdrew  to  the  continent  (December  1). 
From  Calais  he  addressed  a  petition  to  the  lords,  which  was  voted 
scandalous  by  both  houses,  as  reproaching  the  king  and  impugning 
the  justice  of  the  nation.  It  was  condemned  to  bo  burned  by  the 
hands  of  the  hangman.  Both  houses  then  passed  upon  him  sentence 
of  banishment,  and  this  act  received  the  royal  assent  (December 
19).  He  survived  his  sentence  seven  years,  living  first  at  Mont- 
pellier,  afterwards  at  Rouen  ;  and  ho  employed  his  leisure  chiefly 
in  reducing  into  order  his  celebrated  *'  History  of  the  Civil  Wars,* 
for  which  he  had  collected  ampl^  materials. 

§  9.  The  ministry  formed  after  the  dismissal  of  Clarendon,  called 
the  **  King's  Cabal,"  from  the  initial  letters  of  the  names  of  its  five 
principal  members,  consisted  of  sir  Thomas  Clifford,  afterwards 
lord  Clifford;  lord  Ashley,  afterwards  earl  of  Shaftesbury;  the 
duke  of  Buckingham ;  lord  Arlington,  previously  sir  Henry  Ben- 
nett ;  and  the  earl  of  Lauderdale.  But  the  word  itself  is  of  much 
earlier  origin.  The  ignominious  close  of  the  Dutch  war,  the  fiall  of 
Clarendon,  and  the  discontents  of  parliament,  convinced  the  new 
ministry  of  the  necessity  of  conciliating  popular  feeling ;  and  the 
policy  which  they  now  adopted  equally  surprised  and  delighted 
the  nation. 

Louis  XIV.,  who  now  filled  the  throne  of  France,  surpassed  all 
contemporary  monarchs,  as  in  grandeur,  so  likewise  in  fame  and 
glory.  His  ambition,  regulated  by  prudence,  not  by  justice,  ci»re- 
fully  provided  every  means  of  conquest ;  and  before  he  put  himself 
in  motion  he  seemed  to  have  absolutely  insured  success.  The  sudden 
decline  and  almost  total  fall  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  opened  an 
inviting  field  to  so  enterprising  a  prince.  Setting  up  a  claim  to  the 
Spanish  Netherlands  in  right  of  his  wife  Louis  invaded  the  country 
with  a  powerful  army ;  Lisle,  Courtray,  and  several  other  cities 
were  immediately  taken ;  and  it  was  visible  that  no  force  in  the 
Netherlands  was  able  to  stop  or  retard  the  progress  of  the  French 
arms.  Sir  William  Temple,  the  British  resident  at  Brussels,  urged 
upon  his  government  the  importance  of  forming  a  leagut  with 


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466  CHARLES  n.  Chat.  xxit. 

Holland  In  order  to  save  the  Netherlands,  and  he  received  instrno- 
tions  to  go  secretly  to  the  Hague,  and  enter  into  negociations  with 
the  States.  He  found  in  De  Witt,  then  the  chief  minister  of  the 
repuhlic,  a  man  of  generous  and  enlarged  sentiments ;  and  in  five 
days'  time  an  alliance  was  formed  between  England  and  Holland 
to  check  the  ambitious  schemes  of  Louis.  This  league  was  joined 
by  Sweden,  and  hence  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Tbiplb 
Alliance  (January  13, 1668).  Louis  was  obliged  to  give  way ; 
the  plenipotentiaries  of  all  the  powers  met  shortly  afterwards  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle ;  and  a  treaty  was  concluded  upon  the  terms  agreed 
upon  by  Temple  and  De  Witt,  by  which  it  was  arranged  that  Spain 
should  resign  to  France  all  the  towns  conquered  by  the  French  in 
the  last  campaign,  but  should  be  guaranteed  in  the  possession  of 
tho  rest  of  Flanders. 

But  the  triple  alliance  was  not  popular  with  Charles.  He  had 
no  likiTig  for  the  Dutch,  who  were  republicans,  still  less  for  the 
party  of  De  Witt.  Many  of  the  bitterest  opponents  to  the  mon- 
archy, who  still  hoped  for  the  restoration  of  the  good  old  cause,  as 
they  termed  the  commonwealth,  had  found  refuge  and  favour  in 
Holland.  From  Holland  their  political  and  religious  emissaries 
passed  over  to  England,  to  sow  disaffection  and  foment  insurrections. 
However  ostensibly  submissive,  parliament  had  resolved  to  keep 
the  reins  in  its  own  hands  ;  and  Charles  did  not  trust  parliament, 
nor  had  he  much  reason  for  trusting  it.  He  was  a  keen  observer  of 
mankind,  and  it  did  not  require  much  keenness  of  observation  to 
see  that  those  very  men  who  were  now  loudest  in  their  professions 
of  loyalty  had  once  been  as  loud  in  their  denunciation  of  monarchy. 
But  to  secure  independence,  he  must  court  the  alliance  of  Louis. 
Accordingly,  soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  triple  alliance,  he 
entered  into  negociations  with  Louis  through  his  sister,  the  duchess 
of  Orleans,  by  whose  means  a  secret  treaty  between  England  and 
France  was  concluded  at  Dover  (May  22, 1670).  By  this  treaty 
Charles  was,  at  a  convenient  time,  to  make  a  public  profession  of 
the  Roman  catholic  religion,  and  also  assist  Louis  against  Holland. 
Louis,  in  return,  agreed  to  pay  Charles  200,000?.  a  year  for  the 
support  of  the  fleet  so  long  as  the  war  lasted,  and  to  aid  him  with 
an  army  of  6000  men  in  the  event  of  an  insurrection  in  England. 

The  treaty  was  signed  by  all  the  members  of  the  "  Cabal ; "  but 
the  article  relating  to  religion  was  divulged  only  to  Clifford  and 
Arlington,  both  of  whom  were  catholics.  The  treaty  was  disgrace- 
ful ;  but  it  is  probable  that  neither  of  the  principal  contrahents 
over  seriously  intended  to  carry  out  his  part  of  the  treaty. 
Louis  was  not  to  advance  the  money  until  Charles  found  it  con- 
venient to  turn  catholic ;  and  Charles,  on  his  part,  never  found  il 


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A.D.  1670-1671.  blood's  CRIMES.  467 

oonvenient  to  turn  catholic,  because  he  never  could  be  sure,  if  be 
did,  that  Louis  would  advance  the  money. 

§  10.  About  this  time  Blood  made  himself  memorable  by  his 
daring  and  his  crimes.  He  was  a  disbanded  officer  of  the  protector's, 
and  having  been  attainted  for  an  insurrection  in  Ireland,  he  medi- 
tated revenge  upon  Ormond,  the  lord-lieutenant.  Having  by  artifice 
drawn  ofif  the  duke's  footmen,  he  attacked  his  coach  in  the  night 
time,  as  it  drove  along  St.  James's  street  in  London,  and  made 
himself  master  of  the  duke's  person.  He  might  have  accomplished 
his  crime  on  the  spot  had  he  not  meditated  refinements  in  his 
vengeance;  He  was  resolved  to  hang  the  duke  at  Tyburn,  and  for 
that  purpose  bound  him,  and  mounted  him  on  horseback  behind 
one  of  his  companions.  They  were  advanced  a  good  way  into  the 
fields,  when  the  duke,  making  efforts  for  his  liberty,  threw  himself 
to  the  ground,  and  brought  down  with  him  the  assassin  to  whom 
he  was  fetstened.  As  they  were  struggling  together  in  the  mire, 
Ormond's  servants,  roused  by  the  alarm,  came  up  to  the  rescue. 
Blood  and  his  companions,  firing  their  pistols  in  a  hurry  at  the 
duke,  rode  off,  and  saved  themselves  by  means  of  the  darkness 
(December  6, 1670).  Buckingham  was  at  first,  with  some  appear- 
ances of  reason,  suspected  to  be  the  author  of  this  attempt ;  and 
Ossory,  Ormond's  son,  told  him  in  the  king's  presence,  that,  if  his 
father  came  to  a  violent  end,  he  would  pistol  him,  though  he  stood 
behind  the  king's  chair.  Shortly  after,  Blood  nearly  succeeded  in 
carrying  off  the  regalia  from  the  Tower  (May  9,  1671).  He  had 
wounded  Edwards,  the  keeper  of  the  jewel-office,  and  had  got  out  of 
the  Tower  with  his  plunder,  when  he  was  overtaken  and  seized, 
with  some  of  his  associates.  One  of  them  was  known  to  have 
been  concerned  in  the  attempt  upon  Ormond,  and  Blood  was  im- 
mediately concluded  to  be  the  ringleader.  When  questioned,  he 
frankly  avowed  the  enterprise,  but  refused  to  name  his  accomplices. 
"  The  fear  of  death,"  he  said, "  should  never  engage  him  either 
to  deny  guilt  or  betray  a  friend."  These  extraordinary  circum- 
stances made  him  the  general  subject  of  conversation ;  and  the 
king  was  moved,  by  an  idle  curiosity,  to  see  and  speak  with  a 
person  so  noted  for  his  courage  and  his  crimes.  Blood  might  now 
esteem  himself  secure  of  pardon,  and  he  wanted  not  address  to 
improve  the  opportimity.  He  told  Charles  that  he  had  been 
enga<;ed  with  others  in  a  design  to  kill  him  with  a  carabine  above 
Battersea,  where  his  majesty  often  went  to  bathe;  that  when  he 
had  taken  his  stand  among  the  reeds,  full  of  these  bloody  resolu- 
tions, he  found  his  heart  checked  with  an  awe  of  majesty ;  and  he 
not  only  relented  himself,  but  diverted  his  associates  from  their 
purpose.    He  warned  the  king  of  the  danger  which  might  attend 


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468  CHAELES  n.  Cbaf.  xzit. 

his  execution,  sajiDg  that  his  associates  had  hound  themselves  hj 
the  strictest  oaths  to  revenge  the  death  of  any  of  their  confederates. 
Charles  not  only  pardoned  Blood,  hut  conferred  on  him  an  estate 
of  5001.  a  year  in  Ireland.    Eventually  he  died  in  prison. 

§  11.  Though  peace  had  been  concluded  with  the  Dutch  in  1667, 
and  was  apparently  more  strongly  cemented  by  the  triple  allianoe  in 
the  next  year,  their  relations  with  England  were  far  from  satisDetctorj. 
Continual  disputes  took  place  between  the  Dutch  and  Engli^ 
fishermen,  and  the  honour  of  the  flag  was  a  fertile  8o\ux»  of  dis- 
content and  bickering.  At  the  close  of  1671,  Temple,  who  was  sent 
ambassador  to  Holland  (January,  1669),  was  recalled;  and  sir 
George  Downing  was  sent  over  in  his  stead  to  demand  satisfaction. 
But  before  declaring  war  it  was  necessary  to  raise  a  large  sum  of 
money.  The  supplies  lately  voted  by  the  commons  were  nearly 
exhausted ;  and  neither  Charles  nor  his  ministers  ventured  as  yet 
upon  levying  money  without  consent  of  parliament.  In  this  diflB- 
culty  either  Clifford  or  Ashley  suggested  the  shameful  expedient  of 
seizing  all  the  money  which  the  bankers  had  intrusted  to  the 
exchequer.  It  had  been  usual  for  the  bankers  to  lend  large  sums  of 
money  to  the  government,  upon  the  security  of  the  taxes,  and  they 
were  repaid  with  interest  as  the  latter  came  in.  There  were  now 
about  1,300,000/.  thus  advanced  to  the  exchequer;  and  it  was 
suddenly  announced  that  the  government  did  not  intend  to  repay  for 
twelve  months  the  principal,  but  only  the  interest,  to  the  depositors 
(January  2, 1G72).  The  ruin  of  many  followed  this  open  violation 
of  public  credit.  Many  of  the  bankers  stopped  payment,  and 
the  commercial  credit  of  the  nation  was  shaken.  About  the  same 
time  Charles  adopted  other  arbitrary  measures,  though  some  of 
them  were  not  objectionable  in  themselves.  Of  these  the  most 
important  was  a  proclamation,  which  he  issued  by  virtue  of  his 
supreme  power  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  suspending  the  penal  laws 
enacted  against  all  nonconformists  or  recusants  whatsoever,  and 
granting  to  the  protestant  dissenters  the  public  exercise  of  their 
religion,  to  the  catholics  the  exercise  of  theirs  in  private  housea 
(March  15). 

England  and  France  declared  war  against  Holland,  Maidi  17, 
1672.  The  Dutch  fleet,  under  the  command  of  De  Huyter,  sailed 
against  the  combined  English  and  French  fleets,  which  lay  in  South* 
wold  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  Suffolk.  The  English  fleet  was  com- 
manded by  the  duke  of  York.  A  desperate  action  ensued.  The 
French  kept  aloof ;  but  both  the  English  and  Dutch  fleets  suffered 
severely.  The  earl  of  Sandwich,  who  led  the  English  van,  was 
killed.  The  fight  continued  till  night,  when  the  Dutch  retired 
(May  28).    On  land  Louis  at  first  carried  everything  before  himu 


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JLD.  167S.  WAB  WITH  HOLLAinX  460 

He  crossed  the  Bhlne  at  the  head  of  an  irreastlblo  mmj ;  dty  after 
dty  opened  its  gates  to  him»  and  three  of  the  United  ProTinces 
iTere  overrun  by  his  anna.  The  small  army  of  the  republic  was 
commanded  by  William,  prince  of  Orange  (afterwards  William  III. 
of  England),  then  in  the  22nd  year  of  his  age.*  He  gave  strong 
indications  of  those  great  qualities  by  which  his  life  was  afterwards 
so  much  distingtiished.  Unable  to  stem  the  torrent,  he  retired  into 
the  province  of  Holland,  where  he  expected,  from  the  natural 
strength  of  the  country,  since  all  human  art  and  courage  failed,  to 
be  able  to  make  some  resistance.  Amsterdam  alone  seemed  to 
retain  some  courage ;  and  the  sluices  being  opened,  the  neighbour- 
ing country,  without  regard  to  the  damage  sustained,  was  laid 
under  water.  All  the  provinces  followed  the  example,  and  scrupled 
not,  in  this  extremity,  to  restore  to  the  sea  those  fertile  fields  which 
with  great  art  and  expense  had  been  won  from  it  In  these  unfor- 
tunate circumstances,  the  Dutch,  with  the  exception  of  Amftterdam, 
were  prepared  to  make  enormous  sacrifices ;  and  ambassadors  were 
despatched  to  implore  the  pity  of  the  two  combined  monarchs.  In 
answer  to  their  request,  Charles  sent  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  the 
earl  of  Arlington,  and  lord  Hali&x  to  Holland.  When  the  duke 
represented  to  William  the  impossibility  of  successful  resistance, 
and  asked  him  whether  he  did  not  see  that  the  commonwealth  was 
ruined,  **  There  is  one  certain  means,**  replied  the  prince,  "  by  which 
I  can  be  sure  never  to  see  my  country's  ruin — I  will  die  in  the  last 
ditch."  The  terms  proposed  by  each  were  the  hardest;  both  united, 
they  appeared  absolutely  intolerable,  and  reduced  the  Dutch, 
who  saw  no  meanc  of  defence,  to  despair.  What  extremely  aug- 
mented their  distress  were  the  violent  internal  factions  with  which 
they  were  agitated.  De  Witt  still  persevered  in  oppodng  the 
repeal  of  the  perpetual  edict  by  which  the  prince  of  Orange  was 
excluded  from  the  stadtholdership,  and  from  all  share  in  the 
civil  administration.  The  people  rose  in  insurrection  at  Dort,  and 
by  force  constrained  their  burgomasters  to  sign  the  repeal  so  much, 
demanded.  This  proved  a  signal  for  a  g^eneral  revolt  throughout 
all  the  provinces.  At  Amsterdam,  the  Hague,  Middlebourg,  Rot- 
terdam, the  people  flew  to  arms,  and,  l^ranipling  under  foot  the 
authority  of  liieir  magistrates,  obliged  them  to  submit.  This  move- 
ment was  followed  by  the  massacre  of  the  brothers  De  Witt  by  the 
populace  (August  4, 1672),  who  exercised  on  the  dead  bodies  of  those 
virtuous  citizens  indignities  too  shocking  to  be  recited.     But  the 


*  Hit  fkther  bad  been  stadtholder  of  the 

piOTinces,  but  upon  his  death  in  1660, 

eight  days  before  the  birth  of  his  eon,  the 

dignity  remained  in  abeyance.    Great 

22 


JealoQsj  was  fblt  of  the  young  prince,  and 
the  chief  opponent  of  his  party  was  Ds 
Witt,  the  grand  pensionary  of  the  9l» 
Tinoe  of  Holland. 


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470  0BABLE8  IL  Obap. 

repuUio,  now  finnly  united  under  one  leader,  began  to  colleot  the 
remains  of  its  pristine  vigour.  William,  worthy  of  that  heit^ 
family  from  which  he  sprang,  adopted  sentiments  becoming  the 
head  of  a  brave  and  free  people.  The  intolerable  conditions  de- 
manded by  their  enemies  he  exhorted  the  States  to  reject  wUli 
scorn ;  and  by  his  advice  they  put  an  end  to  n^ociations  which 
served  only  to  break  the  courage  of  their  fellow-citizens  and  delay 
the  assistance  of  their  allies.  The  spirit  of  the  young  prince  infused 
itself  into  his  hearers.  Those  who  lately  entertained  thoughts  oi 
yielding  now  bravely  determined  to  resist,  and  defend  those  last 
remains  of  their  native  soil,  of  which  neither  the  irruptions  of  Lou]% 
nor  the  inundation  of  waters,  had  as  yet  bereaved  them.  In  event 
of  failure,  they  were  resolved  to  take  refuge  in  the  Indies,  and  erect 
a  new  empire  in  those  remote  regions.  Louis,  finding  that  his 
enemies  gathered  courage  behind  their  inundations,  and  that  no 
further  success  was  likely  for  the  present  to  attend  his  arms,  retiied 
to  Versailles. 

§  12.  In  February,  1673,  the  English  parliament  met,  after  pro- 
rogations continued  for  nearly  two  years.  They  chose  for  thdr 
speaker  sir  John  Gharleton,  who  was  displaced  on  account  of  illness 
to  make  way  for  Edward  Seymour.  The  king  declared  to  boA 
houses  the  necessity  of  the  war  with  the  Dutch,  desiring  supplies. 
His  indulgence  to  dissenters,  he  told  them,  had  produced  a  good 
effect,  and  he  was  resolved  to  abide  by  it.  He  was  followed  by  lord 
Shaftesbury,  the  chancellor,  who  made  use  of  a  remarkable  expres- 
sion in  his  speech,  much  noticed  at  the  time— i>e2en<2a  est  Cof^ 
thago  ;  meaning  that  the  Dutch  must  be  extirpated,  for  "  they  were 
England's  eternal  enemy  by  interest  and  inclination.'*  On  taking 
the  king's  speech  into  considera«tk)n,  the  commons  resolved,  by  168 
to  116, "  that  the  penal  statutes  against  dissenters  could  not  be  sus- 
peuded  except  by  act  of  parliament,**  and  resolved  to  address  his 
majesty  to  that  effect.  After  a  short  resistance  Charles  gave  way ; 
on  March  8th  he  cancelled  his  declaration  for  suspension  of  the 
penal  laws,  and  received  the  thanks  of  both  houses.  A  motion  had 
been  rejected  in  the  commons  fas  declaring  dissenters  incapable  of 
holding  seats  in  parliament ;  but  a  few  days  after  a  law  was  passed, 
known  as  the  Test  Act,  which  continued  in  force  till  the  reign  of 
Greorge  IV.*  By  this  act  all  persons  holding  any  public  oflBce  were 
compelled  to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy,  to  reoeive 
the  sacrament  according  to  the  rites  of  the  chiurch  of  England,  and 
abjure  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  In  consequence  of  this 
act,  the  duke  of  York  resigned  Ms  commands,  and  was  succeeded  in 
the  fleet  by  prince  Rupert.  He  fought  several  battles  with  the 
*  For  farther  particnlars  see  Notee  end  DKwtnitfons  (A). 


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AJ).  167a-1674       PEACE  WITH  HOLLAND.  471 

Dutch  this  summer,  but  the  victory  was  generally  daabtfoL  The 
French  alliance,  and  the  war  against  Holland,  became  more  and 
more  unpopular ;  and  when  the  parliament  met  in  the  autumn  they 
discovered  great  symptoms  of  ill  hiunour  (October  20).  They  ex- 
pressed great  indignation  at  the  marriage  of  the  duke  of  York  with 
a  princess  of  the  house  of  Modena,  who  was  not  of  the  Protestant 
religion.  They  voted  the  standing  army  a  grievance,  and  declared 
that  they  would  grant  no  more  supplies,  unless  it  appeared  that 
the  Dutch  were  so  obstinate  as  to  refuse  all  reasonable  conditions 
of  peace  (November  4).  To  cut  short  these  disagreeable  attacks, 
the  king  prorogued  the  parliament  to  January  7. 

The  **  Cabal"  ministry  was  now  at  an  end.  Lord  Shaftesbury, 
disgusted  with  the  king's  compliance  on  the  subject  of  indulgence, 
deserted  the  court,  and  beciune  chief  leader  of  the  opposition 
(March).  Directly  after  the  prorogation  he  was  dismissed  from 
the  office  of  chancellor  (November  9),  to  which  he  had  been 
elevated  in  the  preceding  year.  The  great  seal  was  given  to  sir 
Hcneage  Finch,  afterwards  earl  of  Nottingham.  The  test  had 
incapacitated  Clifford,  and  the  white  staff  was  conferred  on  sir 
Thomas  Osborne,  soon  after  created  earl  of  Danby,*  a  minister 
of  some  abilities,  who  had  risen  by  his  parliamentary  talents. 
Parliament  met  at  the  day  appointed  (January  7, 1674),  when  the 
king  desired  that  they  would  grant  supplies  for  the  war,  and  dis- 
chaiqge  his  debts  to  the  goldsmiths.  But  the  opposition,  reinforced 
and  guided  by  the  counsels  and  activity  of  Shaftesbury,  proceeded 
to  attack  the  king's  ministers.  Buckingham  and  Arlington  were 
examined  by  the  commons,  and  the  latter  was  impeached.  On  the 
7th  of  February  they  indirectly  attacked  the  king.  They  resolved 
that  the  maintaining  any  standing  forces,  other  than  the  militia, 
was  a  grievance  to  the  nation ;  that  the  king  ought  not  to  retain 
any  guards,  for  it  was  impossible  to  deliver  the  nation  from  a 
standing  army  until  the  guards  were  "  pulled  up  by  the  roots." 
The  king  plainly  saw  that  he  could  expect  no  supply  from  the 
commons  for  carrying  on  the  war,  and  concluded  a  separate  treaty 
with  the  Dutch  (February  9, 1674).  The  honour  of  the  flag  was 
yielded  to  the  English :  all  possessions  were  restored  to  the  same 
condition  as  before  the  war :  and  the  States  agreed  to  pay  to  the 
king  nearly  300,000?.  Charles,  though  obliged  to  make  a  separate 
peace,  still  kept  up  his  connections  with  the  French  monarch.  He 
apologized  for  deserting  his  ally,  by  representing  to  him  the  diffir 
culties  under  which  he  laboured.  On  February  24  Parliament  was 
prorogued  till  November  10. 

<  He  was  created  by  WilUam  m.  |  duke  of  Leeds  in  1694,  and  fhnn  blmtht 
BMrquees  of  Gamurtben  in  1689,  and  |  preoeot  dake  is  Uoeallj  deecended. 


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472  OHABLBS  IL  Chap.  xxrr. 

§  13.  Ooiulderible  alterationfl  were  made  about  this  time  in  the 
English  ministry.  Buckingham,  who  had  long,  by  his  wit  and  en- 
tertaining humour,  possessed  the  king's  fovour,  was  dismissed ;  and 
he  now,  like  Shaftesbury,  became  a  leader  of  the  opposition.  The 
earl  of  Danby,  the  lord-treasurer,  obtained  the  chief  direction  of 
public  affairs.  He  was  a  declared  enemy  to  the  French  alliance. 
But,  while  he  scorned  the  idea  of  making  the  king  absolute  by 
the  assistance  of  a  foreign  court,  he  had  the  highest  notions  of  the 
king's  prerogative,  and  endeavoured  to  augment  the  power  of  the 
crown.  Accordingly,  in  April,  1675,  he  introduced  a  bill  into  the 
House  of  Lords,  by  which  all  members  of  either  house,  and  all 
who  possessed  any  ofiBce,  were  required  to  swear  that  it  was  not 
lawful,  under  any  pretence  whatsoever,  to  take  arms  against  the 
king ;  that  they  abhorred  the  traitorous  position  of  taking  arms 
by  his  authori^  agunst  his  person ;  and  that  they  would  not  at 
any  time  endeavour  to  alter  the  protestant  religion,  or  the  estab- 
lished government  either  in  church  or  state.  Great  opposition  was 
made  to  this  bilL  For  17  days  the  debates  were  carried  on 
with  much  zeal,  and  it  was  passed  by  two  voices  only  in  the 
House  of  Peers.  During  this  year  great  heats  arose  on  a 
question  of  privilege  between  the  two  houses,  and  all  other 
business  was  suspended.  To  put  an  end  to  this  unseemly  alter- 
cation Charles,  on  June  9,  prorogued  the  commons  until  October 
13.  But  as  differences  still  continued,  when  the  houses  met 
again  in  the  autiunn,  the  commons  were  further  prorogued,  on 
November  22,  to  February  15,  1677.  When  the  parliament  met 
on  that  day,  Buckingham  took  exception  to  its  legality  on  the 
ground  that,  by  a  prorogation  extending  over  15  months,  it  was 
virtually  dissolved.  The  question  was  debated  at  great  length,  and 
ended  in  the  committal  of  the  duke  and  his  supporters,  Shaftesbury, 
Salisbury,  and  Wharton,  to  the  Tower,  for  conUmpt  of  parliament. 

§  14.  Meantime  the  war  continued  on  the  continent.  The  prince  of 
Orange,  supported  by  the  emperor  and  the  German  states,  con- 
tinued manfully  the  struggle  against  Louis.  The  earl  of  Danby 
and  the  nation  urged  Charles  to  join  the  Dutch,  and  put  an 
effectual  ciurb  upon  the  ambition  of  the  French  monarch ;  ^nd  the 
commons  promised  suitable  supplies.  Accordingly,  on  the  16th 
of  April,  1677,  the  royal  assent  was  given  to  :;  bill  for  raising 
money  to  recruit  the  fleet.  But  on  the  25th  of  May  when  the 
feing  had  shown  them  the  necessity  of  supply  before  he  ventured 
on  a  rupture  with  France,  the  commons  declared  they  would 
grant  nothing  until  the  king  had  entered  into  an  alliance  offensive 
and  defensive  with  Holland  against  France.  The  king  stood  upon 
lus  prerogative.    He  lefoaed  to  be  dictated  to  in  matters  of  peace 


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A.a  1677-*1678.  PEACE  OF  NIMEGTTEN. 


473 


or  war,  or  that  the  commons  should  prescrihe  what  aUianoes  ha 
should  make.  He  had  already,  the  year  before  (February  17), 
concluded  a  secret  treaty  with  Louis  XIV.,  by  which,  on  receipt  of 
a  considerable  pension,  he  had  agreed  to  enter  into  no  engagements 
with  foreign  powers  without  the  consent  of  France.  But  Charles 
was  distrusted  by  Louis  as  well  as  by  his  own  subjects.  The 
French  ambassador  entered  into  secret  negociations  with  the 
popular  party,  and  bribed  the  most  eminent  of  the  popular  leaders  to 
resist  the  war  against  France.  Charles,  howeyer,  was  sincerely 
anxious  for  peace;  for  he  was  sensible  that  so  long  as  the  war 
continued  abroad  he  should  never  enjoy  peace  at  home.  As  a 
means  to  this  end,  he  was  persuaded  by  the  earl  of  Danby  and  sir 
William  Temple  to  entertain  proposals  for  marrying  the  princess 
Mary,  the  elder  daughter  of  the  duke  of  York,  to  the  prince  of 
Orange,  who  came  over  to  England  at  the  close  of  the  campaign 
of  1677.  The  marriage  was  celebrated,  November  4,  and  gave 
general  satisfaction ;  but  it  occasioned  no  alteration  in  the  policy 
of  Charles,  except  that  he  exerted  himself  more  vigorously  in 
arranging  the  terms  of  a  peace.  In  the  following  year  (1678) 
peace  was  signed  at  Nimeguen,  between  France  and  Holland 
(August  10).  Louis  resigned  the  city  of  Maestricht  to  the  Dutch, 
but  retained  possession  of  Franche-Comt^,  together  with  Valen- 
ciennes, Cambray,  and  other  towns  in  the  Low  Countries.  The 
French  king  thus  obtained  considerable  accession  of  territory  at 
the  expense  of  Spain.  The  king  of  Spain  and  the  emperor  were 
indignant  at  this  treaty,  but  were  obliged  to  accept  the  terms 
prescribed  to  them. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 


A.  TEST  AND  CORPORATION 
ACTS. 
The  CmyonUion  Act  was  passed  in 
IMl.  In  it  a  religions  test  was  com- 
bined with  a  poUtical  test.  AU  Corpo- 
rate Officers  were  required  to  have  taken 
the  Sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Sapper, 
**  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church  of 
England,"  within  one  year  before  their 
elections,  and.  upon  being  elected,  to  take 
the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  of  supremacy, 
and  the  following  oath:  **I,  A.  B.,  do 
declare  and  believe  that  it  is  not  lawftU, 
upon  any  pretence  whatsoever,  to  take 
anna  against  the  King,  and  that  I  do 
abhor  that  traitorous  position  of  taking 


arms  by  his  authority  against  his  penoo. 
or  against  those  that  are  commissioned 
by  him ; "  besides  subscribing  a  Declara- 
tion against  the  Solemn  League  and  Cbve- 
nant.  The  Oorpontion  Oath  of  Nan- 
raiUoMOi  was  abolished,  not  indeed  at 
the  Revolution,  though  it  most  probably 
became  a  dead  letter  at  that  epoch,  but 
at  the  accession  of  the  House  of  Bruns- 
wick, by  the  ««Act  for  quietalg  and 
establishing  Corporations."     (5  Geo.  I. 

c  e,  s.  a.) 

The  3fe«t  Jc<  was  passed  in  167S,  with 
the  oltfect  of  preventing  political  power 
being  placed  in  the  hands  of  Papists  or 
dissenters.  Its  title  is,  **  An  Act  for  pre- 
venting dangers  which  may  happen  fh>m 


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NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS.         Chap. 


Under  the  firovi- 
ifoiu  of  the  Act,  all  p«nons  bolding  any 
ofBoe  or  place  of  tmet,  dTil  or  militaiy, 
or  admitted  of  the  King's  or  Doke  of 
York's  hooMbold,  were  to  receive  the 
Sacrament  according  to  the  naage  of  the 
QiQrch  of  England,  and  to  make  and 
snbecribe  the  following  declaration:  *'l, 
A.  B.,  do  declare  that  I  bellcTe  there  is 
not  any  trantubitantiaUan  in  the  Sacrar 
ment  of  the  Lord's  Sapper,  or  in  the 
elements  of  bread  and  wine^  at  or  after 
the  consecration  thereof  by  any  person 
whatflo -ver."  The  Dissenters  entertained 
such  fears  of  the  Papists  that  they 
actively  supported  the  passing  of  this 
Act,  though  it  included  them  not  less 
than  Papists,  by  reason  of  the  requisition 
of  taking  the  Sacrament  according  to  tlie 
rites  of  the  Chorch  of  England. 

The  Parliamentarjf  IM  was  imposed 
in  the  year  1678,  five  years  after  the  first 
test.  In  this  interval,  the  alarm  in  the 
country  of  the  designs  of  Papists  had 
been  greatly  increased  by  the  discovery 
of  the  supposed  Popish  Plot.  The  title 
of  the  Act  is,  **  An  Act  for  the  more  effec- 
tual preserving  the  King's  person  and 
government,  by  disabling  Papists  from 
sitting  in  either  House  of  Parliament." 
Under  tbe  proviKlons  of  the  Act,  "No 
Peer  or  Member  of  the  House  of  Commons 
shall  sit  or  vote  without  taking  the  oaths 
of  allegiance  and  supremacy,  and  a  De- 
claration repudiating  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  the  adorati<m  of  the 
Virgin,  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 
Peers  and  Members  offending  axe  to  be 
deemed  and  adjudged  Popish  BecuMantM 
eonvict,  and  are  to  forfeit  60M.,"  besides 
suffering  numerous  disabilities.  These 
Acts  were  repealed  in  the  reign  of 
George  IV.— See  Amos,  J%e  BngiiMh  Oon- 
MHtulwn  in  the  Beign  qf  Charlet  JI.,  p. 
135.  seq. 

B.  THE  ACT  OP  UNIFORMITY. 

This  Act  is  entitled  **  An  Aot  for  Uni- 
formity of  Public  Prayers,  and  adminis- 
tration of  Sacraments  and  other  rites  and 
ceremonies;  and  for  establishing  the 
form  of  making,  ordaining,  and  conse- 
crating bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  in 
the  Church  of  England."  In  treating  of 
tbe  Act  it  will  be  convenient  to  notice, 
I..  Uio»e  clauses  which  have  been,  re- 
pealed; and  II.,  those  clauses  touching 
MMot  and  ooDsent  to  the  Book  of  OomnMB 


Prayer  and  Epiaooptl  Ordlnatiaii,  wiikh 
continue  in  foTce  in  the  present  day. 

I.  By  the  Sith  section,  aU  fomer 
statutes  relating  to  the  uniformity  of 
prayer,  and  admlnistnitkm  of  tbe  Sscra- 
ments,  were  re-enacted.  Tbe  Act  of 
Uniformity  in  force  previously  to  tbe 
Statute  of  Charles  II.  was  the  let  of 
Elisabeth,  c.  2,  which  inoorpoiates,  by 
reference,  penal  clauses  in  the  earUsr 
Uniformity  Act  of  6th  and  6th  Edward  VI., 
c  1,  which,  again,  incorporates, 'by  refers 
ence,  similar  clauses  in  the  Unilbrmity 
Act  of  the  2nd  and  3rd  Edward  VI.,  c  1. 
These  obscure  relbrences  will  be  found  ts 
include  **the  declaring  or  speaking  any- 
thing in  the  derogation,  depraving,  or 
despising  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
or  of  anything  therein  contained,  or  any 
part  thereof,  the  punishment  of  whiA, 
for  the  third  offence,  is  forfeiture  of  goods 
and  chattels  and  imprisonment  for  life. 
Among  other  clauses  included,  by  re- 
ference, in  the  Uniformity  Act  of 
Charles  II.,  are  the  compelling  atten- 
dance at  parish  churches,  and  the  offence 
of  whoever  shall  *♦  willingly  and  wit- 
tingly hear  or  be  present  at  any  other 
manner  or  form  of  Common  Prayer  than 
is  mentioned  and  set  forth  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,"  provisions  whidi 
have  been  repealed  by  statutes  of  Vio- 
torfa  (7  and  8  Vict,  c  102;  9  and  10  Vici. 
c.  69). 

fiy  the  14th  section  of  the  Act,  it  is 
enacted,  **  that  no  person  shall  presume 
to  adminitter  the  holy  SaeremutU  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  before  such  time  as  be 
shall  be  ordained  Priest,  according  to  the 
form  and  manner  in  and  by  the  said 
Book  prescribed,  unless  he  have  formerly 
been  made  Priest  by  episcopal  ordination, 
upon  pain  to  forfeit  for  the  said  offsoos 
the  sum  of  loot."  The  lOOl.  penalty  was 
repealed  by  the  Toleration  Act  of  William 
and  Mary. 

The  9th  section  of  the  Act  contained 
the  following  declaration :  **  I,  A.  B ,  do 
declare  that  it  is  not  lawful  on  any  pre- 
tence whatsoever  to  take  arms  against 
the  King;  and  that  I  do  abhor  titat 
traitorous  position  of  taking  arms  by  his 
authority  against  his  person,  or  against 
those  that  are  commiseionated  by  him; 
and  that  I  will  conform  to  the  liturgy  of 
the  Church  of  England  as  it  is  now  by 
law  efiiablished."  This  declaration  was 
required  to  be  subscribed  not  ouiy  Iff 


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Obap.  xzit. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 


475 


•very  person  in  boly  orders,  bat  also  by 
pobUo  And  prfrate  schoolmaateTS,  who 
w«re  likewise  required  to  take  out  a 
Uoense  from  the  biabop  of  the  diooeoe, 
UDder  penalty  of  three  moDtha*  imprlaoa- 
ment.  The  Declaration,  bo  far  aa  it  re- 
latea  to  non-reaiataDoe,  waa  abrogated  at 
the  RerolnUon  (1  Will,  and  Mary  c  8). 
The  licenm  of  private  tntora  continiied, 
though  latterly  a  dead  letter,  till  H  waa 
abollabed  by  a  statute  of  Victoria  (9  and 
10  Vict,  c  59). 

A  Declaration,  repudiating  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  was,  by  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  to  be  taken  until  the  26th 
of  March,  1682,  a  period  aUowed  for  the 
extinction  of  Oovenantera  by  the  courae 
of  nature. 

n.  With  reaped  to  the  penummt 
danues  of  the  Act  of  Unifbrmity :  these 
ar^  lat,  the  Declaration  of  aumt  and 
eotuetU  to  the  Book  of  Gbmmon  Prayer ; 
and  2nd,  a  proviaion  requiring  Ifpiscqpal 
OfdinaMm.— Amoa,  UML,  p.  87,  aeq, 

a  IMMUNTTT  OP  JURIES. 

PnvioQa  to  the  year  1670,  Juriea  were 
frequently  fined  if  they  gave  a  venUot 
contrary  to  the  dictation  of  the  Judge. 
But  in  that  year,  thla  pemldoua  practice 
waa  finally  abolished  by  the  dedaion  of 
Vaughan.  chief  Justice  of  tbe  Common 
fleas.  Tbe  Recorder  of  London  had  ael 
ftflno  of  40  miikf  upon  «mIi  tf  tbt  4017 


who  bad  acquitted  ihe  quaken  Penn  and 
Mead,  on  an  indictment  for  an  unlawftd 
assembly.  Bushell,  the  foreman,  revised 
to  pay,  and  being  committed  to  prison, 
obtained  bis  writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  frt>m 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas ;  and  on  the 
return  made,  that  be  had  been  committed 
for  finding  a  verdict  against  full  and  mani- 
feat  evidence,  and  against  tbe  direction  of 
the  court,  chief  Justice  Vaughan  held  the 
ground  to  be  insufficient,  and  discharged 
the  prisoner.  ErsUne.  in  his  fiunous 
speech  for  the  dean  of  St.  Asaph,  ob- 
served that  the  country  was  almost  aa 
much  indebted  to  Buahell,  aa  to  Hampden 
in  retdating  ehlp-mon^. 

In  earlier  times,  when  Juries  were  also 
witnee^ee  (see  p.  150),  they  were  liable  to 
be  punished  by  the  terrible  writ  of  Attain^* 
if  a  second  jury,  consisting  of  24  Jurors, 
found  them  guilty  of  giving  a  false  ver- 
dict. The  ancient  punishment  was,  in 
such  a  case,  that  the  Jurors  should  be  de- 
prived of  all  their  property,  be  imprisoned, 
and  become  for  ever  infiimous ;  and  that 
the  plaintilT  should  be  restored  to  all  he 
had  lost  by  reason  of  the  uujust  verdict 
This  odious  proceeding,  though  obsolete 
even  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  was  not 
abolished  tUl  the  6th  of  George  IV.  See 
Hallam's  Oonititutional  History,  111.  p.  9 ; 
Amos,  ne^Sngluk  Constitution  in  tht 
Beign  of  Charles  II.,  p.  279,  seq. ;  Ken's 
Ul.  p.  433. 


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Madat  relating  to  the  Rye-house  plot.  Oby. :  pbrihyvt  PVLxmis  icrv  1683.  Tba 
kingai*  Hei«ales  menaced  by  a  hydra-like  monater,  having  seven  hainan  heada.  whidi 
represented  those  of  the  sappoaed  conspirators :  above,  a  hand  in  the  clouds  boldtng 
a  thunderbolt. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

CHARLES  II.  OONTIKUED.       FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  NIHEOUEN  TO  THE 
DEATH  OF  THE  KINO,  A.D.  1678-1685. 

{  1.  The  popish  plot.  Oates's  narrative.  Godfrey's  murder.  §  2.  Zeal  of 
the  parliament.  Bedloe's  narrative.  Bill  for  a  new  test.  §  3.  Accusa- 
tion of  Danbj.  Dissolution  of  parliament.  §  4.  Trial  and  execution  f 
Coleman  and  others.  The  duke  of  Monmouth.  §  5.  A  new  parliament. 
Danbj's  impeachment.  New  council.  §  6.  The  Exclusion  Bill.  Habeas 
Corpus  Act.  §7  Prosecutions  of  papists.  Affairs  of  Scotland.  Murder 
of  archbishop  Sharpe.  §  8.  Meal-tub  plot.  Whig  and  Tory.  §  9. 
Violence  of  the  new  parliament.  Exclusion  Bill  rejected  in  the  Cords. 
Trial  and  execution  of  lord  Stafford.  Parliament  dissolved.  §  10. 
The  new  parliament  dissolved.  Turn  of  the  popular  feeling.  Court 
prosecutions.  §  11.  Trial  of  Shaftesbury  London  and  other  taties 
deprived  of  their  charters.  §  12.  Ry<^house  plot.  Trial  and  execu- 
tion of  lonl  Russell  and  Algernon  Sidney.  §  13.  State  of  the  nation. 
Monmouth  banished.  §  14.  Marriage  of  prince  George  of  Denmark  and 
the  prin<iess  Anne.     Death  and  character  of  Charles  IL 

§  1.  Jealousy  of  Romanism  was  no  novel  thing  in  this  country. 
It  had  prevailed  with  greater  or  less  degree  of  force  from  the  reign 
of  Elizaheth.  The  terrors  engendered  by  the  gunpowder  plot  had 
produced  an  indelible  impression  on  the  mind  of  the  nation,  and 
the  dread  of  it,  even  when  unfounded,  had  often  been  employed  by 
politicians  to  work  out  their  own  purposes.  It  was  in  vain  that  tba 
Stuart  sovereigns  wished  to  ameliorate  the  restrictions  impoflod 


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AA  167&  THB  POnSH  PLOE  477 


BcT. :  mm  tobis  hmo  otia  ncrr.    A  ahepbeid,  the  king,  keeping  his  flock,  m  th* 
midst  of  whicii  two  wolves  hanging  t  In  the  distance  a  view  of  London. 

upon  their  Ixoman  catholic  suhjects.  All  such  efforts  were  resented 
by  the  commons,  and  exposed  the  authors  of  them  to  the  un- 
generous suspicion  of  encouraging  popery.  The  fiEuiaticism  of  the 
Long  Parliament,  which  found  nn  outlet  for  its  vengeance  in  perse- 
cuting and  suppressing  the  church  of  England,  was  not  yet  e|[- 
tinguished,  but  now  had  a  solitary  victim  in  the  Roman  catholics. 
The  fire  of  London,  as  we  have  seen,  was  ascribed  to  their 
machinations,  and  though  this  might  be  only  a  popular  delusion, 
an  error  suitable  to  the  vulgar,  the  House  of  Commons  had 
maintained  its  influence  over  the  minds  of  men  by  a  succession  of 
anti-popery  cries  and  remonstrances,  which  culminated  in  the 
Test  Act.  Popular  apprehension  was  at  this  era  augmented  by 
the  marriage  of  the  duke  of  York,  the  heir  presumptive  to  the  throne, 
with  a  Roman  catholic  princess ;  by  the  duke's  avowal  of  the  same 
£edth ;  by  the  successes  of  Louis  XIV. ;  by  rumours  of  the  true 
character  of  the  treaty  of  Dover,  of  which  it  was  impossible  that 
either  Shaftesbury  or  Buckingham,  both  violent  opponents  of  the 
court,  both  fomenters  of  these  disgraceful  plots,  could  be  ignorant; 
by  dark  rumours  spread  in  coffee-houses,  which  the  government 
had  attempted  in  vain  to  regulate;  by  the  reports  of  secret  emissaries, 
chiefly  sent  over  from  Holland.  The  nation  was  a^tated  by  some 
vague  and  uncertain  apprehension,  which  only  required  an  un- 
scrupulous agent  to  give  it  form  and  consistency.  That  agent  was 
found  in  Titus  Oates.  On  the  12th  of  August,  1678,  as  the  king 
was  walking  in  the  park,  he  was  accosted  by  one  Kirby,  a  chemist. 
"Sir,*' said  he,  "keep  within  the  company:  your  enemies  have  a 
design  upon  your  life ;  and  you  may  be  shot  in  this  yeiy  waif 


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478  CHARLES  n.  Gbap.  rr7. 

Being  asked  the  reason  of  these  strange  speeches,  he  said  that  two 
men,  called  Grove  and  Pickering,  were  engaged  to  shoot  the  king,  and 
sir  George  Wakeman,  the  queen's  physician,  to  poison  him.  This 
intelligence,  Kirby  added,  had  been  communicated  to  him  by  Dr. 
Tonge,  whom  he  proposed  to  introduce  to  his  majesty.  Tonge  was 
rector  of  St.  Michaers,  Wood-street ;  active,  restless,  full  of  projects, 
void  of  understanding.  He  brought  certain  papers  to  the  king, 
which  contained  information  of  a  plot,  and  were  digested  into  43 
articles.  Tonge  said  that  they  had  been  secretly  thrust  under  his 
door,  and  that,  though  he  suspected,  he  did  not  know  certainly,  who 
was  the  author.  The  king  gave  no  credit  to  the  story ;  but  the 
duke  of  York,  hearing  that  priests  and  Jesuits,  and  even  his  own 
confessor,  had  been  accused,  was  desirous  that  a  thorough  inquiry 
should  be  made  by  the  council  into  the  intended  conspiracy.  Kirby 
and  Tonge  were  found  to  be  living  in  close  connection  with  Titus 
Gates,  the  person  who  was  said  to  have  conveyed  the  first  intelligence 
to  Tonge.  Gates  was  a  man  of  infamous  character.  He  had  been 
originally  an  anabaptist,  had  become  a  clerg3rman  of  the  established 
church  at  the  Restoration,  and  subsequently  went  abroad,  pretending 
to  be  a  convert  to  Romanism.  He  had  been  expelled  from  the 
English  college  at  St.  Gmer,  where  he  had  become  acquainted  with 
the  names  of  the  leading  Romanists.  As  this  man  expected  more 
encouragement  from  the  public  than  from  the  king  and  his  ministers, 
he  thought  proper,  before  he  was  presented  to  the  council,  to  go  with 
his  two  companions  to  sir  Edmondbury  Godfrey,  a  noted  and  active 
justice  of  peace,  and  to  give  evidence  before  him  of  the  conspiracy. 
The  main  articles  of  this  wonderful  intelligence  were,  that  the  pope 
had  delegated  the  sovereignty  of  Great  Britain  to  the  Jesuits,  who 
had  proceeded  to  name  a  government  and  fill  up  the  dignities  of  the 
church  ;  that  the  king,  whom  they  named  **  the  Black  Bastard,"  was 
to  be  put  to  death  as  an  heretic ;  that  Pdre  la  Chaise,  the  celebrated 
confessor  of  Louis  XIV.,  had  remitted  10,000/.  to  London,  as  a 
reward  of  the  king's  assassination,  and  other  foreign  ecclesiastics 
had  offered  further  sums ;  that  London  was  to  be  fired  in  several 
places  by  means  of  fire-balls,  which  they  called  Tewkesbuiy 
mustard-pills ;  that  the  protestants  were  to  be  massacred  all  over 
the  kingdom  :  the  crown  to  be  offered  to  the  duke  on  condition  of 
his  receiving  it  as  a  gift  from  the  pope,  and  utterly  extirpating  the 
protestant  religion :  if  he  refused  these  conditions,  he  himself  was 
immediately  to  be  poisoned  or  assassinated.  To  pot  Jamet  mwtgo--^ 
according  to  the  expression  ascribed  by  Gates  to  the  Jesuits. 

Gates,  when  examined  before  the  council,  contradicted  himself  in 
many  particulars  (August  13).  While  in  Spain,  he  had  been  carried, 
he  said,  to  Don  John,  who  ^ffomised  great  assistance  to  the  executioa 


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AJX  107a  MUBDEB  OY  OOBFBBY.  479 

of  the  oaiholio  dedgns.  The  king  asked  him  what  lort  of  a  man 
Don  John  was :  he  answered,  a  tall  lean  man — directly  contrary  to 
truth,  as  the  king  well  knew.  He  totally  mistook  the  situation  of 
the  Jesuits'  college  at  Paris,  and  fiedled  to  identify  persons  whom  he 
pretended  to  know. 

Notwithstanding  these  objections,  the  violent  animosity  which 
had  been  excited  against  the  catholics  in  general  made  the  publio 
swallow  the  grossest  absurdities:  the  more  diabolical  any  con- 
trivance appeared,  the  better  it  suited  the  tremendous  idea  enter- 
tained of  the  Jesuits.  Danby,  likewise,  who  opposed  the  French 
and  catholic  interest  at  court,  was  willing  to  encourage  every  story 
which  might  serve  to  discredit  that  party.  By  his  suggestion  a 
warrant  was  signed  for  arresting  Coleman,  who  had  been  secretary 
to  the  late  duchess  of  York,  and  whom  Oates  had  implicated  in  his 
evidence.  Coleman's  papers  were  seized,  among  them  copies  of 
letters  to  P^re  la  Chaise  and  other  eminent  foreign  catholics.  These 
did  indeed  betray  a  scheme  for  the  conversion  of  the  nation  to 
popery ;  but  instead  of  the  king  being  murdered,  he  was  to  be 
bribed  by  the  king  of  France,  and  the  design  was  altogether  different 
from  Oates's  pretended  discovery.  Tet  his  plot  and  Coleman's  were 
universally  confounded  together;  and  the  evidence  of  the  latter 
being  unquestionable,  the  belief  of  ihe  former,  aided  by  the  passions 
of  hatred  and  of  terror,  took  possession  of  the  people.  The  murder 
of  sir  Edmondbury  Gbdfrey  completed  the  general  delusion.  The 
body  of  this  magistrate  was  found  lying  in  a  ditch  at  Primrose 
Hill  (October  17) :  marks  of  strangling  were  thought  to  appear  about 
his  neck,  and  some  contusions  on  his  breast :  his  own  sword  was 
sticking  in  his  body  :  he  had  rings  on  his  fingers,  and  money  in  his 
pocket :  it  was  therefore  inferred  that  he  had  not  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  robbers.  Without  further  reasoning,  the  cry  rose  that  he 
had  been  assassinated  by  the  papists,  on  account  of  his  taking  Oates's 
evidence.  The  dead  body  of  Godfrey  was  carried  into  the  city, 
attended  by  vast  multitudes.  The  funeral  was  celebrated  with 
groat  parade.  Yet  the  murder  of  (Godfrey,  in  all  likelihood,  had  no 
connection,  one  way  or  other,  with  the  popish  plot ;  and,  as  he  was 
a  melancholy  man,  there  is  some  reason  to  suspect,  notwithstand- 
ing the  pretended  api)earances  to  the  contrary,  that  he  fell  by  his 
own  hands. 

§  2.  When  the  parliament  met  (October  21),  Danby,  who  hated 
the  catholics  and  courted  popularity,  opened  the  matter  in  the 
House  of  Peers.  The  king  was  extremely  displeased  with  this 
temerity,  and  told  his  minister  that  he  had  given  the  parliament  a 
handle  to  ruin  himself,  and  that  he  would  surely  live  to  repent  it. 
Danby  had  afterwards  sufficient  reason  tp  applaud  the  sagacity  of 


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480  CHABLES  n.  Obap.  zzi; 

his  matter.  The  cry  of  the  plot  was  immediately  ebhoed  from  one 
house  to  the  other.  The  authority  of  parliament  gave  sanction  to 
that  fury  with  which  the  people  were  already  agitated.  A  solemn 
fast  was  appointed :  addresses  were  voted  for  the  removal  of  popish 
recusants  from  London,  and  fur  appointing  the  trained  bimds  of 
London  and  Westminster  to  he  in  readiness.  The  catholic  lords 
Powya»  Btaiford,  Arumiel,  Petre,  and  Bellasis,  were  committed  to  the 
Tower,  and  were  soon  after  impeached  of  high  treason.  Both 
houses,  afler  hearing  Oates^s  evidence,  voted  that  there  had  heen, 
and  still  was,  a  damnahle  and  hellish  plot,  carried  on  hy  popish 
recusants.  Gates,  though  an  infamous  villain,  was  hy  every  one 
applauded,  caressed,  and  called  the  saviour  of  the  nation ;  was 
recommended  hy  the  parliament  to  the  king ;  was  lodged  in  White- 
hall, protected  hy  guards,  and  encouraged  hy  a  pension  of  1200^. 
a  year.  It  was  not  long  hefore  such  hountifid  encouragement 
hrought  forth  a  new  witness,  William  Bedloc,  formerly  a  stahle-hoy 
to  lord  Bellasid,  and  a  man,  if  possible,  more  infamous  than  Oates. 
When  he  appeared  hefore  the  council,  he  gave  intelligence  of  God- 
frey's murder  only,  which,  he  said,  had  been  perpetrated  in  Somer- 
set House,  where  the  queen  lived,  by  papists,  some  of  them  servants 
in  her  family.  He  at  first  pretended  ignorance  of  Oates's  plot; 
but  afterwards  gave  a  narrative  of  it,  making  it  to  tally,  as  well  as 
he  could,  with  that  of  Oates,  which  had  been  published.  But  that 
he  might  make  himself  acceptable  by  new  matter,  he  added  some 
absurd  circumstances  of  vast  invasions  projected  by  France  and 
Spain.  Lord  Garrington  and  lord  Brudenel,  with  all  the  other 
persons  mentioned  by  Bedloe,  as  concerned  in  the  consf^iacy,  were 
immediately  committed  to  custody  by  the  parliament. 

The  king,  though  he  scrupled  not,  wherever  he  could  speak  freely, 
to  throw  ridicule  on  the  plot,  and  on  all  who  believed  it,  yet  found 
It  necessary  to  adopt  the  popular  opinion.  In  his  speech  to  both 
houses,  he  told  them  that,  provided  the  right  of  succession  were 
preserved,  he  would  consent  to  any  laws  for  restraining  a  popish 
successor ;  exhorted  them  to  think  of  effectual  means  for  the  con- 
viction of  popish  recusants;  and  highly  praised  the  duty  and  loyalty 
of  all  his  subjects  who  had  discovered  such  anxious  concern  for  his 
safety  (November  9,  1678). 

An  act /or  disabling  papists^  aimed  by  Shaftesbury,  RusseU,  and 
their  party,  at  the  duke  of  York,  passed  the  commons  without  much 
oppodtion ;  but  in  the  upper  house  the  duke  of  York  moved  that 
an  exception  might  be  admitted  in  his  favour.  With  great  earnest- 
ness, and  even  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  ho  told  them,  that  he  was 
now  to  cast  himself  on  their  kindness,  in  the  greatest  concern  which 
he  oould  have  in  the  world ;  and  he  protested  that,  whatever  his 


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AJ>.  167&-1679.     IMPEACHMENT  OF  DAKBT.  461 

religioii  might  be,  it  should  only  be  a  private  thing  between  God 
and  his  own  soul,  and  never  should  appear  in  his  public  conduct. 
Notwithstanding  this  strong  effort,  in  so  important  a  point,  he  pre- 
vailed only  by  two  voices.  By  this  bill  no  peer  or  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons  could  sit  or  vote  without  making  a  declaration 
repudiating  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  the  adoration  of  the 
Virgin,  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  Thus  all  Roman  catholics 
were  excluded  from  both  houses  of  parliament  till  the  repeal  of  this 
act  in  the  reign  of  George  IV.* 

Encouraged  by  the  general  fury,  Oates  and  Bedloe  were  now  so 
audacious  as  to  accuse  the  queen  herself  of  entering  into  the  design 
against  the  life  of  her  husband.  The  commons,  in  an  address  to 
the  king,  gave  countenance  to  this  scandalous  accusation  ;  but  the 
lords  could  not  be  prevailed  on  to  join  in  the  address.  Charles  had 
sufficient  generosity  to  protect  his  injured  consort.  "  They  think," 
said  he,  *'  I  have  a  mind  to  a  new  wife ;  but,  for  all  that,  I  will  not 
see  an  innocent  woman  abused." 

§  3.  The  present  ferment  and  credulity  of  the  nation  engaged 
even  persons  of  rank  and  condition  to  become  informers.  Mon- 
tague, the  king's  ambassador  at  Paris,  without  obtfuning  or  asking 
the  king's  leave,  suddenly  came  over  to  England.  Charles,  suspect- 
ing his  intention,  ordered  his  papers  to  be  seized ;  but  Montague 
had  taken  care  to  secrete  two  papers,  which  he  laid  before  the 
House  of  Commons.  One  of  these  was  a  letter  firora  the  treasurer 
Danby,  written  during  the  negociations  at  Kimeguen.  Montague 
was  there  directed  to  demand  money  from  Prance ;  in  other  words, 
to  pledge  the  king's  good  offices  to  Louis,  contrary  to  the  general 
interests  of  his  confederates.  Unwilling  to  engage  personally 
in  this  negociation,  the  king,  to  satisfy  Danby,  subjoined,  with 
his  own  hand,  these  words :  "  This  letter  is  writ  by  my  order, 
C.  R."  The  commons  were  inflamed  with  this  intelligence  against 
Danby,  and  immediately  voted  an  impeachment  of  high  treason 
agai'ist  him  (December  21).  Danby  made  it  appear  to  the  lords, 
not  only  that  Montague  had  all  along  promoted  the  money  nego- 
ciations with  France,  but  that  he  himself  was  ever  extremely  averse 
to  the  interests  of  that  crown,  which  he  esteemed  pernicious  to  his 
master  and  to  his  country.  The  peers  plainly  saw  that  Danby's 
crime  fell  not  imder  the  statute  of  Edward  III.,  and  could  not  sub- 
ject him  to  the  penalties  annexed  to  treason.  They  refused,  there- 
fore, to  commit  him.  The  commons  insisted  on  their  demand ;  and 
a  great  contest  was  likely  to  arise,  when  the  king  first  prorogued,  and 
then  dissolved,  the  parliament  (January  24,  1679).  Thus  came  to 
an  end  the  parliament  which  had  sat  during  the  whole  courie  of 
*  See  Notes  and  lllnsirations,  p.  474. 


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48f  CHARLES  IL  Chap.  xxf. 

this  rdgVL  Beiog  elected  during  the  joy  and  festivity  of  the 
Restoration*  it  cooflisted  mainly  of  royalists,  who  were  disposed  to 
support  the  crown  by  all  the  liberality  which  the  habits  of  that 
age  would  permit  Alarmed  by  the  alliance  with  France,  they 
gradually  withdrew  their  confidence  from  the  king ;  and,  finding 
him  still  to  persevere  in  a  foreign  interest,  they  proceeded  to  dis- 
cover symptoms  of  the  most  refractory  and  most  jealous  disposition. 
The  popish  plot  pushed  them  beyond  all  bounds  of  moderation ; 
and  before  their  dissolution  they  seemed  to  be  treading  fast  in  the 
footsteps  of  the  last  long  parliament,  on  whose  conduct  they  threw 
at  first  such  violent  blame. 

§  4.  During  the  sitting  of  the  parliament,  and  after  its  proroga- 
tion and  dissolution,  the  trials  of  the  pretended  criminals  were 
carried  on,  and  the  courts  of  judicature,  places  which,  if  possible, 
ought  to  be  kept  more  pure  from  injustice  than  even  national 
assemblies  themselves,  were  strongly  infected  with  the  same  party 
rage  and  bigoted  prejudices.  Coleman,  the  most  obnoxious  of  the 
conspirators,  was  first  brought  to  his  trial.  His  letters  were  pro- 
duced. Oates  and  Bedloe  deposed  against  him,  and  he  was  con- 
demned and  executed,  persisting  to  the  last  in  the  strongest  pro- 
testations of  innocence  (December  3).  The  same  fate  attended 
(xrove,  Pickering,  and  father  Ireland,  who,  it  was  pretended,  had 
signed,  together  with  50  Jesuits,  the  great  resolution  of  murdering 
the  king.  All  these  men,  before  their  arraignment,  were  con- 
demned in  the  opinion  of  the  judges,  jury,  and  spectators ;  and  to  be 
a  Jesuit,  or  even  a  catholic,  was  of  itself  a  sufficient  proof  of  guilt 

Be<iloe  still  remained  a  single  evidence  against  the  persons  accused 
of  (rodfrey's  murder;  but  at  last  means  were  found  to  complete 
the  le^  evidence.  One  Prance,  a  silversmith  and  a  catholic,  had 
been  accused  by  Bedloe  of  being  an  accomplice  in  the  murder ;  and 
upon  his  denial,  being  thrown  into  prison,  loaded  with  heavy  irons, 
and  confined  to  the  condemned  hole,  a  place  cold,  dark,  and  full  of 
nastiness,  was  at  length  wrought  upon,  by  terrors  and  sufferings,  to 
make  a  confession.  Upon  his  evidence  three  servants  of  the  queen 
were  condemned  and  executed  for  the  murder  (February  21,  1679). 
All  through  the  year  the  ferment  continued.  By  a  proclamation 
from  the  king,  all  catholics,  not  being  householders,  were  com- 
manded to  quit  London.  Posts  and  chains  were  provided  in  the 
city  for  securing  the  streets ;  60,000  men  were  kept  continually 
under  arms ;  batteries  were  planted ;  patrols  paraded,  and  the  great 
gates  were  kept  constantly  closed. 

As  the  army  could  neither  be  kept  up,  nor  disbanded,  without 
money,  the  king  found  himself  obliged  to  summon  a  new  parliar- 
ment  (March  6, 1679).    The  popish  plot  had  a  great  infiuence  upoo 


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AJ>.  1679.  THE  BUKE  OF  MONMOUTH.  488 

the  elections^  and,  in  spite  of  the  exertions  of  the  government,  all 
the  zealots  of  the  former  parliament  were  rechosen :  fresh  ones  were 
added :  and  it  was  apjH^ended  that  the  new  representatives  would^ 
if  possible,  exceed  the  old  in  their  refractory  opposition  to  the 
court,  and  their  furious  persecution  of  the  catholics.  The  king  wa» 
alarmed,  when  he  saw  so  dreadful  a  tempest  arise  from  such  small 
and  unaccountable  beginnings.  To  appease  the  parliament,  he 
desired  the  duke  to  withdraw  beyond  sea,  that  no  further  suspicion 
might  remain  of  the  influence  of  popish  counsels.  The  duke  re- 
tired to  Brussels ;  but  first  required  an  order,  signed  by  the  king, 
lest  his  absenting  himself  should  be  interpreted  as  a  proof  of  fear 
or  of  guilt.  He  also  desired  that  his  brother  should  satisfy  him,  as 
well  as  the  public,  by  a  declaration  of  the  illegitimacy  of  the  duke 
of  Monmouth.  That  person  was  the  king's  natural  son  by  Lucy 
Walters,  and  bom  about  ten  years  before  the  RestoratioD.  He  poe- 
sessed  all  the  qualities  which  could  engage  the  affections  of  the 
populace :  a  distinguished  valour,  an  affable  address,  a  thoughtless 
generosity,  a  graceful  person.  But  his  capacity  was  mean;  his 
temper  pliant :  so  that,  notwithstanding  his  great  popularity,  he 
would  never  have  been  dangerous,  had  he  not  implicitly  resigned 
himself  to  the  guidance  of  Shaftesbury,  a  man  of  restless  temper, 
subtle  wit,  and  abandoned  principles.  That  daring  politician  had 
flattered  Monmouth  witli  the  hopes  of  succeeding  to  the  crovm. 
The  story  of  a  contract  of  marriage  passed  between  the  king  and 
Monmouth's  mother,  and  secretly  kept  in  a  certain  black  hoXy  had 
been  industriously  spread  abroad,  and  was  greedily  received  by 
Monmouth's  adherents. 

§  5.  In  the  new  parliament  the  refractory  humour  of  the  lower 
house  appeared  in  its  first  step.  In  the  election  of  their  speaker,  it 
had  ever  been  usual  for  the  commons  to  consult  the  inclinations  of 
the  sovereign,  although  the  Long  Parliament  in  1641  had  thought 
proper  to  depart  from  the  established  custom.  The  king  now  desired 
that  the  choice  should  fiedl  on  sir  Thomas  Meres  j  but  Seymour, 
speaker  to  the  last  parliament,  was  instantly  called  to  the  chair  by  a 
vote  which  seemed  unanimous.  When  Seymour  was  presented  for 
his  approbation,  the  king  rejected  him,  and  ordered  the  commons  to 
proceed  to  a  new  choice.  A  great  contest  ensued,  till  by  way  of  com- 
promise it  was  agreed  to  set  aside  both  candidates.  William  Gr^ory, 
a  lawyer,  was  chosen ;  and  the  election  was  ratified  by  the  king.  It 
has  ever  since  been  understood  that  the  choice  of  the  speaker  lies 
in  the  house,  but  that  the  king  retains  the  power  of  rejecting  any 
person  disagreeable  to  him.  The  impeachment  of  Danby  was 
revived.  The  king  had  beforehand  taken  the  precaution  to  grant  a 
pardon  to  Danby ;  and,  in  order  to  screen  the  chancellor  from  all 


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484  CHABLEB  n.  CfaiAP.  zzr. 

attacks  of  the  oommona,  he  had  taken  the  great  seal  into  his  own 
hands,  and  had  himself  affixed  it  to  the  parchment.  But  the 
commons  maintained  that  no  pardon  of  the  crown  could  be  i^eaded 
in  bar  of  an  impeachment,  though  the  pterogatiye  of  mercy  had 
hitherto  been  understood  to  be  altogether  unlimited  in  the  king; 
and  James  had  remitted  the  sentence  on  lord  Bacon.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  such  a  prii.ciple  were  allowed,  there  was  an  end  of  the 
supposed  responsibility  of  the  advisers  of  the  crown,  and  any 
minister  might  set  parliament  at  defiance.*  The  commons  per- 
sisted, and  the  peers  ordered  Danby  to  be  taken  into  custody. 
Danby  absconded ;  but  a  bill  having  been  passed  for  his  attainder 
in  default  of  his  appearance,  he  surrendered,  and  was  immediately 
committed  to  the  Tower  (April  16). 

In  order  to  allay  the  jealousy  displayed  by  the  pariiament  and 
people,  the  king,  by  the  advice  of  sir  William  Temple,  laid  the  plan 
of  a  new  privy  council,  without  whose  advice  he  declared  himself 
determined  for  the  future  to  take  no  measure  of  importance  (April 
20).  This  council  was  to  consist  of  30  persons ;  15  of  the  chief 
officers  of  the  crown  were  to  be  continued ;  the  other  half  was  to  be 
composed,  either  of  men  of  character,  detached  from  the  court,  or 
of  those  who  possessed  credit  with  both  houses.  The  earl  of  Essex, 
a  nobleman  of  the  popular  party,  was  created  treasurer  in  the  nxnn 
of  Danby ;  the  earl  of  Sunderland,  a  man  of  intrigue  and  capacity, 
was  made  secretary  of  state;  viscount  Halifax,  a  fine  genius, 
possessed  of  learning,  eloquence,  industry,  but  restless  and  am- 
bitious, was  admitt(  d  into  the  council.  These  three,  together  with 
Temple,  who  often  joined  them,  though  he  kept  KimoAlf  more 
detached  from  public  business,  formed  a  kind  of  cabinet  oooncil, 
in  which  all  affairs  received  their  first  digestion.  Shaftesboiy  was 
made  president  of  the  council,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  Temple, 
who  foretold  the  consequence  of  admitting  a  man  of  so  dangeroos 
a  character  into  any  part  of  the  public  administration. 

§  G.  As  Temple  foresaw,  it  happened.  Shaftesbury,  finding  that 
he  possessed  no  more  than  the  appearance  of  court  favour,  was  re- 
solved still  to  adhere  to  the  popular  party,  by  whose  attadmient  he 
enjoyed  an  undisputed  superiority  in  the  lower  house,  and  posseawd 
great  influence  in  the  other.  By  his  advice  the  celebrated  Exclu- 
sion Bill  was  brought  into  parliament,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
exclude  the  duke  of  York  from  the  succession  to  the  throne.  It 
was  carried  by  a  majority  of  79  votes  in  the  House  of  CSommooa, 
but  its  further  progress  was  stopped  by  the  dissolution  of  parlia- 

*  This  question  was  not  finally  decided  i  noder  the  great  aeal  can  be  |ikiadwl  la 
tmtheActofSeUleinentinl701(l3WUl.  barofan  impeachment  of  the  oomiaoM.— 
m.  e.  2),  which  proTidee  that  no  pardon     HaUam,  OontL  JRit,  il.  41T. 


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AJ>.  1979.  THB  HABEAS  COBPUS  ACT.  485 

mdbt  (May  27).  Before  its  disaolution,  the  king  had,  though 
reluctantly,  given  hie  coneent  to  the  Hci>ea$  Corpus  Act,  for  the 
enactment  of  which  this  parliament  is  entitled  to  the  gratitude  of 
posterity.  The  Great  Charter  had  provided  against  arbitrary 
imprisonment,  and  the  Petition  of  Right  had  renewed  and  extended 
the  principle;  but  some  provisions  were  still  wanting  to  render  it 
complete,  and  prevent  all  evasion  or  delay  by  ministers  and  judges. 
By  the  act  of  Babea$  Ccrfu$  it  is  prohibited  to  send  any  one  to  a 
prison  beyond  sea ;  no  judge,  under  severe  penalties,  must  refuse  to 
any  prisoner  a  writ  of  Ao^eos  corpus  by  which  the  gaoler  is  directed 
to  {»t)duce  in  court  the  body  of  the  prisoner  (whence  the  writ  had 
its  name),  and  to  certify  the  cause  of  his  detainder  and  imprlBon- 
ment;  every  prisoner  must  be  indicted  the  first  term  after  his 
commitment,  and  brought  to  trial  in  the  subsequent  term ;  and  no 
man,  after  being  enlarged  by  order  of  court,  can  be  recommitted  for 
the  same  offence.* 

§  7.  But,  whether  parliament  was  sitting  or  was  not  sitting,  the 
prosecution  of  the  catholics  continued  with  the  same  unrelenting 
severity.  Whitbread,  provincial  of  the  Jesuits,  and  four  others 
of  the  same  order,  were  condemned  and  executed  (June  20).  Lang- 
home,  an  eminent  lawyer,  by  whom  all  the  afiairs  of  the  Jesuits 
were  managed,  was  the  next  victim.  Oates  and  Bedloe,  as  in  the 
former  cases,  were  the  chief  witnesses  against  him.  When  the 
verdict  was  given,  the  spectators  expressed  their  savage  joy  by 
loud  acclamations.  So  high  indeed  had  the  popular  rage  mounted, 
that  the  witnesses  for  this  unhappy  man,  on  approaching  the 
court,  were  nearly  torn  in  pieces  by  the  rabble.  The  first  check 
which  the  informers  received  was  on  the  trial  of  sir  George  Wake- 
man,  the  queen's  physician,  whom  they  accused  of  an  intention  to 
poison  the  king.  Oates,  on  his  examination  before  the  council, 
had  said  that  he  knew  nothing  against  sir  George ;  yet,  on  the 
trial,  he  positively  deposed  to  his  guilt.  The  chief  justice,  Scroggs, 
who  had  hitherto  countenanced  the  witnesses,  gave  a  favourable 
charge  to  the  jury ;  for  which  Oates  and  Bedloe  had  the  assurance  to 
attack  him  to  his  £eu^  and  even  to  accuse  him  of  partiality  before 
the  council  (July  18). 

During  these  transactions,  serious  disturbances  occurred  in  Scot- 
land. Lauderdale  had  ruled  that  country  with  great  severity,  and 
an  incident  at  last  happened  which  brought  on  an  insurrection. 
The  Covenanters  were  much  enraged  against  Sharpe,  the  primate, 
whom  they  considered  as  an  apostate  from  their  principles,  and 
found  an  unrelenting  persecutor  of  all  those  who  dissented  from 
the  established  worship.  A  body  of  them  falling  in  virith  him  by 
•  For  fortbar  detatU.  see  Notes  waA  niostratiooB.  p.  4»7. 


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486  CHABLES  n.  OoAP.  zzv. 

accident  on  the  road  near  St.  Andrews,  dragged  him  from  hia 
coach ;  tore  him  from  the  arms  of  his  daughter,  who  interposed 
with  cries  and  tears;  and  piercing  him  with  redoubled  wounds, 
left  him  dead  on  the  spot,  and  immediately  dispersed  (May  S), 
The  assassins  retired  towards  Glasgow ;  obtaining  reinforcements, 
they  appeared  in  arms  at  Rutherglen  (May  29),  and  defeated  a 
small  body  of  cavalry  under  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  at  Drumclog, 
near  Loudon  Hill  (June  3).  Pushing  on  to  Glasgow,  they  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  city,  dispossessed  the  established  clergy, 
and  issued  proclamations,  in  which  they  declared  they  fought 
against  the  king*s  supremncy,  against  popery  and  prelacy,  and  a 
popish  successor.  But  though  they  succeeded  in  raising  an  army  of 
8000  men,  they  were  soon  dispersed  by  Monmouth,  whom  the  king 
had  sent  against  them,  at  t^e  battle  of  Bothwell  Bridge  (June  22). 

In  consequence  of  an  illness  of  the  king,  the  duke  of  York 
returned  to  England,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  sent  to  Scotland 
as  lord  high  commissioner.  He  is  accused  of  using  the  Covenanters 
with  great  cruelty,  but  the  evidence  on  which  the  accusation  rests 
is  doubtful. 

§  8.  The  plan  of  government  recommended  by  Temple  was  soon 
abandoned.  Shaftesbury  was  dismissed  from  the  presidency  of  the 
council,  and  became  more  violent  than  ever  in  his  opposition  to  the 
court  (October  15).  Essex  also  quitted  the  ministry,  and  joined 
the  opposition.  Temple  withdrew  to  his  books  and  his  gudens. 
Monmouth  was  sent  to  Holland.  But  Halifax  and  Sunderland  still 
continued  in  office ;  and  the  ministry  was  recruited  by  two  new  men 
who  afterwards  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  public  life.  These 
were  Lawrence  Hyde,  the  second  eon  of  the  chancellcN'  Clarendon, 
who  succeeded  Essex  at  the  treasury,  and  Sidney  Godolphin. 

It  was  the  favour  and  countenance  of  the  parliament  which  had 
chiefly  encouraged  the  rumour  of  plots;  but  the  nation  had  got 
so  much  into  that  vein  of  credulity,  and  every  necessitous  villain 
was  so  much  incited  by  the  success  of  Gates  and  Bedloe,  that  even 
during  the  prorogation  the  people  were  not  allowed  to  remain  in 
tranquillity.  There  was  one  Dangerfield,  a  fellow  who  had  been 
burned  in  the  hand  for  crimes,  transported,  whipped,  pilloried  four 
times,  fined  for  cheats,  outlawed  for  felony,  convicted  of  coining, 
and  exposed  to  all  the  public  infamy  which  the  laws  could  inflict 
on  the  basest  and  most  shameful  enormities.  The  credulity  of  the 
people,  and  the  humour  of  the  times,  enabled  even  this  man  to 
become  a  person  of  consequence.  He  was  the  author  of  a  new 
incident  called  the  Meal'tvh  Plot,  from  the  place  where  some  papers 
relating  to  it  were  found.  Under  pretence  of  betraying  the  con- 
spiracies of  the  Presbyterians,  he  had  been  countenanced  by  some 


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AJ>.  laTk  WHIG  AND  TORT.  487 

catholics  of  condition,  and  had  even  heen  admitted  to  the  duk^f 
preeence  and  the  Icing's ;  and,  under  pretence  of  revealing  new 
popish  plots  he  had  obtained  access  to  Shaftesbury  and  some  oi 
the  popular  leaders.  Which  side  he  intended  to  cheat  is  uncertain, 
or  whether  he  did  not  rather  mean  to  cheat  both;  but  he  soon 
found  that  the  belief  of  the  nation  was  more  open  to  a  popish  than 
a  presbyterian  {dot,  and  he  resolved  to  strike  in  with  the  prevailing 
humour. 

The  dlsmlfWfll  of  Shaftesbury  had  only  made  him  more  violent. 
He  got  up  in  the  metroiolis  an  immense  anti-popery  demonstration, 
attended  by  200,000  persons,  on  November  17.  queen  Elizabeth's 
accession,  in  which  the  efiBgies  of  the  pope  and  the  devil,  sir  (}eorge 
Jeffreys,  and  others  who  had  provoked  his  displeasure,  were  carried 
in  procession  and  burnt  at  Temple  Bar.  He  sought  to  win  popular 
favour  in  behalf  of  Monmouth's  pretensions  to  the  throne,  as  the 
only  security  against  French  invaders  and  popish  rebels.  To  over- 
awe the  court,  he  employed  emissaries  throughout  the  country  to 
solicit  subscriptions  to  petitions  or  cuidresses  praying  the  king  for 
the  speedy  meeting  of  parliament,  in  order  to  resist  the  ascendency  of 
popery  and  the  establishment  of  despotism.  No  man  understood 
better  the  arts  of  inflaming  the  vilest  passions  of  the  multitude, 
and  no  one  was  more  unscrupulous  in  using  them.  Charles  was 
greatly  angered.  The  intolerable  factiousness  of  the  earl,  who 
trusted  too  much  to  the  king's  easiness  or  indolence,  had  at  last  the 
effect  of  rousing  him  into  resistance.  Unlike  his  father,  Charles  II. 
had  no  mind  to  sacrifice  his  ease  to  his  principles,  or  to  provolce  oppo- 
sition, if  he  could  possibly  avoid  it.  Now  his  father's  fate  seemed 
looming  over  his  own  head.  He  swore  though  the  whigs  might 
"  knock  out  his  brains,"  they  should  "  never  cut  off  his  head."  He 
issued  a  proclamation  to  every  magistrate,  threatening  with  punish* 
mont  all  those  who  should  subscribe  petitions  contrary  to  the  laws 
of  the  lancL  A  reaction  followed.  The  friends  of  the  court  came 
forward  with  addresses  exi^essing  their  abhorrence  of  any  undue 
interference  with  the  royal  prerogative.  Thus  the  two  parties  ob- 
tained the  appellations  of  addressora  and  ahhorrers.  .  These  names 
were  soon  forgotten.  The  court  party  reproached  their  antagonists 
with  their  affinity  to  the  fanatical  conventiclers  in  Scotland,  who 
were  known  by  the  name  of  Whigs  (sour  whey);  the  country  party 
found  a  resemblance  between  the  courtiers  and  the  popish  banditti 
in  Ireland,  to  whom  the  appellation  of  Tory  was  affixed ;  and  thus 
these  terms  came  into  general  use.     (Supplement,  Note  VIII.) 

In  order  to  keep  alive  the  ferment  agjunst  popery,  Shaftesbury 
appeared  in  Westminster  Hall,  attended  by  several  persons  of  dis- 
tinction, and  presented  to  the  grand  jury  of  Middlesex  the  duke  o) 


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488  CHARTiKB  n.  CfaiAP.  zxr. 

York,  who  had  letnmed  from  Scotland  in  Febmary,  1680,  as  a  popish 
recusant  (June  26).  While  the  jury  were  deliberating,  the  chief 
justice  sent  for  than,  and  suddenly  dismissed  them.  Shaftesbury, 
however,  obtained  his  end  by  showing  his  followers  the  desperate 
resolution  he  had  embraced,  never  to  admit  of  any  accommodation 
with  the  duke,  who  returned  to  Scotland  (October  20). 

§  9.  The  king  opened  his  fourth  parliament  (October  21, 1680)  with 
a  speech  containing  many  mollifying  expressions,  offering  to  give 
them  any  satisfaction  for  the  security  of  the  protestant  religion ;  but 
the  commons  displayed  the  most  violent  and  refractory  disposition. 
GFreat  numbers  of  the  abhorrers,  from  all  parts  of  England,  were 
seized  by  their  order ;  and  they  renewed  the  vote  of  the  former 
parliament,  which  affirmed  the  reality  of  the  horrid  pojush  plot 
The  whole  tribe  of  informers  were  applauded  and  rewarded; 
and  their  testimony,  however  frivolous  or  absurd,  met  with  a 
favourable  reception.  The  king  was  applied  to  in  Uieir  behalf  for 
pensions  and  pardons ;  and  doctor  Tonge  was  recommended  for  the 
first  considerable  church  preferment  which  should  become  vacant. 
So  much  were  the  popular  leaders  determined  to  carry  matters  to 
extremities,  that,  in  less  than  a  week  after  the  commencement  of 
the  session,  a  motion  was  made  for  again  bringing  in  the  Exclusion 
Bill,  and  a  committee  was  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Shaftesbury 
and  many  considerable  men  of  the  party  had  rendered  themselves 
irreconcilable  with  the  duke,  and  could  find  their  safety  no  way 
>Rit  in  his  ruin.  Monmouth's  friends  hoped  that  the  exclusion  of 
that  prince  would  make  way  for  their  patron;  and  the  oountry 
party  expected  that  the  king  would  at  last  be  obliged  to  yield  to 
their  demand.  Though  he  had  withdrawn  his  countenance  from 
Monmouth,  he  was  known  secretly  to  retain  a  great  affection  for 
him.  On  no  occasion  had  he  ever  been  found  to  persist  obstinately 
against  difficulties  and  importunity  ;  and  as  his  beloved  mistress, 
the  duchess  of  Portsmouth,  had  been  engaged  to  imite  herself  with 
the  popular  party,  this  incident  was  regarded  as  a  favourable  prog- 
nostic of  their  success.  Sunderland,  secretary  of  state,  who  had 
linked  his  interest  with  that  of  the  duchess,  had  concurred  in  the 
same  measure.  The  debates  were  carried  on  with  great  violence  on 
both  sides.  In  the  House  of  Commons  the  bill  passed  by  a  great 
majority  (November  11).  In  the  House  of  Peers  the  contest  was 
violent.  Shaftesbury,  Sunderland,  and  Essex  argued  for  it ;  Hali- 
fax chiefly  conducted  the  debate  against  it,  and  displayed  an  extent 
of  capacity,  and  a  force  of  eloquence,  which  had  never  been  sur- 
passed in  that  assembly.  I'he  king  was  present  during  the  whole 
debate,  which  was  prolonged  till  eleven  at  night.  The  bill  was  thrown 
out  by  a  considerable  majority.    The  commons  discovered  mnoli 


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JLD.  168(V-1681.  EXECUTION  OF  STAFFORD.  489 

ill  humour  at  this  disappointment.  The  impeachment  of  the 
catholic  lords  in  the  Tower  was  revived ;  and  as  viscount  Stafford, 
from  his  age,  infirmities,  and  narrow  capacity,  was  deemed  the  least 
capable  of  defending  himself,  it  was  determined  to  make  him  the 
first  victim,  that  his  condemnation  might  pave  the  way  for  a  sen- 
tence against  the  rest.  The  witnesses  produced  against  the  prilioner 
were  Gates,  Dugdale,  and  Turberville.  The  prisoner  made  a  better 
defence  than  was  expected  either  by  his  friends  or  his  enemies. 
With  a  simplicity  and  tenderness  more  persuasive  than  the  greatest 
oratory,  he  still  made  protestations  of  his  innocence,  and  could  not 
forbear,  every  moment,  expressing  the  most  lively  surprise  and 
indignation  at  the  audacious  impudence  of  the  witnesses.  The 
peers,  after  a  solemn  trial  of  six  days,  gave  sentence  against  him  by 
a  majority  of  24.  Stafford  received  with  resignation  the  fatal  ver- 
dict "  (jod*8  holy  name  be  praised ! "  was  the  only  exclamation 
which  he  uttered.*  On  the  day  of  his  execution  (December  29),  the 
populace,  who  had  exulted  at  Stafford's  trial  and  condemnation, 
were  melted  into  tears  at  the  sight  of  that  tender  fortitude  which 
shone  forth  in  each  feature,  motion,  and  accent  of  this  aged  noble. 
Their  profound  silence  was  only  interrupted  by  sighs  and  groans. 
With  difficulty  they  found  speech  to  assent  to  those  protestations 
of  innocence  which  he  frequently  repeated.  "  We  believe  you,  my 
lord  I "  "  God  bless  you,  my  lord ! "  These  expressions  flowed  from 
them  with  a  faltering  accent.  The  executioner  himself  was  touched 
with  sympathy.  Twice  he  lifted  up  the  axe,  with  an  intent  to 
strike  die  fatal  blow,  and  as  often  felt  his  resolution  to  fail  him.  A 
deep  sigh  was  heard  to  accompany  his  last  effort,  which  laid  Staf- 
ford for  ever  at  rest  All  the  spectators  seemed  to  foel  the  blow ; 
and  when  the  head  was  held  up  to  hem  with  the  usual  cry, "  This 
is  the  head  of  a  trutor  I "  no  clamour  of  assent  was  uttered.  Pity, 
remorse,  and  astonishment  had  taken  possession  of  every  heart, 
and  displayed  itself  in  every  countenance.  This  was  the  last  blood 
which  was  shed  on  account  of  the  popish  plot.  The  execution  of 
Stafford  gratified  the  prejudices  of  the  country  party,  but  it  con- 
tributed nothing  to  their  power  and  security ;  on  the  contrary,  by 
exciting  commiseration,  it  tended  still  further  to  increase  that 
disbelief  of  the  whole  plot  which  now  began  to  prevail. 

$  10.  The  violence  of  the  conmions  continued.  On  January  5, 
1681,  they  drew  up  articles  of  impeachment  against  the  lord  chief 
justice,  Scroggs,  for  discharging  the  grand  jury  when  the  duke  of 
York  was  presented  for  recusancy.    They  refused  all  supplies  until 

•  It  MidB  to  the  inftmj  of  thete  pro-  I  not «  man  belored.  etpeoiallj  of  bto  oim 
•eedingB  that  Idi  near  relations  among     CKnilj,"  aaji  Eyeljn. 
tbe  peers  Toted  afainst  him.    **  He  was  | 


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490  CHABLES  n.  CHikP.  TKt 

the  bill  of  ezdndon  should  be  passed.  On  the  10th  they  resolyed 
that  whoever  should  advise  his  Diajesty  to  prorogue  the  parliament 
should  be  adjudged  a  traitor.  Finding  them  in  this  humour,  the 
king  prorogued  them  on  the  10th,  and  dissolved  them  nine  days  after. 
His  fifth  parliament  met  at  Oxford  (March  21, 1681).  The  leaden 
of  the  exclusionists  came,  attended  not  only  by  their  servants  but 
by  numerous  bands  of  armed  partisans.  The  four  city  members  in 
particular  were  followed  by  great  multitudes,  wearing  ribbons,  in 
which  were  woven  these  words.  No  popery !  no  slavery  1  The  king 
had  his  guards  regularly  mustered :  his  party  likewise  endeavoured 
to  make  a  show  of  their  strength :  and,  on  the  whole,  the  assembly 
at  Oxford  rather  bore  the  appearance  of  a  tumultuous  Polish  diet» 
than  of  a  regular  English  parliament. 

The  king,  in  his  speech,  ofifered  to  adopt  any  expedients  the  com- 
mons might  propose  to  allay  their  fears  of  a  popish  successor,  without 
altering  the  succession,  and  for  keeping  the  administration  in  pro- 
testant  hands.  But  the  commons  turned  a  deaf  ear,  and  fell 
instantly  into  the  same  measures  as  their  predecessors  had  done^ 
the  impeachment  of  Danby,  the  enquiry  into  the  popish  plot,  and 
the  bill  of  exclusion.  So  violent  were  they  on  this  last  article,  that, 
though  one  of  the  king's  ministerd  proposed  that  the  duke  of  Tork 
should  be  banished,  during  life,  500  miles  from  England,  and  that 
on  the  king's  demise  the  next  heir  should  be  constituted  regent  with 
regal  power,  even  this  expedient,  which  left  the  duke  only  the  bare 
title  of  king,  could  not  command  the  assent  of  the  house.  No 
method*-  but  their  own  of  excluding  the  duke  could  give  them  any 
satisfaction.  As  there  were  no  hopes  of  a  com{m>mise,  Charles 
again  dissolved  the  {larliament,  after  it  had  sat  only  seven  days. 
This  rigorous  measure,  though  it  might  have  been  foreseen,  excited 
such  astonishment  in  the  country  party  as  deprived  them  of  all 
spirit  and  reduced  them  to  despair.  They  were  sensible,  though 
too  late,  that  the  king  had  finally  taken  his  resolution,  and  was  de- 
termined to  endure  any  extremity  rather  than  submit  to  the  tenxm 
which  they  had  resolved  to  impose  upon  him.  They  found  that 
he  had  patiently  waited  till  afikirs  should  coroe  to  full  maturity; 
and,  having  now  engaged  a  national  party  on  his  side,  had  boldly 
set  his  enemies  at  defiance.  The  violences  of  the  exclusionists 
were  everywhere  eixclaimed  against  and  aggravated,  and  even  the 
reality  of  the  plot,  that  great  engine  of  their  authority,  was  now 
openly  called  in  question.  The  reaction  was  not  a  little  assisted  by  a 
declaration  published  by  the  king,  assigning  his  reasons  for  dissolving 
parliament.  He  insisted  on  its  entire  neglect  of  the  public  interest^ 
and  on  its  factious  proceedings ;  its  arbitary  violation  of  the  laws,  in 
taking  his  subjects  into  custody  when  its  privileges  were  not  < 


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AJ>.  1681-1682.      TRUL   OF  SHAFTESBURY.  491 

oemed ;  its  declaring  many  persons  enemies  to  the  king,  without 
process  of  law  or  hearing  their  defence ;  its  pertinacious  efforts  to 
render  him  contemptible  in  the  eyes  of  his  subjects,  by  reducing 
him  to  the  most  helpless  condition.  This  declaration  was  received 
with  enthusiasm ;  loyal  addresses  poured  in,  congratulating  the  king 
on  his  deliverance  from  the  republicans,  and  offering  support.  The 
celebrated  political  satire  of  Dryden,  called  *'  Absalom  and  Achi- 
tophel,"  holding  up  to  imsparing  ridicule  the  characters  and  pre- 
tensions of  the  whig  leaders,  helped  still  further  to  turn  the  scale ; 
and,  instead  of  being  assailed,  the  king  was  now  in  a  condition  to 
become  the  aggressor.  The  gang  of  spies,  witnesses,  and  informers, 
who  had  so  long  been  supported  and  encouraged  by  the  leading 
patriots,  finding  now  that  the  king  was  entirely  master,  turned  short 
upon  their  old  patrons,  the  whigs,  and  offered  their  services  to  the 
ministers.  One  College,  a  London  joiner,  who  had  become  extremely 
noted  for  his  zeal  against  popery,  and  who  had  been  in  Oxford, 
armed  with  sword  and  pistol,  during  the  sitting  of  the  parliament, 
was  indicted  for  conspiracy.  The  witnesses  produced  against  him 
were  Dugdale,  Turberville,  and  others  who  had  before  given  evi- 
dence against  the  catholics.  College  was  condemned,  and  tho 
verdict  was  received  with  shouts  of  applause  (August  17). 


Medal  stnick  in  oommemofratkm  of  the  aoqnitUl  of  the  mrl  of  ShAfteebnry.  Oinr. 
▲moNio  O'Min  DR  8HAFTKSBUBT.  Bost  to  right.  Rev. :  unAMvn-y  a  view  of 
LofDdon,  with  the  buii  appearing  from  behind  a  cloud ;  below.  24  nov.  lS8l. 

§  11.  The  court  now  aimed  their  next  blow  at  Shaftesbury ;  and 
Turberville,  Smith,  and  others,  gave  information  of  high  treason 
against  their  former  patron.  There  was  found  in  his  possession  a 
manifesto  against  the  duke  of  York,  and  indications  of  a  design 
(as  it  was  said)  to  compel  the  king  to  submit  to  the  terms  imposed 
npon  him  by  the  whigs.  He  was  comiiiitted  to  prison,  and  hia 
indictment  was  presented  to  the  grand  jury ;  but  the  sherifib  of 


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492  CHARLES  II.  Orap.  zxt. 

London  were  engiged  deeply  to  the  country  party,  and  they  took 
care  to  name  a  jury  devoted  to  the  same  cause.  As  fiir  as  swearing 
could  go,  the  treason  was  proved  against  Shaftesbury.  That  veteran 
leader  of  a  party,  inured  from  his  early  youth  to  faction  and 
intrigue,  to  cabals  and  conspiracies,  was  rejvesented  as  betray- 
ing without  reserve  his  treasonable  intentions,  and  throwing  out 
outrageous  reproaches  upon  the  Icing,  such  as  none  but  men  of  low 
education  could  be  supposed  to  employ.  The  grand  jury  rejected 
the  indictment  The  people  in  court  testified  their  joy  by  their  ao- 
damations,  which  were  echoed  throughout  the  city  (November  24, 
1681). 

In  March,  1682,  the  duke  of  Tork  left  Scotland  to  vint  the  king 
at  Newmarket,  and  so  great  was  the  change  in  the  feelings  of  the 
city,  that  the  mayor  and  corporation  thought  good  to  congratulate 
the  king,  at  his  return,  on  the  safe  arrival  of  the  duke.  Shortly 
before,  the  duke  had  held  a  parliament  in  Scotland,  in  which  a  test 
act  had  been  framed,  binding  all  persons  from  attempting  any 
alteration  in  church  and  state.  When  the  earl  of  Argyle  was 
summoned  to  take  the  test,  he  attempted  to  make  distinctions, 
which  the  crown  lawyers  there  interpreted  into  a  capital  offence. 
He  was  imprisoned  and  condemned,  but  made  his  escape  into 
Holland,  and  his  estate  was  confiscated.  The  duke  on  his  return 
to  Scotland  was  shipwrecked  (May  6).  The  frigate  struck  upon 
a  rock;  among  the  few  survivors  was  Churchill,  afterwards  the 
famous  duke  of  Marlborough,  who  owed  his  safety  mainly  to  the 
efforts  of  the  duke.  Having  constituted  the  Scotch  council,  the  duke 
returned  to  England  (May  27),  was  met  by  the  king,  congratulated 
by  the  citizens,  and  bonfires  were  lighted  in  honour  of  his  safe 
return.  Charles,  however,  still  countenanced  the  duke*s  opponent, 
Halifax,  whom  he  created  a  marquess,  and  made  privy  seaL  Halifax 
maintained  a  species  of  neutrality  between  the  parties,  and  was 
esteemed  the  head  of  that  small  body  known  by  the  denomination 
of  TrimmerB.  Sunderland,  more  of  a  trimmer  even  than  Halifax, 
who  had  promoted  the  Exclusion  Bill,  and  had  been  displaced  on 
that  account,  was,  with  the  duke's  consent,  again  brought  into 
the  administration.  Hyde,  created  earl  of  Rochester,  was  first  com- 
missioner of  the  treasury,  and  was  entirely  in  the  duke's  interests. 
As  the  power  of  the  whigs  was  greatest  in  the  corporate  towns,  it  was 
resolved  to  proceed  against  them  by  a  writ  of  quo  warranto^  which 
would  lead  to  a  strict  inquiry  by  what  warrant  they  claimed  their 
rights  and  privileges.  The  attack  began  upon  London.  After 
lengthy  {»'oceedings,  it  was  declared  to  have  forfeited  its  charter 
by  imposing  an  illegal  tax,  and  by  circulating  a  libel  upon  the  king, 
charging  him  with  interfering  with  the  liberties  of  his  subjeots  b/ 


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AJ>.  1682. 


DEATH  OF  SHAFTESBURY. 


the  prorogation  of  parliament.  The  oommon  oonndl  petitioned  and 
obtained  a  restoration  of  their  former  franchisee ;  the  king  retaining 
a  veto,  which  is  still  exercised,  on  the  appointment  of  the  lord 
mayor,  the  sheriffs,  the  recorder,  and  other  influential  officers.  These 
reforms  were  adyantageous  and  honourable  to  the  city,  whatever 
opinion  may  be  formed  as  to  the  means  by  which  they  were  intro- 
duced. A  similar  course  was  taken,  for  the  next  five  years,  with 
other  corporations,  and  procured  both  power  and  profit  to  the  crown. 

§  12.  In  the  spring  of  1681,  when  the  king  was  seized  with  a  fit 
of  sickness  at  Windsor,  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  lord  William 
Russell,  and  others,  instigated  by  the  restless  Shaftesbury,  had 
agreed,  in  case  it  should  prove  mortal,  to  rise  in  arms  and  to  oppose 
the  succession  of  the  duke.  Charles  recovered,  but  these  dangerous 
projects  were  not  laid  aside.  Shaftesbury's  imprisonment  and  trial 
put  an  end  for  some  time  to  these  machinations;  and  it  was  not 
till  the  new  sheriffs  of  London  were  chosen,  after  much  dispute, 
that  they  were  revived.  Monmouth  made  a  sort  of  triumphal  pro- 
gress through  the  country,  doubtless  at  the  suggestion  of  Shaftes- 
bury. The  gentry  and  nobility  in  several  counties  of  England  were 
solicited  to  rise  in  arms.  The  whole  train  was  ready  to  take  fire, 
but  was  prevented  by  the  caution  of  lord  Russell,  who  induced 
Monmouth  to  delay  the  enterprise.  Shaftesbury  left  his  house  and 
secretly  lurked  in  the  city.  Enraged  at  perpetual  cautions  and 
delays  in  an  enterprise  which  he  thought  nothing  but  courage  and 
celerity  could  render  effectual,  he  retired  into  Holland  (October  19, 
1682),  where  he  died  next  year  (January  22). 

After  Shaftesbury's  flight,  the  conspirators  with  some  difficulty 
renewed  their  correspondence  with  the  city  malcontents,  and  a 
regular  project  of  an  insurrection  was  again  formed.  A  council  of 
six  was  erected^  consisting  of  Monmouth,  Russell,  Essex,*  lord 
Howard  of  Escrick,  Algernon  Sidney,  and  John  Hampden,  grand- 
son of  the  great  parliamentary  leader.  These  men  entered  into  an 
agreement  with  Argyle  and  the  Scottish  malcontents,  and  insiu*- 
rections  were  anew  projected  in  Cheshire  and  the  west,  as  well  as 
in  the  city.  The  conspirators  differed  extremely  in  their  views. 
Sidney  and  Essex  were  for  a  commonwealth.  Monmouth  enter- 
tained hopes  of  acquiring  the  crown.  Russell,  as  well  as  Hampden, 
intended  only  the  exclusion  of  the  duke  and  the  redress  of 
grievances.  Lord  Howard  was  ready  to  embrace  any  party  or 
design  recommended  by  his  immediate  interest.      While  these 


*  Tb«  title  of  mr\  of  Enez  became 
extinct  on  the  death  of  the  pArlUunentary 
general  in  1646.  The  earl  of  Eeeez  men- 
ttoned  in  tbe  text  waa  the  eon  of  loid 


Gbpd,  beheaded  In  164  f  for  hia  loyalty  to 
Charles  L  He  was  created  earl  of  Eeaes 
in  1661,  and  waa  the  anoeator  of  the  preae«t 


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494  CHAELES  n.  Cbap.  xxt. 

Bchemee  were  concerted  among  the  leaders,  there  was  an  inferioi 
order  of  conspirators  who  carried  on  a  project  of  thdr  own.  Bom- 
boldy  an  old  republican  officer,  was  a  maltster,  and  possessed  & 
farm  called  the  Rye-house,  which  lay  on  the  road  to  Newmarket, 
whither  Charles  commonly  went  once  l,  year  fcN*  the  diversion  of 
the  races.  A  plan  was  formed  by  overturning  a  cart  to  stop  the 
king's  coach  at  that  place,  while  they  might  fire  upon  him  from 
the  hedges,  and  be  enabled  afterwards,  through  by-laiies  and  across 
the  fields,  to  make  their  escape.  The  scheme  was  disconcerteJ 
by  the  king  leaving  Newmarket  eight  days  sooner  than  he  in- 
tended (March  26, 1688),  in  consequence  of  a  fire.  Some  of  the 
conspirators  betrayed  the  plot ;  and  colonel  Rumsey,  who  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  conspiracy  of  Monmouth  and  the  others,  informed 
the  government  that  thQ  latter  had  been  accustomed  to  hold  their 
meetings  at  the  house  of  Shepherd,  an  eminent  wine  merchant  in 
the  city.  Shepherd  was  immediately  api^ehended,  and  had  not 
courage  to  maintain  fidelity  to  his  confederates  (July).  Upon  his 
information,  orders  were  issued  for  arresting  the  noblemen  engaged 
in  the  conspiracy.  Monmouth  absconded ;  Russell  was  sent  to  the 
Tower ;  Howard  was  taken,  while  he  concealed  himself  in  a  chimney, 
and  scrupled  not,  in  hopes  of  pardon,  to  reveal  the  whole  conspiracy, 
fissex,  Sidney,  and  Hampden  were  immediately  apprehended  upon 
his  evidence.  Several  of  the  conspirators  in  the  Rye-house  ]^ot 
were  condemned  and  executed.  From  their  trial  and  confession  it 
was  sufficiently  apparent  that  the  plan  of  an  insurrection  had  been 
regularly  formed,  and  that  even  the  assassination  had  been  often 
talked  of,  not  without  the  approbation  of  many  of  their  confederates. 
Lord  Russell  was  next  brought  to  trial.  The  witnesses  produced 
against  him  were  Rumsey,  Shepherd,  and  lord  Howard.  On  the 
whole,  it  was  undoubtedly  proved  that  the  insurrection  had  been 
deliberated  on  by  the  prisoner,  and  fully  resolved ;  a  surprisal  of 
the  guards  deliberated  on,  but  not  fully  resolved ;  but  Howard,  the 
principal  witness,  stopped  short  of  accusing  him  of  any  design 
upon  the  king's  life.  Russell  contented  himself  with  protesting 
that  he  had  never  been  guilty  of  any  such  intention;  but  his  veracity 
would  not  allow  him  to  deny  the  conspiracy  for  an  insurrection. 
The  jury  were  men  of  fair  and  reputable  characters,  but  zealous 
royalists ;  after  a  short  deliberation,  they  brought  in  the  prisoner 
gidlty.  Applications  were  made  to  the  king  for  a  pardon.  It  is 
said  that  money  to  the  atnount  of  60,0002.  was  ofiered  to  the  ducheia 
of  Portsmouth  by  the  old  earl  of  Bedford,  father  to  Russell.  Tbo 
king  was  inexorable,  and  would  go  no  further  than  remitting  the 
more  Ignominious  part  of  the  sentence,  which  the  law  requires  to  be 
pronounced  against  traitors.    Russell's  oonsort,  a  woman  of  virtue 


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AJK  1688.     EXECUTION  OP  RUSSELL  AND  SYDNEY.  495 

daughter  and  heiress  of  the  good  earl  of  Southampton,  threw  herseli 
at  the  king's  feet,  and  pleaded  with  many  tears  the  merits  and 
loyalty  of  her  father  as  an  atonement  for  those  errors,  into  which 
honest,  however  mistaken,  principles  had  seduced  her  husband. 
But  finding  all  applications  yain,  she  collected  courage,  and  not 
only  fortified  herself  against  the  fatal  blow,  but  endeavoured  by  her 
example  to  strengthen  the  resolution  of  her  unfortunate  lord.  With 
a  tender  and  decent  composure  they  took  leave  of  each  other  on 
the  day  of  his  execution.  **  The  bitterness  of  death  is  now  past," 
said  he,  when  he  turned  from  her.  The  scaffold  was  erected  fai 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields.  Without  the  least  change  of  countenance, 
he  laid  his  head  on  the  block,  and  at  two  strokes  it  was  severed 
from  his  body  (July  21, 1683). 

On  the  day  that  lord  Russell  was  tried,  Essex  was  found  in  the 
Tower  with  his  throat  out.  The  coroner's  jury  brought  in  a  verdict 
of  self-murder.  Essex  was  subject  to  fits  of  deep  melancholy ;  yet 
the  murder  was  unscrupulously  ascribed  to  the  king  and  the  duke, 
who  happened  that  morning  to  i  ay  a  visit  to  the  Tower. 

Algernon  Sidney  was  next  brought  to  his  trial.  This  gallant 
person,  son  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  was  in  principle  a  republican, 
and  had  entered  deeply  into  the  war  against  the  late  king.  He  had 
been  named  on  the  high  court  of  justice  which  tried  and  condemned 
that  monarch,  but  he  thought  not  proper  to  take  his  seat  among 
the  judges,  and  had  opposed  Cromwell's  usurpation  with  zeal  and 
courage.  After  the  Restoration  he  went  into  voluntary  banishment ; 
but  in  1677,  having  obtained  the  king's  pardon,  he  returned  to 
England.  When  the  Actions  arising  from  the  popish  plot  began 
to  run  high,  Sidney,  full  of  those  ideas  of  liberty  which  he  had 
imbibed  firom  the  great  examples  of  antiquity,  joined  the  popular 
party ;  but  his  temper  was  sullen  and  morose,  his  conduct  deficient 
in  practical  good  sense,  and  his  &me  tarnished  by  acceptance  of 
bribes  from  the  French  king.  The  only  witness  who  deposed 
against  Sidney  was  lord  Howard;  but  as  the  law  required  two 
witnesses,  the  deficiency  was  supplied  by  producing  some  of 
his  papers,  in  which  he  nudntained  the  lawfulness  of  resisting 
tyrants,  and  the  preference  of  liberty  to  the  government  of  a  single 
person.  Sir  Qeorge  Jeffreys,  who  had  been  created  lord  chief 
justice  (September  23),  presided  at  the  trial,  and  the  jury  was  easily 
prevailed  on  to  give  a  verdict  against  Sidney.  His  execution  followed 
a  few  days  after  (December  7) ;  but  he  had  too  much  greatness  of 
mind  to  deny  those  con^iracies  with  Monmouth  and  Russell  in 
which  he  had  been  an  accomplice.  He  rather  gloried  that  he  now 
suffered  ^  for  that  good  old  caiue  in  which  he  had  been  engaged," 
u  he  said,  *'  from  his  earliest  youth." 


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496  CHARLES  n.  Chap.  xxt. 

Howard  was  also  the  sole  eyidenoe  against  Hampden.  He  was 
convicted  only  of  misdemeanour,  but  the  fine  imposed  upon  him 
was  no  less  than  40,000^. 

§  13.  Some  other  memorable  causes  were  tried  about  this  time. 
Gates,  convicted  of  having  called  the  duke  a  popish  traitor,  was 
condemned  in  damages  to  the  amount  of  100,000^.  (June  18, 1684). 
Sir  Samuel  Bamardiston  was  fined  10,000Z.  because,  in  some  private 
letters,  which  had  been  intercepted,  he  had  reflected  on  the  govern- 
ment, asserting  that  the  plot  for  which  Russell  and  Sidney  were 
condemned  was  a  sham  (February  14). 

Monmouth  had  absconded  on  the  first  discovery  of  the  conspiracy; 
but  Halifax,  having  discovered  his  retreat,  prevailed  on  him  to  write 
two  letters  to  the  king  full  of  the  tenderest  and  most  submissive 
expressions.  The  king's  fondness  revived ;  he  permitted  Monmouth 
to  come  to  court  on  condition  of  his  making  a  confession  of  his 
offences.  He  obtained  his  pardon  in  due  form ;  but  finding  that 
by  taking  this  step  he  was  entirely  disgraced  with  his  party,  he 
instructed  his  emissaries  to  deny  that  he  had  ever  made  any  such 
confession  as  that  which  was  imputed  to  him,  asserting  it  was  an 
imposture  of  the  court.  Provoked  at  this  conduct,  the  king 
banished  Monmouth  from  his  presence,  and  afterwards  ordered 
him  to  quit  the  kingdom. 

§  14.  llie  duke  of  York  now  exercised  great  influence.  Throuf^ 
his  mediation  Danby  and  the  popish  lords  who  had  so  long  been 
confined  in  the  Tower  were  admitted  to  boil — ^a  measure  just  in 
itself,  but  deemed  a  great  encroachment  on  the  privileges  of  par- 
liament. The  duke,  who  had  been  specially  exempted  from  the 
Test  Act,  was  restored  to  the  ofiQce  of  high-admiral.  But  James's 
hasty  counsels  gave  the  king  uneasiness.  He  was  one  day  over- 
heard to  say,  **  Brother,  I  am  too  old  to  go  again  on  my  travels ; 
you  may  if  you  choose  it." 

On  the  2nd  February,  1685,  the  king  was  seized  with  a  sudden 
fit,  which  resembled  an  apoplexy ;  and  though  he  recovered  from  it 
by  bleeding,  he  languished  only  a  few  days,  and  expired  on  the  6th, 
in  the  55th  year  of  his  age  and  the  25th  of  his  reign.  He  was 
so  happy  in  a  good  constitution  of  body,  and  had  ever  been  so 
remarkably  careful  of  his  health,  that  his  death  struck  as  great  a 
surprise  into  his  subjects  as  if  he  had  been  cut  off  in  the  flower 
of  his  youth.  At  the  solicitation  of  the  duke  of  York,  he  received 
the  rites  of  the  Romish  church  in  his  last  illness.  In  society, 
Charles  II.  was  the  most  amiable  and  engaging  of  men.  This,  indeed^ 
is  the  most  shining  part  of  his  character ;  and  he  seems  to  have 
been  sensible  of  it,  for  he  was  fond  of  dropping  the  formality  of 
state,  and  of  relapsing  every  moment  into  the  companion.    In  hia 


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1684r-1686. 


HIS  CHARACTEB. 


497 


lekttions  with  the  other  sex  he  was  loose  and  ImmofaL  Yet  he 
was  a  friendly  brother,  an  indulgent  father,  and  a  good-natured 
master.  As  a  sovereign  his  character  was  dangerous  to  his  people^ 
and  dishonourable  to  himselt  Negligent  of  the  true  interests  of 
the  nation,  he  was  sparing  only  of  its  blood.  It  was  remarked  to 
Charles  that  he  never  said  a  foolish  thing,  nor  ever  did  a  wise  one ; 
which  he  admitted,  observing  that  his  words  were  his  own,  but 
his  actions  were  his  ministers'.* 


*  His  ii&Toarlte  acm,  the  duke  of  Mon- 
mouth, by  Lacy  Walters,  was  beheaded 
In  the  following  reign,  and  left  no  iaaoe. 
By  the  docheas  of  Qeveland  (Barbara 
yilliers)  he  had  three  eons,  the  dnke  of 
Soothampton,  the  dnke  of  Grafton  (an- 
oertor  of  the  pieeent  dnke),  and  the  duke 


of  Northumberland.  The  dnke  of  Rich> 
mond  (the  ancestor  of  the  present  duke) 
was  his  son  by  the  duchess  of  Portsmouth 
(Louise  de  Qoerouaille) ;  and  the  duke 
of  St.  Albans  (also  the  ancestor  of  the 
present  dnke)  waa  his  aoa  Igr  Eleanor 
Gwynn. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


HABBAS  (X)RPU8  ACT, 
81  Gab.  II.  c  2  (a.d.  1679). 

This  celebrated  statute  did  not  intro- 
dooe  any  new  principle,  but  only  con- 
firmed and  rendered  more  available  a 
remedy  which  had  long  existed.  **The 
writ  of  HabeoM  Corpus  requiring  a  retnm 
•f  the  body  imprisoned  and  the  eatoe  of 
his  detention,  and  hence  anciently  called 
corpu9  cum  cautd,  was  in  fl&mlliar  use 
between  mt^eei  and  subilect  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VL  Its  use  by  a  suttject  against 
the  crown  has  not  been  traced  during  the 
time  of  the  Plantagenet  dynasty;  the 
earliest  precedents  known  being  of  the 
date  of  Henry  VII."  (See  Amos,  The 
JSngliMh  Cimilitution  in  the  Reign  qf 
CharU$  JI.»  p.  171,  and  the  authorities 
there  quoted.)  The  privilege  of  Eabeoi 
CorpuM  was  twice  solemnly  confirmed  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  first  by  the  Peti- 
tion of  Right  (1628),  and  secondly  by  the 
statute  abolishing  the  SUr  Chamber  and 
other  arbitrary  courts  (1640),  which  con- 
tained a  clause  that  any  person  impri- 
soned by  orders  of  the  abolished  courts, 
or  by  command  or  warruut  of  the  king  or 
any  of  his  council,  should  be  entitled  to  a 
writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  from  the  oourto  of 
King's  Bench  or  Common  Pleas,  without 
4day  upon  any  pretence  whatsoever. 
BotasQiarles  ll.andhis  ministers stlU 


found  means  to  evade  these  enactments, 
the  celebrated  sUtute  was  passed  in  1679, 
known  as  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act.  Its 
principal  author  was  lord  Shaftesbury, 
and  it  was  for  many  years  called  "  Lord 
Shaftesbury's  Act."    It  enacts:— 

**  1.  That  on  complaint  and  request  in 
writing  by  or  on  behalf  of  any  person 
committed  and  charged  with  any  crime 
(unless  committed  for  treason  or  felony 
expressed  in  the  warrant ;  or  as  accessory 
or  on  suspicion  of  being  accessory  before 
the  &ct  to  any  petit  treason  or  felony ;  or 
upon  suspicion  of  such  petit  treason  or 
felony  plainly  expressed  In  the  warrant ; 
or  unless  he  Is  convicted  or  charged  in 
execution  by  legal  process),  the  lord  chan- 
cellor, or  any  of  the  Judges  in  vacaUon, 
upon  viewing  a  copy  of  the  warrant  or 
AflBdavit  that  a  copy  is  denied,  sliall  (un- 
less the  party  has  neglected  for  two  terms 
to  apply  to  any  court  for  his  enlargement) 
award  a  haJbeaa  corput  for  such  prisoner, 
returnable  immediately  before  himself  or 
any  other  of  the  Judges ;  and  upon  the  re- 
turn made  shall  discharge  the  party,  if 
bailable,  upon  giving  security  to  appear 
and  answer  to  the  accusation  in  the 
proper  court  of  Judicature.  2.  That  sudi 
wriU  shall  be  indorsed  as  granted  In  pur- 
suance of  this  act,  and  signed  by  the  per- 
son awarding  them.  3.  That  the  writ 
I  shsU  be  returned  and  the  prisoner  broughl 


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496 


HOTSB  AVD  ILLX7SntATION& 


Chap.  zxt. 


vp  wHIiId  a  IIbiHwI  tiiiis  Moofilliig  to  Iks 
dtaUDoe,  not  ffiw>»dtng  in  anjam  tw«Dtj 
4ijt.  4.  Thftt  oOoen  and  keq)en  neg- 
leotiog  to  make  doe  retonM,  or  not 
delHerfng  to  the  pritoner  or  bii  agent 
within  six  bows  after  demand  »  capjot 
the  warmik  of  oommiftment,  or  ihiftinc 
the  ciMtody  of  the  prlaoner  fnm  ooe  to 
another  wfthoot  eafllelent  reaaon  or 
authority  (apedfled  in  the  act),  ahaU  for 
the  flnt  ofltoce  forfeit  lOOl^  and  for  the 
oeoood  aOBOoe  MOl.,  to  the  party  grlered, 
and  be  dtaaUed  to  hold  bis  office.  i.That 
no  person  onos  delivered    by    habeat 

ball  be  recommitted  for  the 
B  offence,  on  penalty  of  6001.  6.  That 

von  committed  for  treason  or 
felony  shall,  if  be  requires  it,  the  first 
week  of  Um  next  term,  or  the  first  day  of 
the  next  session  of  Ofsr  and  tmrwUfur,  be 
Indicted  In  tlutt  term  or  im—Ihu,  or  else 
admitted  to  ball  onless  the  king's  wit- 
nesses cannot  be  prodoced  at  that  time  { 
andifacqaitted,ornot  indicted  and  tried 
in  the  second  term  or  seaslon,  be  shall  be 
discharged  tram  his  imprisonment  for 
sooh  imputed  ofllBnce;  bnt  that  no  per- 
son, after  the  assises  sbaU  be  open  for  the 
county  in  which  he  is  detained,  shaU  be 
removed  by  kdbeat  <»rpu$  tUl  after  the 
assises  are  ended,  but  shall  be  left  to  the 
jostice  of  the  Judges  of  sssise.  7.  That 
any  such  prisoner  may  move  for  and 
obtain  hia  kaboat  corpiit  at  well  out  of 


the  Chaacsiy  or  BxdMqiMr  M  oit  of  At 
KlBg^  Bench  or  Oommon  Pleas ;  and  the 
lofd  chanofllnr  or  judges  denying  the 
same  on  sight  of  the  warrant  or  oath  that 
the  asne  is  leAMd,  forfeits  seveimlly  to 
the  party  griered  the  sum  of  sool.  g. 
That  this  writ  of  kabea$  eorpuM  shall  nm 
into  the  counties  psiatine,  cinque  porta, 
snd  othsr  privileged  plaoee  and  the 
islands  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  f.  lliat 
no  taihabttant  of  England  (except  peraons 
contracting  or  convicts  praying  to  be 
transported,  or  having  committed  some 
capital  oftnce  in  the  place  to  which  they 
are  sent)  shall  be  sent  prisoner  to  Soot- 
land,  Ireland,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  or  any 
places  berond  the  seas  within  or  without 
the  king's  dominions,  on  pain  that  the 
party  oommittfaig.  bis  advisers,  aiders, 
and  asBlst&nta,  shall  forfeit  to  the  party 
aggrieved  a  sum  not  less  than  SOOL.  to  be 
recovered  with  treble coets;  shall  ba,dis- 
abled  to  bear  any  office  of  trust  or  profit ; 
shall  incur  the  penalties  of  prawuiMtn ; 
and  shall  be  incapable  of  the  king^ 
pardon." 

The  Habeas  Oorpus  Act  was  confined 
to  criminal  cssee,  but  by  the  66  Geo.  m. 
c  100,  it  was  extended  not  only  to  cases 
of  illegal  restraint  by  subject  on  subject, 
but  also  to  those  in  wbidi  the  crown  has 
an  interest,  as  in  Instances  of  impress- 
ment or  smuggling.— See  Kerr's  Jloeib- 
s<0M.iiL137(  Amai,p,aaL 


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ObTene  of  medal  of  JamM  II.  and  Mary  of  Modena.    lAOcnm .  n .  sr .  kaka  .  d  . « 
MAO  .  Bu  .  nux .  ST .  BIB .  XBX  .  ST .  KKiBA.    Buts  of  ktog  Hid  qoMn  to  light. 


CHAPTER  XXVL 

JAiCBS  n.,  h.  A.D.  1633;  r.  1685-1688;  ok,  VOL 

I  1.  Accession  of  Jamos.  His  arbitrarj  proceedings.  Conviction  and 
punishment  of  Titos  Gates.  |  2.  Invasion  and  execution  of  Arffjle. 
Monmouth's  invasion,  defeat,  and  execution.  §  3.  Cruelties  of  Kirke 
and  Jeffreys.  §  4.  A  parliament.  Popish  measures.  §  5.  Court  of 
High  Commission  revived.  Sentence  against  the  bishop  of  London. 
Penal  laws  suspended.  Embassy  to  Rome.  §  6.  The  king's  violent 
proceedings  with  corporations.  Affair  of  Magdalen  college.  Imprison' 
ment  and  trial  of  tho  seven  bishops.  §  7.  Birth  of  the  prince  of  Wales. 
Conduct  of  the  prince  of  Orange.  §  8.  Coalition  of  parties  in  his 
favour.  The  king  retracts  his  measures.  §  9.  The  prince  of  Orange 
lands  at  Torbay.  The  king  deserted  by  the  army  and  by  his  family. 
§  10.  The  king's  flight.  His  character.'  §  11.  Convention  summoned. 
Debates.  Settlement  of  the  crown.  §  12.  Review  of  the  Stuart 
dynasty.  Principles  of  government.  §  13.  Foreign  affairs.  §  14. 
Internal  state  of  England.  §  15.  Bevenue.  Army  and  navy.  §  16. 
Colonies  and  commerce.     §  17.  Manners,  literature,  art,  etc. 

§  1.  The  first  act  of  James's  reign  was  to  summon  the  privy 
oounoil,  where,  after  some  praises  bestowed  on  the  memory  of  his 
predecessor,  '*  I  shall  make  it  my  endeavour,"  he  said,  "  to  preserve 
the  govemment,  both  in  church  and  state,  as  it  is  now  by  law  estab- 
lished." But  the  first  exercise  of  his  authority  seemed  little  in 
hannony  with  thebe  professions.     Before  parliament  could  be  a»> 


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600  JAMSS  n.  Chap.  xzn. 

00mbled,  he  issued  a  prool«iiiatkm,  ordering  the  customs  and  excise 
to  be  collected  as  usual  He  excused  this  act  by  stating  that  the 
necessities  of  trade  required  it,  and  that  the  forthcoming  parliament 
would  settle,  without  doubt,  a  sufficient  revenue  on  the  crown  for 
the  service  of  government  He  went  openly,  and  in  royal  state,  to 
mass,  and  liberated  from  prison,  on  his  own  authority,  Romanists 
and  nonconformists.  The  earl  of  Danby  and  the  Roman  catholic 
lords  committed  to  the  Tower  on  the  charge  of  Titus  Gates  were 
brought  to  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  discharged.  Neverthe- 
less all  the  chief  offices  of  the  crown  continued  still  in  the  hands  of 
protestants.  Rochester  was  made  treasurer ;  his  brother  darendon 
lord  privy  seal ;  Gkxiolphin  chamberlain  to  the  queen ;  Sunderland 
secretary  of  state ;  Halifax  president  of  the  council.  On  the  2drd 
of  April  James  and  his  queen  were  crowned  by  archbishop  Sancrofk 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  The  communion  and  a  few  minor  cere- 
monies only  were  omitted.  Parliament  assembled  on  May  19. 
Many  of  the  new  House  of  Cknnmons  were  strongly  biased  in  favour 
of  the  crown,  but  it  also  contained  no  small  number  of  the  king's 
former  enemies,  the  exclusionists.  On  the  22nd  the  king  repeated 
the  declaration  he  had  already  made,  adding  that  he  desired  the 
continuance  of  his  revenues  as  they  were  granted  to  his  predecessor. 
To  this  the  commons  unanimously  assented,  proposing  to  assist 
him  with  their  lives  and  fortunes  against  the  earl  of  Argyle,  who 
had  broken  out  into  rebellion. 

Three  days  before  the  meeting  of  parliament  Oates  was  convicted 
of  perjury  on  two  indictments,  was  fined  1000  marks  on  each,  and 
sentenced  to  be  whipped  on  two  different  days  from  Aldgate  to 
Newgate,  and  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn,  to  be  imprisoned  during 
life,  and  to  stand  in  the  pillory  five  times  every  year.  Oates 
survived  this  terrible  sentence.  At  the  Revolution  he  was  sought 
out  by  William  III.,  received  from  the  king  a  pension,  and  died 
in  1705. 

§  2.  Monmouth,  when  ordered  to  depart  the  kingdom  during  the 
late  reign,  had  retired  to  Holland,  where  he  was  well  received  by 
the  prince  of  Orange.  Pushed  on  by  his  followers,  and  especially  by 
the  earl  of  Argyle,  contrary  to  his  judgment  as  well  as  inclination, 
he  made  a  rash  and  premature  descent  upon  England.  The  finte 
of  Argyle,  however,  was  decided  before  that  of  Monmouth.  Having 
landed  in  Argyleshire  in  May,  1685,  he  collected  and  armed  a 
body  of  about  2500  men  ;  but  his  small  and  still  decreasing  army, 
after  wandering  about  for  a  little  time,  was  at  last  dissipated  with- 
out a  battle.  Argyle  himself,  in  attempting  to  escape,  was  seized 
and  carried  to  Edinburgh,  where,  after  enduring  many  indignitiei 
with  a  gallant  spirit,  he  was  publicly  executed  (June  30). 


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AJ>.  1686L  DEFEAT  OF  MONMOUTH.  501 

Keuiwliilo  Momnontli,  kavltig  HoUand  in  three  ships,  with  a 
small  force  of  150  men,  but  with  equipments  for  an  army,  had 
landed  at  Lyme  in  Dorsetshire  (June  11).  So  popular  was  his  name, 
that  in  four  dajrs  he  had  assembled  above  2000  horse  and  foot.  Most 
of  them  were  the  lowest  of  the  people ;  and  the  declaration  whicli  he 
published  was  chiefly  calculated  to  suit  the  prejudices  of  the  vulgar, 
or  the  most  bigoted  of  the  whig  party.  He  called  the  king,  duke  of 
York ;  and  denominated  him  a  traitor,  a  tyrant,  an  assassin,  and  a 
popish  usurper.  He  imputed  to  him  the  fire  of  London,  the  murder 
of  Godfrey  and  of  Essex,  nay,  the  poisoning  of  the  late  king;  and 
he  invited  all  the  people  to  join  in  opposition  to  his  t3rranny. 

At  Taunton,  where  twenty-six  young  maids  presented  him  witb  a 
pair  of  colours,  their  handiwork,  together  with  a  copy  of  the  Bible, 
Monmouth  took  upon  himself  the  title  of  king.  His  numbers  had 
now  increased  to  5000 ;  and  he  was  obliged  every  day,  for  want 
of  arms,  to  dismiss  many  who  crowded  to  his  standard.  He  entered 
Bridgewater,  Wells,  Frome,  and  was  proclaimed  in  all  these  places ; 
but  forgetting  that  such  desperate  enterprises  can  only  be  ren- 
dered successful  by  the  most  adventurous  courage,  he  allowed  the 
expectations  of  the  people  to  languish,  without  attempting  any 
considerable  undertaking. 

The  king's  forces,  under  the  command  of  Feversham  and 
Churchill,  now  advanced  against  him ;  and  Monmouth,  observing 
that  no  considerable  persons  joined  him,  finding  that  an  insurrection 
which  was  projected  in  the  city  had  not  taken  place,  and  hearing 
that  Argyle,  his  confederate,  was  already  defeated  and  taken,  sunk 
into  despondency.  He  had  resolved  to  withdraw,  and  leave  his 
unhappy  followers  to  their  fate ;  but  was  encoiuraged,  by  the  n^li- 
gent  disposition  made  by  Feversham,  to  attack  the  king's  army 
at  Sedgemoor,  near  Bridgewater,  and  might  have  obtained  a  victory 
had  not  his  own  misconduct  and  the  cowardice  of  lord  Grey,  who 
commanded  his  cavalry,  prevented  it  After  a  combat  of  three 
hours  the  rebels  gave  way,  and  were  pursued  with  great  slaughter 
(July  6).  Monmouth  fled  from  the  field  of  battle  above  -0  miles, 
till  his  horse  sank  under  him.  He  then  changed  clothes  with  a 
peasant  in  order  to  conceal  himself.  The  peasant  was  discovered 
by  the  pursuers,  who  now  redoubled  the  diligence  of  their  search. 
At  last  the  unhappy  Monmouth  was  found  lying  at  the  bottom 
of  a  ditch,  covered  with  fern,  in  Cranbom  Chase ;  his  body  de- 
pressed with  fatigue  and  hunger ;  his  mind,  by  the  memory  (»f  past 
misfortunes,  and  by  the  prospect  of  future  disasters  (July  8).  He 
burst  into  tears  when  seized  by  his  enemies,  and  he  seemed  still 
to  indulge  the  fond  hope  and  desire  of  life.  He  wrote  to  James 
a  most  submissive  letter,  conjuring  him  to  spare  the  issue  of  a 
28* 


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502  JAMES  IL  Ohap.  Txn 

brother  who  had  always  been  strongly  attached  to  his  interoEt. 
He  had  a  secret,  he  said,  to  reveal,  of  the  utmost  importance  to  tiie 
king's  safety.     Brought  to  London  five  days  after,  he  stood  before 
the  king  with  his  hands  free  and  his  arms  tied  behind  him.    Twice 
he  fell  on  his  knees  and  begged  his  li£B  with  the  most  abject 
entreaties.    But  James  remained  inexorable.    Either  Monmouth 
had  no  secret  to  reveal  or   on  reflection  altered  his  mind.     **Ib 
there  no  hope  for  me,  sire  ?  "  said  the  unhappy  prisoner.     James 
made  no  reply.    The  same  day  the  duke  was  attainted  in  parlia- 
ment.    He  prepared  himself  for  death,  with  a  spirit  better  suited 
to  his  rank  and  character.     He  appeared  on  the  scaffold,  on  Tower 
Hill,  in  a  long  peruke  and  a  grey  suit  lined  with  black.  He  warned 
the  executioner  not  to  fall  into  the  error  which  he  had  committed 
in  beheading  Russell,  where  it  had  been  necessary  to  repeat  the 
blow.    The  precaution  served  only  to  dismay  the  executioner.     He 
struck  a  feeble  blow  on  Monmouth,  who  raised  his  head  from  the 
block  and  looked  him  in  the  face,  as  if  reproaching  him  for  his 
failure.     He   then  laid  down  his  head  a  second  time,  and  the 
executioner  struck  him  again,  to  no  purpose.    Throwing  aside  the 
axe,  he  cried  out  that  he  was  incapable  of  finishing  the  bloody  oflice. 
The  sheriff  obliged  him  to  renew  the  attempt,  and  at  two  blows 
more  the  head  was  severed  from  the  body^  amidst  the  tears  of  the 
spectators  (July  15,  1685). 

§  3.  When  Monmouth  fled,  the  peasants  and  miners  fought 
bravely,  and  300  of  the  royal  troops  fell  dead  on  the  field.  Fever- 
sham  pursued  the  fugitives,  and  hanged  20  prisoners  without  trial; 
but  he  was  outdone  by  Colonel  Kirke,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  who 
had  long  served  at  Tangier,  and  had  contracted,  from  his  inter- 
course with  the  Moors,  an  inhumanity  less  known  in  European  uni 
in  free  countries.  At  his  entry  into  Bridgewater,  three  days  after 
the  battle,  he  executed  nine  of  the  insurgents  for  high  treason,  with- 
out any  trial.  Other  barbarous  actions  are  related  of  him  and  his 
soldiers,  whom,  by  way  of  pleasantry,  he  used  to  call  his  lambs, 
from  the  device  which  they  bore  on  their  colours,  an  appellation 
long  remembered  with  horror  in  the  west  of  England,* 

To  punish  those  who  had  taken  part  in  the  rebellion,  the  lord 
chief  justice,  Jeffreys,  was  sent  into  the  west,  with  four  other 
judges,  to  try  the  rebel  prisoners  (August  26).    He  opened  his 

*  This  WM  the  ensign  they  had  adofiCed 
in  their  wan  with  the  Moon  to  aignif^^ 
that  they  were  Christians.  Coarse,  how- 
ever, and  brutal  as  Kirke  and  JeiTreys 
might  be*  these  and  similar  stories  must 
not  be  implicitly  accepted.  Many  of 
them  were  gross  exaggerations;  many 


were  ftbricatlons  to  serve  the  prnposM 
of  the  Revolution,  and  render  the  reign 
of  James  more  odious  by  the  oontnst. 
It  was  in  Somersetshire,  and  at  Taonton 
in  particolar.  that  James  II.  finmd  tali 
wannest  adherents  in  16M« 


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AJK  168&  SXECnnOK  OF  ABOTL&  508 

ooart  at  WincheBter  with  the  trial  of  Mrs.  Alice  Lisle,  the  widow 
of  one  of  king  Charles's  judges.  She  was  convicted  of  harbouring 
two  of  the  rebels,  and,  with  great  barbarity,  was  sentenced  to 
be  burnt.  Throug^i  the  influence  of  the  clergy  she  obtained  a 
resi^te,  but  only  to  suffer  death  by  beheading  (September  2). 
The  commission  passed  through  the  tainted  districts,  complying 
strictly  with  the  legal  forms,  but  with  indecent  haste,  and  marking 
all  their  proceedings  with  merciless  severity.  Women  as  w^ell  as 
men  were  condemned  and  executed  for  harbouring  those  who  had 
taken  part  in  the  rebellion;  and,  according  to  the  barbarous 
usage  of  the  times,  in  the  case  of  treason,  their  mangled  limbs 
were  exposed  in  the  streets,  the  highways,  and  on  public  buildings, 
to  strike  the  passers-by  with  the  greater  terror.  Besides  Mrs. 
Lisle,  the  burning  of  Mis,  Qaunt,  for  a  similar  offence,  was  espe- 
cially cruel  and  unjust.'*'  In  this  way,  it  has  been  computed  that 
more  than  200  persons  suffered.  Even  those  who  received  pardon 
were  obliged  to  atone  for  their  guilt  by  fines  which  reduced  them 
to  beggary ;  or,  where  their  former  poverty  made  them  incapable 
of  paying,  were  condemned  to  cruel  whippings  or  severe  imprison- 
ments. Jeffreys  was  soon  after  created  chancellor  (September  28). 
The  insurrection  in  Scotland  was  quelled  with  little  bloodshed.  The 
Scotch  parliament  showed  entire  subserviency  to  the  government. 
S  4.  On  November  9,  at  the  opening  of  parliament,  James 
avowed  his  gratitude  to  many  catholic  officers  who  had  distin- 
guished themselves  in  his  service,  and  his  determination  to  pro- 
tect them.  The  declaration  struck  terror  into  the  church,  which 
had  hitherto  been  the  chief  support  of  monarchy ;  and  it  even  dis- 
gusted the  army.  At  the  same  time  the  revocation  by  Louis  XIV. 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  granted  by  Henry  IV.  in  favour  of  his 
protestant  subjects,  tended  mightily  to  excite  the  animosity  of  the 
nation  against  the  Roman  catholics.  Above  500,000  of  the  most 
useful  and  industrious  subjects  deserted  France;  and  exported, 
together  with  immense  sums  of  money,  those  arts  and  manufactures 
which  had  chiefly  tended  to  enrich  that  kingdom.  Nearly 
60,000  refugees  passed  over  into  England ;  and  all  men  were  dis- 
posed, from  their  representations,  to  entertain  the  utmost  horror 
of  the  projects  whicli  they  apprehended  to  be  formed  by  the  king 
for  the  abolition  of  the  protestant  religion.  The  smallest  approach 
towards  the  introduction  of  popery,  in  the  present  disposition  of  the 
people,  afforded  reason  for  jealousy.  Tet  the  king  was  resolute ;  and, 
having  fiEtiled  to  convince  the  parliament,  he  made  an  attempt,  with 
more  success,  for  establishing  his  dispensing  power  by  a  verdict  of 
the  judges  (December).      A  feigned  action  was  instituted.     Sir 

*  She  WM  ooodemiMd  by  dgM  •nhtjodfti,  but  Jeffreys  was  not  of  Um  i 


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604  JAMES  It  Chip.  zzn. 

Edwaid  Hales,  a  new  proselyte,  had  accepted  a  oommiflsioQ  of 
colonel;  and  directions  were  given  to  his  coachman  to  prosecute 
him  for  the  penalty  of  500/.  which  the  Test  Act  had  granted  to 
informers  (June  IG,  1686).  Before  the  cause  was  tried,  four  of  the 
judges—Jones,  Montague,  Charlton,  and  Nevil— -were  displaced 
(April  21).  Sir  Edward  Herbert,  the  chief  justice,  declared  that 
there  was  nothing  with  which  the  king  might  not  dispense ;  and 
when  the  matter  was  referred  to  the  judges,  eleven  out  of  the  twelve 
adhered  to  this  decision.  The  nation  thought  the  dispensing 
power  dangerous,  if  not  fatal,  to  liberty.  It  was  not  likely  that 
an  authority  which  James  had  assumed  through  so  many  obstacles 
would  in  his  hands  lie  long  idle  and  unemployed.  Four  catholic 
lords  were  brought  into  the  privy  council — Powys,  Arundel,  Bellasis, 
and  Dover  (August  16, 1686).  Halifax  had  been  dismissed  akeady, 
and  the  office  of  privy  seal  given  to  ArundeL  The  king  was  open 
as  well  as  zealous  in  his  desire  of  making  converts ;  and  men  plainly 
saw  that  the  only  way  to  acquire  his  affection  and  confidence  was  to 
sacrifice  their  religion.  Sunderland  had  not  scrupled  to  gain  fiAvour 
at  this  price,  and  Rochester,  the  treasurer,  though  the  king's  lHY)ther- 
in-law,  had  been  turned  out  of  office  because  he  refused  to  give  a 
similar  instance  of  complaisance  (December,  1085).  The  treasury 
was  put  in  commission,  and  Bellasis  was  placed  at  the  head  of  it. 
In  Scotland  James's  zeal  for  proselytism  was  still  more  successfuL 
In  Ireland  the  mask  was  wholly  taken  off.  The  duke  of  Ormond  hsd 
been  recalled  (March  27,  1685),  and  the  whole  power  lodged  in  the 
hands  of  Talbot,  soon  after  created  earl  of  Tyrconnel — a  man  carried 
away  by  the  blindness  of  his  prejudices,  and  the  fury  of  his  temper, 
with  immeasurable  ardour  for  the  catholic  cause.  Protestants  were 
disarmed  on  pretence  of  securing  the  public  i  eace.  The  army  was 
new-modelled ;  the  militia,  with  most  of  its  officers,  being  pro- 
testants,  and  consisting  of  4000  or  5000  men,  were  disbanded,  aod 
deprived  of  their  arms  and  regimentals.  When  Clarendon,  who  had 
been  named  lord-lieutenant,  came  over,  he  soon  found  that,  as  he 
had  refused  to  give  the  king  the  desired  phdge  of  fidelity  by 
changing  his  religion,  he  possessed  little  credit  or  authority ;  and  he 
was  even  a  kind  of  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  Tyrconnel.  All  judi- 
cious persons  of  the  Roman  catholic  commimion  were  disgusted 
with  these  violent  measures,  and  easily  foresaw  the  consequences. 

§  6.  The  proceedings  of  the  court  awakened  the  alarm  of  the 
established  church.  Instead  of  avoiding  controversy,  according  to 
the  king's  injunctions,  the  preachers  everywhere  declaimed  against 
popery ;  and  among  the  rest,  doctor  Sharp,  rector  of  St.  Giles's, 
London,  particularly  distinguished  himself.  His  discourses  gave 
great  offence  at  court ;  and  positive  orders  were  issued  to  Compton. 


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AJX  1686.    THE  BISHOP  OF  LONDON  SUSPENDED.  606 

biflhop  of  London,  to  suspend  Sharp  till  his  majesty's  fiirther  pleasure 
(June,  1686).  llie  prelate  readied  that  he  was  not  empowered  to  in- 
flict punishment  in  such  a  summary  manner,  even  upon  the  greatest 
delinquent.  But  neither  this  obvious  reason,  nor  the  most  dutiful 
submissions,  both  of  the  prelate  and  of  Sharp  himself,  could  appease 
the  king.  The  court  of  High  Commission  had  been  abolished  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  by  act  of  parliament ;  abd  although  that  act 
was  partly  repealed  after  the  Restoration,  yet  the  clause  was 
retained  which  prohibited  its  re-erection  in  all  future  times.  An 
ecclesiastical  commission  was  issued  anew,  almost  in  the  W(x^ 
which  created  the  court  under  Elizabeth,  and  seven  commissioners 
were  vested  with  full  and  unlimited  authority  over  the  church  of 
England  (Aiigust  16,  1686).  The  bishop  of  London  was  cited 
before  them,  and  by  a  majority  of  votes  he,  as  well  as  Sharp,  was 
suspended. 

Almost  the  whole  of  this  short  reign  consists  of  attempts,  always 
imprudent,  often  illegal,  sometimes  both,  against  whatever  was 
most  loved  and  revered  by  the  nation.  Not  content  with  grantiug 
dispensations  to  particular  persons,  the  king  assumed  a  power  of 
issuing  a  declaration  of  general  indulgence,  and  of  suspending  at 
once  all  the  penal  statutes,  by  which  conformity  was  required  to 
the  established  religion.  In  this  declaration  he  promised  that  he 
would  maintain  his  loving  subjects  in  all  their  properties  and  pos- 
sessions, as  well  of  church  and  abbey  lands  as  of  any  other.  Men 
thought  that  if  the  full  establishment  of  popery  were  not  at  hand, 
this  promise  was  quite  superfluous ;  and  they  concluded  that  the 
king  was  so  replete  with  joy  on  the  prospect  of  that  glorious  event, 
that  he  could  not,  even  for  a  moment,  refrain  from  expressing  it. 
But  what  afforded  the  most  alarming  prospect  was  the  continuance 
and  even  increase  of  the  violent  and  precipitate  conduct  of  affairs 
in  Ireland.  Clarendon  was  dismissed,  and  Tyrconnel  set  in  his 
place.  The  catholics  were  put  in  possession  of  the  council-table, 
of  the  courts  of  judicature,  and  of  the  bench  of  justices.  The 
charters  of  Dublin  and  of  all  the  corporations  were  annulled;  and 
new  charters  were  granted,  subjecting  the  corporations  to  the  will 
of  the  sovereign.  The  protestant  freemen  were  expelled,  and  catho- 
lics introduced ;  and  as  they  were  always  the  majority  in  number, 
they  were  now  invested  with  the  whole  power  of  the  kingdom. 
But,  not  content  with  discovering  in  his  own  kingdom  the  im- 
prudence of  his  conduct,  the  king  was  resolved  that  all  Europe 
should  be  witness  of  it.  He  publicly  sent  the  earl  of  Castlemaine 
as  ambassador  extraordinary  to  Rome,  in  order  to  express  his  obedi- 
ence to  the  pope,  and  to  make  advances  for  reconciling  his  Idng- 
doms,  in  form,  to  the  catholic  oommimion.    The  pope  in  return 


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606  JAMES  n.  Ohaf.  zxn. 

80Qt  Frandsoo  d'Adda  as  nuncio  to  England  (July  3, 1687) ;  and 
though  any  communication  with  the  pope  was  treason,  yet  so  little 
regard  did  the  king  pay  to  the  laws  that  he  gave  the  nunoio  a 
public  and  solemn  reception  at  Windsor.  Four  catholic  bishops 
were  publicly  consecrated  in  the  king's  chapel ;  the  regular  clergy 
of  that  communion  appeared  at  court  in  the  habits  of  their  order; 
and  some  of  them  were  so  indiscreet  as  to  boast  that  in  a  little  time 
they  hoped  to  walk  in  procession  through  the  capital.  Disgusted 
with  these  proceedings,  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  lord  Lumley,  and 
admiral  Herbert  resigned.  The  whole  conduct  of  afhirs  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  earl  of  Sunderland  and  father  Petre,  of  whom  the 
former  was  as  dishonest  as  the  latter  was  incapable. 

i  6.  By  the  practice  of  annulling  the  charters,  the  king  had  be- 
come master  of  all  the  corporations,  and  could  at  pleasure  change 
everywhere  the  whole  magistracy.  The  church  party,  therefore, 
was  deprived  of  authority;  and,  by  an  mmatural  and  impolitic 
coalition,  the  dissenters  were,  first  in  London  and  afterwards  in 
every  other  corporation,  substituted  in  their  place.  Not  content 
with  this  violent  and  dangerous  innovation,  the  king  appointed 
certain  regulators  to  examine  the  qualifications  of  electors;  and 
directions  were  given  them  to  exclude  all  such  as  adhered  to  the 
test  and  penal  statutes.  He  sought  to  bring  over  the  chief  public 
functionaries  to  his  views  in  private  conferences  which  were  then 
called  dosetinga.  The  whole  power  in  Ireland  had  been  committed 
to  catholics.  In  Scotland,  the  ministers  whom  the  king  chiefly 
trusted  were  converts  to  that  religion.  The  great  offices  in  England, 
civil  and  military,  were  gradually  transferred  from  the  protestants. 
Nothing  remained  but  to  open  the  door  in  the  church  and  imiver- 
sities  to  the  intrusion  of  the  catholics,  and  it  was  not  long  before 
the  king  made  this  rash  effort.  Cambridge  successfully  resisted 
the  king's  mandate  to  confer  the  degree  of  master  of  arts  on  fitther 
Francis,  a  Benedictine;  but  Massey,  a  Romanist,  was  installed 
dean  of  Christ  Church  in  Oxford  (December  29,  1686),  and  an 
attempt  was  made  to  thrust  Farmer  into  the  headship  of  Magdalen 
college,  in  the  same  university;  and,  when  this  failed,  doctor 
Parker,  suspected  of  an  inclination  to  Romanism,  was  forced  upon 
the  fellows  as  president.  In  April,  1687,  the  king  published 
a  declaration  of  indulgence  for  liberty  of  conscience;  and, 
fortified  in  his  resolution  by  various  addresses  from  nonr 
conformists  and  others  in  its  favour,  he  proceeded  to  pot 
forth  another  (April  25,  1G88),  almost  in  the  same  terms  as 
the  former ;  and  ordered  that,  immediately  after  divine  service, 
it  should  be  read  by  the  clergy  in  all  the  churches  on  May  20. 
Hereupon  six  of  the  bishops — Lloyd  of  St.  Asaph,  Ken  of  Bath 


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A^  1687-168a      TRIAL  OF  THS  SETEK  BISHOPS.  507 

and  Wells,  Turner  of  Ely,  Lake  of  Chichester,  White  of  Peter- 
borough, and  Trelawney  of  Bristol — ^held  a  consultation  with  the 
primate,  and  drew  up  a 
respectful    petition    to  ' 

the  king,  representing 
that,  as  this  declara- 
tion of  indulgence  was 
founded  on  a  preroga- 
tive formerly  declared 
illegal  by  tiie  parlia- 
ment, they  could  not, 
in  prudence,  honour,  or 
conscience,  make  them- 
selves parties  to  its 
publication,  and  they 
besought  the  king  that 
he  would  not  insist  upon 
their  reading  it  (May 
18).  The  king  imme- 
diately embraced  a  reso- 
lution of  punishing  the 
bishops  for  a  petition  so 
popular  in  its  matter, 
and  so  prudent  and 
cautious  in  its  expres- 
sions. He  summoned 
them  before  the  council; 
and  when  they  avowed 
the  petition,  an  order 
was  immediately  drawn 
for  their  commitment 
to  the  Tower.  The 
crown  lawyers  received 
directions  to  prosecute 

them  for  the  seditious  Medal  of  archbishop  Sancroft  and  the  aeTen  biahopt. 
libel  which,  it  was  nre-  ^**^-'  ^'^'^  •  Bancroft  .  archiepisc  .  CANTUAa  . 
^     J  J     xi         1     ,  1**8-     Bust  to  right.     Rev. :  Busts  of  the  seyen 

tended,  they  had  com-       bishops  in  circles,  with  their  names. 

posed  and  uttered.  When 

the  people  beheld  these  fathers  of  the  church  brought  from  court 
under  the  custody  of  a  guard,  and  saw  them  embark  at  the  Thames 
to  be  conveyed  to  the  Tower,  their  affection  for  liberty  and  zeal  for 
religion  blazed  up  at  onoe.  The  whole  shore  was  covered  with 
crowds  of  prostrate  spectators,  who  at  once  implored  their  blessing, 
and  addressed  their  petitions  towards  heaven  for  protection  during 


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506  JAMES  II.  Chap. 

this  extreme  dangw  to  which  their  country  and  their  religion  were 
exposed.  Even  the  soldiers,  seized  with  the  contagion  of  the 
same  spirit,  flung  themselves  on  their  knees  hefore  the  distressed 
prelates,  and  craved  their  benediction.  Their  passage,  when  con- 
ducted to  their  trial,  was,  if  possible,  attended  by  greater  masses 
of  anxious  spectators.  Twenty-nine  temporal  peers  (for  the 
other  prelates  kept  alooO  attended  the  seven  prisoners  to  West- 
minster Hall.  Such  crowds  of  gentry  followed  the  procession  that 
scarcely  room  was  left  for  the  populace  to  enter.  No  cause,  even 
during  the  prosecution  of  the  popish  plot,  was  ever  heard  with  so 
much  zeal  and  attention.  The  arguments  of  counsel  in  favour  of 
the  bishops  were  convincing  in  themselves,  and  were  heard  with  a 
fovourable  disposition  by  the  audience.  The  jury,  however,  for 
some  cause  unknown,  took  several  hours  to  deliberate,  and  kept  the 
people  in  the  most  anxious  expectation.  Night  was  setting  in 
when  they  retired.  The  next  morning,  at  ten,  on  the  assembling 
of  the  court,  the  foreman  returned  a  verdict  of  not  guUty  (June  18). 
The  announcement  was  received  with  deafening  shouts  of  applause 
They  were  repeated  by  the  thousands  outside,  who  in  vain  crowded 
for  admittance.  From  the  court  to  the  Thames,  from  the  Thames 
to  the  Tower,  the  news  spread  like  wildfire.  The  city  bells  rang 
out  with  one  universal  peal;  at  nightfall,  bonfires  blazed  and 
windows  were  illuminated.  James  was  then  in  the  camp  at 
Hounslow,  where  he  had  formed  a  standing  army  of  about  16,000 
men.  It  happened  that,  the  very  day  on  whidi  the  trial  of  the 
bishops  was  finished,  he  had  reviewed  the  troops,  and  had  retired 
into  the  tent  of  lord  Feversham,  the  general,  when  he  was  surprised 
to  hear  a  great  uproar  in  the  camp,  attended  with  the  most  ex- 
travagant symptoms  of  tumultuary  joy.  He  suddenly  inquired 
the  cause,  and  was  told  by  Feversham,  **  It  was  nothing  but  the 
rejoicing  of  the  soldiers  for  the  acquittal  of  the  bishops."  "  Do  you 
csJl  that  nothing  ?  **  replied  he.    "  But  so  much  the  worse  for  them.' 

§  7.  A  few  days  before  the  acquittal  of  the  bishops  the  queen  was 
delivered  of  a  son  (June  10, 1688),  who  was  baptized  by  the  name 
of  James.  This  blessing  had  been  impatiently  longed  for,  not  only 
by  the  king  and  queen,  but  by  all  zealous  catholics  both  abroad 
and  at  home.  Vows  had  been  offered  at  every  shrine  for  a  male 
successor,  and  pilgrimages  undertaken,  particularly  one  to  Loretto^ 
6y  the  duchess  of  Modena.  But  the  protestant  party  went  so  far  as 
to  ascribe  to  the  king  the  design  of  imposing  on  the  world  a  suppo- 
ffltitious  child,  who  might  be  educated  in  his  principles,  and  after 
his  death  support  the  catholic  religion  in  his  dominions. 

Until  now  the  nation,  sick  of  factions  and  the  civil  war,  had 
endured  with  extraordinary  patience  the  arbitrary  proceedings  of 


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A.a  168a     CX)NDUCT  OP  THE  PRINCE  OF  ORANGE.  509 

James.  He  was  well  advanced  in  years,  and  had  had  no  issue  by  his 
queen,  except  such  as  had  died  prematurely.  In  the  event  of  his 
death,  the  crown  would  devolve  on  his  daughter  Mary,  married  to 
William  of  Orange,  and  in  her  default  on  Anne,  both  of  whom  were 
staunch  protestants.  Now,  by  the  birth  of  his  son,  all  these  hopes 
were  disappointed.  It  was  certain  that  the  child  would  be  brought 
up  under  influences  most  hostile  to  the  religion  of  the  nation,  and 
a  protestant  succession  had  thus  become  more  remote  than  ever. 
Unhappily,  too,  for  James,  whatever  hopes  his  son-in-law  or  his 
daughters  had  once  entertained  of  succeeaing  him — and  Mary  had 
no  children — were  equally  dashed  by  the  birth  of  an  heir.  He 
had  offended  the  church  of  England ;  he  had  alienated  from  himself 
and  his  counsels  the  tory  nobility,  and  driven  them,  by  his  foolish 
partiality  for  father  Petre  and  the  most  violent  of  the  Romish 
oommunion^  into  the  ranks  of  the  whigs.  He  was  without  support 
and  without  advice.  Already,  in  1687,  William  had  sent  over 
Dykvelt  as  envoy  to  England,  and  given  him  instructions  to  apply, 
in  his  name,  to  every  sect  and  denomination.  To  the  church  party 
he  sent  assurances  of  favour  and  regard ;  whilst  the  nonconformists 
were  exhorted  not  to  be  deceived  by  the  fallacious  caresses  of  a 
popish  court,  but  to  wait  patiently  till  laws,  enacted  by  protestants, 
should  give  them  that  toleration  which,  with  so  much  reason,  they 
had  long  demanded.  Dykvelt  executed  his  commission  with  such 
dexterity,  that  all  orders  of  men  turned  their  eyes  towards  Holland, 
and  many  of  the  most  considerable  persons,  both  in  church  and 
state,  made  secret  applications  through  him  to  the  prince  of  Orange. 

The  event  which  James  had  so  long  made  the  object  of  his 
most  ardent  prayers,  and  from  which  he  expected  the  firm  estab- 
lishment of  his  throne,  proved  the  immediate  cause  of  his  ruin. 
William  had  sent  over  Zuleistein  to  congratulate  the  king  on 
the  birth  of  his  son.  The  Dutch  envoy  brought  back  to  the  prince 
entreaties  from  many  of  the  great  men  in  England,  to  assist  them 
in  the  recovery  of  their  laws  and  libert'es.  At  the  suggestion  of 
Edward  Russell,  a  cousin  of  William,  lord  Russell,  who,  like  Her- 
bert, had  been  a  member  of  the  duke  of  York's  household,  a  formal 
invitation  was  addressed  to  William  by  the  earls  of  Danby,  Devon- 
shire, and  Shrewsbury,  and  other  discontented  leaders  of  the  whigs. 
Even  Sunderland,  the  king's  favourite  minister,  entered  into  corre- 
spondence with  the  prince ;  and,  at  the  expense  of  his  own  honour 
and  his  master's  interests,  secretly  favoured  a  cause  which,  he 
foresaw,  was  likely  soon  to  predominate. 

§  8.  The  prince  was  easily  enga;red  to  yield  to  these  applications. 
The  time  when  he  entered  on  his  enterprise  was  well  chosen,  as  the 
people  were  then  in  the  highest  ferment,  on  account  of  the  insult 


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510  JAMES  U.  Chap.  xxn. 

which  the  imprisonment  and  trial  of  the  bishops  had  put  upon  the 
church,  and  indeed  upon  all  the  protestants  of  the  nation.  The 
political  condition  of  Europe  enabled  William  to  carry  on  his 
preparations  without  attracting  observation.  In  1686  several  d 
the  continental  powers  had  framed  the  league  of  Augsburg,  nomi- 
nally with  a  view  of  maintaining  the  peace  of  the  empire,  in  reality 
to  oppose  the  power  of  Prance.  Ajs  France  moved  to  support 
the  elector  of  Cologne,  William  set  on  foot  an  army  of  20,000 
men,  and  ordered  the  fleet  to  be  increased.  So  secret  were  his 
counsels,  so  fortunate  the  situation  of  affairs,  that  he  could  still 
cover  his  preparations  under  other  pretences.  Tet  all  his  artifices 
could  not  entirely  conceal  his  real  intentions  from  the  sagacity  of 
the  French  court.  Louis  conveyed  the  intelligence  to  James,  and 
offered  to  join  a  squadron  of  French  ships  to  the  English  fleet,  and 
to  send  over  any  number  of  troops  which  James  should  judge 
requisite  for  his  security.  But  the  French  king's  proposals  were 
imprudently  rejected.  Solemnly  assured  by  Citters,  the  Dutch 
ambassador,  that  the  prince's  preparations  were  not  intended  against 
him,  James  could  not  be  convinced  that  his  son-in-law  intended 
an  invasion  of  England.  Notwithstanding  the  strong  symptoms 
of  discontent  which  broke  out  everywhere,  a  universal  combination 
in  rebellion  appeared  to  him  nowise  credible. 

In  September  James  received  a  letter  from  the  Hague,  which 
informed  him  with  certainty  that  he  must  soon  look  for  a  power- 
ful invasion  from  Holland.  Though  he  could  reasonably  expect 
no  other  intelligence,  he  was  astonished  at  the  news ;  his  colour 
fled,  and  the  letter  dropped  from  his  hand.  His  eyes  were  now 
opened,  and  he  found  himself  on  the  brink  of^^frightfnl  precipice, 
which  his  delusions  had  hitherto  concealed  from  him>\His  minis- 
ters and  counsellors,  equally  astonished,  saw  no  rcsource^ut  in  a 
sudden  and  precipitate  withdrawal  of  all  those  fatal  measiut^  by 
which  he  had  created  to  himself  so  many  enemies,  ioreig^  and 
domestic.  He  paid  court  to  the  Dutch,  and  offered  to  enimt  into 
any  alliance  with  them  for  common  security ;  he  replaced  in  yiU  the 
counties  the  deputy-lieutenants  and  justices,  who  had  been  di 
of  their  commissions  for  their  adherence  to  the  test  and  th( 
laws;  he  restored  the  charters  of  London,  and  of  other  coi 
tions ;  he  annulled  the  court  of  ecclesiastical  commission ;  he 
off  the  bishop  of  London's  suspension ;  he  reinstated  the  expell 
president  and  fellows  of  Magdalen  college ;  and  he  was  even  redu< 
to  caress  those  bishops  whom  he  had  so  lately  persecuted  and  i^ 
suited.  But  all  these  measures  were  regarded  as  symptoms  of  fe& 
not  of  repentance. 

{  9.  Meanwhile  the  prince  of  Orange  published  a  declaration 


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U>.  168a.    PRINCE  OF  ORANGE  LANDS  IN  ENGLAND.       611 

(September  30),  which  was  dispersed  over  the  kiDgdom.  It  sel 
forth  that  the  prince,  from  his  near  relationship  to  the  kingdom,  felt 
it  was  a  duty  imposed  upon  him  to  protect  the  civil  and  religious 
liberty  of  its  people ;  that  he  had  no  other  object  in  view  except 
to  facilitate  the  calling  of  a  free  parliament^  and  enquiring  into  the 
birth  of  the  prince  of  Wales.  He  set  sail  from  Helvoetsluys 
(October  19),  with  60  ships  of  war  and  700  transports,  carrying 
4500  cavalry  and  11,000  foot,  with  large  military  stores.  He  had 
intended  to  land  in  Yorkshire,  where  the  earl  of  Derby  was  await- 
ing his  arrival;  but  a  strong  west  wind  setting  in  at  night,  he 
was  compelled  to  return.  He  sailed  again  on  November  1,  and 
landed  safely  in  Torbay  on  November  6,  the  anniversary  of  the 
gunpowder  treason.  The  Dutch  army  marched  first  to  Exeter, 
when  the  prince's  declaration  was  there  published ;  but  the  whole 
country  was  so  terrified  with  the  executions  which  had  ensued  on 
Monmouth's  rebellion,  that  no  one  for  several  days  ventured  to 
join  him.  Sir  Edward  Seymour  made  proposals  for  an  associa- 
tion, and  by  degrees  the  earl  of  Abingdon,  Mr.  Russell,  son  of  the 
earl  of  Bedford,  and  others,  came  to  Exeter.  All  England  was  in 
commotion,  and  the  nobility  and  gentry  in  various  counties  em- 
braced the  cause  of  the  invader. 

But  the  most  dangerous  symptom  was  the  disaffection  which  had 
crept  into  the  army.  The  officers  seemed  disposed  to  adhere  to  the 
interests  of  their  country  and  of  their  religion.  Lord  Combury, 
son  of  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  was  the  first  to  desert  his  sovereign,  and 
carried  off  with  him  part  of  his  cavalry  regiment  (November  14). 
The  contagion  of  such  an  example  spread  rapidly.  In  the  north  the 
standard  of  rebellion  was  raised  by  Danby  and  Lumley,  by  Delamere 
and  Brandon  in  Cheshire,  by  Devonshire  in  the  midland  counties. 
James  joined  his  camp  (November  19),  but  only  to  find  treachery. 
On  the  22nd  lord  Churchill  (afterwards  duke  of  Marlborough),  who 
had  been  raised  from  the  rank  of  a  page,  had  been  invested  with  a 
high  command  in  the  army,  had  been  created  a  peer,  and  had  owed 
his  whole  fortune  to  the  king's  fctvour,  went  over  to  the  enemy.  He 
carried  with  him  the  duke  of  Grafton,  natural  son  of  the  late  king, 
colonel  Berkeley,  and  some  troops  of  dragoons.  In  this  perplexity 
James  embraced  a  sudden  resolution  of  drawing  off  his  army,  and 
retiring  towards  London — a  measure  which  could  only  serve  to 
betray  his  fears  and  provoke  further  treachery. 

But  Churchill  had  prepared  a  still  more  mortal  blow  for  his  dis- 
tressed benefactor.  His  lady  and  he  had  an  entire  ascendency  over 
the  family  of  prince  George  of  Denmark ;  and  the  time  now  ap- 
peared seasonable  for  overwhelming  the  unhappy  king,  who  was 
already  staggering  with  the  violent  shocks  which  he  had  received. 


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612  JAMES  E.  Gbaf.  xxn 

Andover  was  the  first  stage  of  Jameses  retreat  towaids  London : 
and  there  prince  George,  together  with  the  young  duke  of  Ormond 
and  some  other  persons  of  distinction,  after  supping  with  the  king, 
deserted  him  in  the  night-time,  and  retired  to  the  princess  camp. 
No  sooner  had  this  news  reached  London,  than  the  princess  Anne, 
pretending  fear  of  the  king's  displeasure,  withdrew  herself  in  com- 
pany with  the  bishop  of  London  and  Lady  Churchill.  She  fled  to 
Nottingham;  where  the  earl  of  Dorset  received  her  with  great 
respect,  and  the  gentry  of  the  county  quickly  formed  a  troop  for 
her  protection.  The  king  burst  into  tears  when  the  flrst  intelli- 
gence of  this  astonishing  event  was  conveyed  to  him.  **  God  help 
me  I"  cried  he,  in  the  extremity  of  his  agony,  **  my  own  children 
have  forsaken  me  I"  Unable  to  resist  the  torrent,  he  called  a 
council  of  the  peers  and  prelates  who  were  in  London ;  and,  follow- 
ing their  advice,  issued  writs  for  a  new  parliament,  sending  Hali- 
fax, Nottingham,  and  Godolphin  as  commissioners  to  treat  with 
the  prince  of  Orange. 

§  10.  The  prince  of  Orange,  with  keen  policy,  declined  a  person- 
al conference  with  James's  commissioners,  and  sent  the  earls  of 
Clarendon  and  Oxford  to  treat  with  them  (December  8-9).  It  was 
his  purpose  throughout  that  those  who  had  joined  him  should  so 
implicate  themselves  as  to  render  retreat  impossible.  He  gained 
also  the  further  advantage  of  making  it  appear  that  whatever  he 
did  emanated  from  Englishmen,  not  from  himself.  The  terms 
which  he  proposed  implied  almost  a  present  participation  of  the 
sovereignty ;  and  he  stopped  not  a  moment  the  march  of  his  army 
towards  London.  The  news  which  the  king  received  from  all 
quarters  served  to  continue  the  panic  into  which  he  had  fallen. 
Impelled  by  his  own  fears  and  those  of  others,  he  precipitately 
embraced  the  resolution  of  escaping  into  France ;  and  he  sent  off 
beforehand  the  queen  and  the  iafmt  prince,  under  the  conduct  of 
count  Lauzun,  an  old  favourite  of  the  French  monarch.  He  him- 
self disappeared  in  the  night-time,  attended  only  by  sir  Edward 
Hales,  and  made  the  best  of  his  way  to  a  ship  which  waited  for 
him  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  (December  11).  Nothing  could 
equal  the  surprise  which  seized  the  city,  the  court,  and  the  king- 
dom, upon  the  discovery  of  this  strange  event.  The  more  efifloct- 
ually  to  involve  everything  in  confusion,  the  king  threw  the 
great  seal  into  the  river ;  and  he  recalled  all  those  writs  which 
had  been  issued  for  the  election  of  the  new  parliament 

By  this  temporary  dissolution  of  government,  the  populace  be* 
came  masters.  They  rose  in  a  tumult  and  destroyed  the  cathotto 
chapels.  They  even  attacked  and  rifled  the  houses  of  the  Floren- 
tine envoy  and  the  Spanish  ambassador,  where  many  of  the  catho* 


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AA  1688.  ABDICATES  THS  THBONE.  513 

lies  had  lodged  their  most  yaluable  effects.  Jeffreys,  the  chancellor, 
who  had  disguised  himself  in  order  to  fly  the  kingdom,  was  dis- 
covered by  them,  and  so  maltreated  that  he  died  not  long  after  in  the 
Tower  (April  18, 1689).  To  add  to  the  disorder,  Feversham,  the 
royal  general,  had  no  sooner  heard  of  the  king's  flight,  than  he 
disbanded  the  troops  in  the  neighbourhood,  and,  without  either  dis- 
arming or  paying  them,  let  them  looj^e  to  prey  upon  the  co*  iitry. 
In  this  extremity,  the  bishops  and  peers  who  were  in  town  thought 
proper  to  assemble,  and  to  interpose  for  the  preservation  of  the 
community.  Archbishop  Sancroft  abs(  nting  himself,  the  marquis 
of  Halifax  was  chosen  speaker.  They  gave  directions  to  the  mayor 
and  aldermen  for  keeping  the  peace  of  the  city ;  they  issued  orders, 
which  were  readily  obeyed,  to  the  fleet,  the  army,  and  all  the  gar- 
risons; and  they  declared  their  adhesion  to  the  prince  of  Orange  in 
his  design  of  calling  a  free  parliament.  The  citizens  begged  him  to 
nuut)h  at  once  to  London ;  and  the  prince,  on  his  part,  was  not  want- 
ing to  the  tide  of  success  which  flowed  in  upon  him. 

While  every  one,  from  principle,  interest,  or  animosity,  turned 
his  back  on  the  unhappy  king,  who  had  abandoned  his  own  cause, 
tba  \m welcome  news  arrived  that  he  had  been  seized  by  some  fisher- 
men near  Sheemess,  as  he  was  making  his  escape  in  disguise.  On 
his  arrival  in  London  (December  16),  the  populace,  moved  by  com- 
passion for  his  unhappy  fate,  and  actuated  by  their  own  levity, 
received  him  with  shouts  and  acclamations.  But  this  change  in  the 
humoiu's  of  the  populace  did  not  suit  the  partisans  of  William. 
Halifax  hastened  to  Henley,  and  urged  him  to  come  instantly  to 
London.  To  get  rid  of  James,  it  was  determined  to  push  him  into 
that  measure  which,  of  himself,  he  seemed  sufficiently  inclineil  to 
embrace.  Lord  Feversham,  whom  he  had  sent  on  a  civil  message 
to  the  prince  desiring  a  conference,  was  put  under  arrest,  on  the 
pretence  that  he  had  come  without  a  passi^rt ;  the  Dutch  guards 
were  ordered  to  take  possession  of  Whitehall ;  and  Halifax,  Shrews- 
bury, and  Delamere  delivered  a  message  to  the  king  in  bed  after 
midnight,  ordering  him  to  leave  his  palace  next  morning,  and  to 
depart  for  Ham,  a  seat  of  the  duchess  of  Lauderdale's  (December 
17).  He  desired  permission,  which  was  easily  granted,  of  retiring 
to  Rochester,  a  town  near  the  S(  acoast.  Here  he  lingered  some 
days,  under  the  protection  of  a  Dutch  guard ;  but,  urged  by  earnest 
letters  from  the  queen,  he  privately  embarked  on  board  a  frigate 
which  waited  for  him  (December  23),  and  arrived  safely  at  Amble- 
teuse,  in  Picardy.  Hence  he  hastened  to  St.  Germains,  where 
Louis  received  him  with  the  highest  generosity,  sympathy,  and 
r^ard. 

§  11.  William  of  Orange  entered  London  (December  18)  with  GOOO 


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514i  JAMES  It  Ciup.  xxn. 

Datoli  troops.  Strictly  speakings  the  purposes  for  which  he  came^ 
as  set  forth  in  his  declaration,  were  in  great  measure  accomplished, 
and  nothing  remained  except  for  the  prince  to  retire  and  allow 
the  nation  to  call  a  *'free  parliament."  For  this  the  peers  then 
sitting  at  Guildhall  might  he  considered  amply  qualified ;  and,  as 
William  appeared  to  acquiesce  in  their  powers  to  speak  in  hehalf 
of  the  nation,  and  even  to  command  their  natural  sovereign,  it 
seemed  no  more  than  appropriate  that  they  should  issue  writs  for 
a  new  election,  and  use  the  liberty  the  prince  had  held  out  to 
them.  But  this  was  by  no  means  William's  intention.  He  took 
the  sovereign  authority  at  once  into  his  own  hands,  and  on  the 
23rd  of  December  he  published  an  order  commanding  those  who 
had  served  as  members  in  any  parliament  held  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  to  meet  him  at  St.  James's  three  days  after,  together 
with  the  aldermen  and  50  of  the  common  council  of  London.  This 
act  must  have  opened  men's  eyes  to  William's  real  intentions,  and  the 
hopelessness  at  the  same  time  of  resisting  a  victorious  prince,  with 
a  foreign  army  at  his  heels.  Still  more  hopeless  was  the  case  of 
those  whom  he  had  contrived  to  implicate  in  this  invasion,  and 
made  responsible  for  it.  To  go  back  was  to  confess  themselves 
traitors;  to  go  forward  was  to  accept  all  William's  pretensions. 
With  mixed  feelings,  therefore,  the  lords,  most  of  whom  had  already 
'lescrted  to  William,  and  afterwards  the  commons,  requested  the 
prince  to  take  upon  him  the  administration  of  public  affairs,  both 
civil  and  military — as  if  he  had  not  done  it  in  reality  already — 
and  to  dispose  of  the  revenue,  until  the  meeting  of  a  convention, 
for  which  he  was  requested  to  issue  writs.  With  that  prudence 
for  which  he  was  distinguished,  William  observed  all  the  consti- 
tutional forms  on  this  occasion.  He  gave  proofs  to  Englishmen 
that  no  native  sovereign  could  be  more  tender  and  careful  than  he 
of  their  national  rights  and  privileges.  Though  hostile  in  reality 
to  the  church  of  England,  and  indifferent  to  all  forms  of  religion,  he 
received  the  sacrament  from  the  bishop  of  London.  He  was  con- 
siderate to  every  one ;  he  authorized  all  officers  and  magistrates  to 
continue  in  their  places.  He  was  severe  to  none,  except  papists ; 
and  such  severity  was  popular.  Such  moderation  contrasted  all 
the  more  favomrably  with  the  earnest  but  narrow-minded  pre- 
judices of  his  father-in-law,  who  would  make  no  concessions  to 
the  religious  or  political  scruples  of  other  men.  The  conduct  of 
the  prince  with  regard  to  Scotland  was  founded  on  the  same  pru- 
dent and  moderate  maxims.  He  summoned  all  the  Scotchmen  of 
rank  at  that  time  in  London,  who,  without  any  authority  from  their 
nation,  made  an  offer  to  the  prince  of  the  government,  which  h» 
willingly  accepted. 


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▲J>  1689.        WILLIAM  AND  MABT  PBOCLAIMED.  615 

The  English  convention  assembled  at  Westminster  (January 
22, 1689) ,  and,  as  two-thirds  of  them  were  whigs,  they  experienced 
no  difficulty  in  choosing  Halifax  as  speaker  in  the  upper>  and 
Powle  as  speaker  in  the  lower  house.  They  returned  thanks  to 
William  for  delivering  them  from  popery  and  arbitrary  power. 
Next  day  the  commons  sent  up  to  the  peers  the  following  vote 
for  their  concurrence :  '*  That  king  James  U.  having  endeavoured 
to  subvert  the  constitution  of  the  kingdom,  by  breaking  the  original 
contract  between  king  and  people ;  and,  by  the  advice  of  Jesuits 
and  other  wicked  persons,  having  violated  the  fundamental  laws, 
and  withdrawn  himself  out  of  the  kingdom,  has  thereby  ctbdi- 
caiad  the  government,  and  that  the  throne  is  become  vacant.' 
This  vote,  carried  by  Hampden  to  the  upper  house,  met  with 
great  opposition.  Part  of  them  desired  the  conditional  restoration 
of  James ;  others  advocated  a  regency  during  his  life,  thus  securing 
the  succession  of  his  son,  whom  it  seemed  unjust  to  exclude  for 
the  offences  of  his  father.  Great  debates  followed  on  the  word 
abdicated,  lor  which  it  was  unanimously  resolved  to  substitute  the 
word  deserted.  The  next  question  arose,  whether  the  throne  was 
vacant  in  conse^quence  of  desertion;  and  it  was  declared  by  a 
majority  of  14  that  it  was  not.  William  kept  wary  and  watchful 
eyes  on  these  discussions.  Till  now  he  had  remained  silent ;  but, 
though  he  had  come  to  secure  a  free  parliament,  this  was  a  freedom 
to  which  he  would  be  no  party.  Sending  for  Halifax,  Danby,  and 
other  whig  chiefs,  he  plainly  assured  them  he  would  not  consent 
to  a  regency,  nor  share  the  throne  with  his  wife  simply  for  her 
lifetime.  This  declaration  produced  the  necessary  effect.  Some 
anticipated,  not  unreasonably,  that  it  was  better  to  offer  a  crown, 
with  good  grace,  of  which  William  was  in  effect  possessed  already ; 
others  dreaded  political  disturbances.  By  a  majority  of  15,  the 
resolution  of  the  commons  was  accepted  without  any  amendment, 
but  28  of  the  peers  protested  (February  6). 

Thereupon,  the  marquis  of  Halifax,  in  the  name  of  the  convention, 
tendered  the  crown  to  William  and  Mary  (February  13, 1689),  who 
accepted  the  offer,  and  were  proclaimed  king  and  queen  of  England, 
France,  and  Ireland.  The  crown  was  settled  on  the  prince  and 
princess  of  Orange,  the  sole  administration  to  remain  in  the  prince. 
The  succession  was  to  rest  in  William  and  Mary  and  their  issue ; 
next  in  Mary's  issue  by  any  husband;  then  in  Anne  and  her 
children ;  lastly,  in  the  children  of  William.  The  convention  an- 
nexed to  this  settlement  a  Declaration  of  Rights,  by  which  the 
prerogative  was  more  narrowly  circumscribed  and  more  exactly  de- 
fined. This  declaration  was  subsequently  confirmed  and  extended 
by  the  Bill  of  Rights,  as  will  be  related  in  the  following  chapters. 


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516  JAMES  XL  Chip.  zxn. 

f  12.  Thus  ended,  for  the  present,  the  long  dispute  between  the 
prerogatiye  of  the  crown  and  the  privileges  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. James  L,  in  adopting  the  maxim,  "  a  Deo  rex,  a  rege  lex,** 
raised  the  abstract  question  of  principle,  and  inculcated  on  his 
subjects  his  own  divine  right,  and  their  duty  of  passive  obedience. 
Fortunately  for  the  nation,  Charles  1.  and  James  II.,  possessed 
sufficient  courage,  or  sufficient  obstiuacy,  to  stake  their  lives  and 
fortunes  on  the  maintenance  of  what  they  considered  a  sacred 
principle,  and  thus  to  bring  the  question  to  an  issue,  which  James 
I.  had  avoided  out  of  natural  timidity,  and  Charles  II.  partly  from 
good  sense  and  partly  from  the  careless  indolence  of  his  temper. 

The  antagonistic  theories  of  thb  times  provoked  a  host  of  writen 
to  treat  on  the  fundamental  principles  of  government,  and  to 
examine  the  foundations  on  which  all  legislative  and  executive 
authority  is  built.  Harrington,  Sidney,  Milton,  and  Locke  ranged 
themselves  on  the  side  of  popular  liberty  :  of  the  other  side,  Hobbes, 
a  profound  and  original  thinker,  is  the  chief ;  a  writer  who  aflfords 
a  striking  instance  that  the  utmost  freeilom'  and  originality  of 
philosophical  speculation  may  not  be  inconit>atible  with  the  enter^ 
tainment  of  arbitrary  political  principles.  Nothing  can  more 
strongly  show  how  generally  the  theory  of  government  occupied 
the  attention  of  reflecting  men  in  the  time  of  the  Stuarts,  than  the 
solemn  assertion  by  the  convention  of  1688  of  an  original  contract 
between  prince  and  people ;  an  hypothesis  utterly  incapable  of 
proof,  however  wholesome  in  itself,  and  however  useful  as  the 
postulate  of  a  political  disquisition.    (Supplement,  Note  IX.) 

§  13.  With  regard  to  foreign  affairs,  the  era  of  the  first  four 
Stuarts  presents  almost  a  blank  ;  and  what  little  is  to  be  noted  is 
not  very  creditable  to  the  nation.  James  I.  added  to  England  the 
power  of  Scotland  as  well  as  that  of  pacified  Ireland,  llie  short 
effort  of  Charles  I.  in  favoiu*  of  the  French  protestants  was  inglorious 
and  unsuccessful ;  and  the  domestic  troubles,  which  occupied  the 
remainder  of  his  reign,  diverted  his  attention  from  the  affairs  of  the 
continent.  The  energetic  administration  of  Cromwell  revived  for 
a  while  the  lustre  of  the  English  arms.  Under  Charles  II.,  the 
pensioner  of  France,  England  was  eclipsed  by  the  glories  of  Louis 
XIV. 

§  14.  Yet  during  the  reigns  of  the  Stuarts  the  nation  advanced 
steadily,  though  slowly,  in  wealth,  power,  and  civilization.  In  the 
time  of  Charles  II.,  the  population  of  England  had  increased  to 
about  five  millions  and  a  quarter.  The  addition  was  principally  in 
the  southern  counties.  The  district  north  of  Trent  still  oontinued 
thinly  peopled,  and  comparatively  barbarous ;  although  the  coal- 
beds  which  it  contained  were  destined  eventually  to  attract  to  it  an 


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AJ».  168a  BEYENUE.  617 

immense  increase  of  population,  and  to  make  it  tlie  seat  of  manu&o- 
turing  industry.  The  rjchiepiscopal  proyince  of  York,  wliich.  at 
the  time  of  the  Revolution  was  thought  to  contain  only  one-seventh 
of  the  English  population,  contained  in  1841  two-sevenths.  In 
Lancashire  the  numher  of  inhabitants  appears  to  have  increased 
ninefold.*  But  the  means  of  conmumication  throughout  the 
kingdom  were  wretched  in  the  extreme.  Canals  did  not  exist ;  the 
roads  were  execrable,  and  infested  with  highwaymen.  Four  horses, 
sometimes  six,  were  required  to  drag  the  coaches  through  tbe  mud ; 
and  the  traveller  who  missed  the  scarce  discernible  track  over  the 
heaths,  which  were  then  frequent  and  extensive,  might  wander  lost 
and  benighted.  Some  improvement  was  effected  by  the  introduction 
of  posts  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  which  were  brought  to  more 
perfection  after  the  Restoration.  In  1680,  a  penny  post  was 
established  in  London  for  the  delivery  of  letters  and  parcels  several 
times  a  day.  The  first  law  for  erecting  turnpikes  was  passed  in 
1662 ;  but  no  very  considerable  improvement  in  the  roads  took 
place  till  the  reign  of  George  U. 

§  15.  The  annual  revenue  of  James  I.  was  estimated  at  about 
450,000?.,  a  great  part  of  which  arose  from  the  crown  lands,  from 
purveyance  and  other  feudal  rights  which  were  abolished,  as  before 
related,  soon  after  the  Restoration.  The  customs  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.  never  exceeded  lliO,000/.,  and  were  supposed  to  be  an  cki 
valorem  duty  of  five  per  cent.,  both  on  exports  and  imports.  The 
excise  was  not  established  till  the  next  reign,  when  both  the  customs 
and  the  total  amount  of  the  revenue  had  more  than  doubled ;  the 
income  previous  to  the  meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament  being  about 
900,000?.,  of  which  the  customs  formed  about  500,000?.  Duiing 
the  commonwealth  the  revenue  was  about  2,000,000?. ;  yet  it  was 
exceeded  by  the  expenditure.  The  average  revenue  of  Charles  IL 
was  about  1,200,000?.  The  first  parliament  of  James  II.  put  him 
in  possession  of  1,900,000?.  per  annum,  though  the  coimtry  was  at 
peace;  and,  adding  his  income  as  duke  of  York,  James  had  a 
revenue  of  about  2,i  00,000/.  The  national  debt  at  tho  time  of  the 
Revolution  was  only  a  little  more  than  1,000,000?. 

These  facts  show  a  vast  increase  in  the  trade  and  resoiux^es  of  tlie 
country.  But  the  increased  revenue  was  absorbed  by  augmented 
expenditure.  The  first  two  Stuarts  had  no  standing  army. 
R^ular  troops  were  first  kept  constantly  on  foot  in  the  lime  of  the 
Commonwealth.  Charles  IL  had  a  few  regiments  of  guards  ;  but 
James  U.  possessed  a  regular  force  of  20,000  men.  The  navy  was 
also  vastly  augmented  under  the  Stuarts.  In  Elizabeth's  reign  the 
whole  naval  force  of  the  kingdom   consisted   of  onl,''  3')  ihip^ 


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518  JAMES  n.  Cbap.  zxn. 

beridcG  pfntia/vMi,  and  the  largest  of  them  wou  i  ot  now  equal  a 
loorth  rate.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.  a  ship  was  constructed  larger 
than  had  yet  been  seen  in  the  English  navy,  being  of  1400  tons, 
and  carrying  64  guns.  The  navy  was  greatly  increased  under  Charles 
I.  and  Charles  II.,  and  still  more  under  James  II.  The  last  had 
an  affection  for  the  service,  showed  considerable  talent  as  an 
admiral,  and  was  the  inventor  of  naval  signals.  He  was  well 
seconded  by  Pepys,  the  secretary  of  the  admiralty.  At  the  period 
of  the  Revolution  the  fleet  consisted  of  173  vessels,  manned  by 
42,000  seamen. 

§  16.  The  increase  of  revenue  and  of  military  power  denoted,  and 
was  accompanied  with,  a  corresponding  increase  in  wealth  and  com- 
merce. The  first  foundations  of  the  North  American  colonies  were 
laid,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  reign  of  James  I. ;  when  also  the 
Bermudas  and  the  island  of  Barbadoes  were  planted,  the  East  India 
trade  began  to  flourish ;  Greenland  was  discovered,  and  the  whale 
fishery  begun.  The  population  of  the  North  American  colonies  was 
augmented  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  when  the  puritans  settled  in 
New  England,  and  many  catholics  in  Maryland.  Under  Charles 
II.,  New  York  and  the  Jerseys  were  recovered  or  conquered,  and 
Carolina  and  Pennsylvania  settled.  The  two  Dutch  wars,  by 
disturbing  the  trade  of  that  republic,  promoted  the  commerce  of  this 
islanc  and  after  Charles  II.  had  made  a  sci>arate  peace  with  the 
States,  his  subjects  enjoyed  unmolested  the  trade  of  Europe.  The 
commerce  and  riches  of  England  increased  very  fast  from  the  Re- 
storation to  the  Revolution ;  and  it  is  computed  that  during  these 
28  years  the  shipping  of  England  was  more  than  doubled.  Several 
new  manufactures  were  introduced,  and  especially  that  of  silk,  by 
the  French  protestants  who  took  refuge  here  after  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes.  Sir  Josiah  Child,  the  banker,  who  wrote  upon 
trade,  states  that  in  1688  there  were  more  men  on  'Change  worth 
10,000/.,  than  there  were  in  1660  worth  1000?. 

§  17.  The  manners  of  the  nation  underwent  great  changes  during 
this  period.  Under  the  first  two  Stuarts  many  religious  sects  sprung 
up;  that  of  the  Quakers  was  founded  about  1650  by  George 
Fox,  a  native  of  Drayton,  in  Leicestershire.  Of  this  sect,  Penn, 
the  founder  of  Pennsylvania,  was  an  eminent  member.  Each 
of  these  classes  had  its  literature.  The  greatest  genius  among  the 
puritans,  and  indeed  one  of  the  greatest  among  the  English  poets, 
was  Milton.  The  writers  who  succeeded  the  Restoration,  and  who 
belonged  to  what  may  be  called  the  cavalier  literature,  are  more 
numerous  but  less  remarkable  than  their  predecessors.  Thdr 
works,  and  eq;>ecially  those  of  the  dramatists,  though  often  sparkling 
with  wit,  are  for  the  most  part  disfigured  by  indecency.    It  is  the 


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A.D.  1689.  LITERATURE,  ART,  ETa  519 

chief  merit  of  these  authors  to  have  moulded  our  language,  and 
especially  its  prose,  into  that  easy,  perspicuous,  and  equable  flow 
which  makes  their  writings  ^till  seem  modem.  The  principal 
refiners  of  our  language  and  versification  were  Denham,  Waller, 
and  Dryden.  The  prose  of  the  last  has  seldom  been  equalled; 
whilst  Jeremy  Taylor,  South,  and  Bunyan,  as  preachers  or  writers 
in  their  own  particular  subjects,  have  never  been  surpassed. 
The  same  era  of  the  Stuarts  counts  the  names  of  our  greatest 
philosophers  ;  among  others  th-  se  of  Bacon,  Hobbes,  Locke,  Boyle, 
Newton,  and  Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
The  Royal  Society  was  founded  in  1660  by  a  small  circle  of  Oxford 
philosophers,  and  obtained  the  king's  letters  patent 

Charles  I.  encouraged  the  fine  arts ;  but  we  cannot  yet  be  said 
to  have  had  a  school  either  of  painting  or  sculpture.  The  artists 
employed  were  commonly  foreigners,  as  Vandyck,  Verrio,  Kneller, 
Lely,  and  others.  Gibber,  the  sculptor,  was  a  Dutchman.  Almost 
the  only  Englishmen  eminent  in  art  at  this  period  were  Inigo  Jones 
and  Wren,  the  architects.  The  former  built  Whitehall  and  several 
mansions  of  the  nobility.  The  great  fire  which  swept  away  the 
wooden  tenements  of  London  opened  a  noble  field  for  the  display  of 
Wren's  genius,  which,  however,  was  checked  by  the  penuriousness  of 
the  government.  Nevertheless  we  are  indebted  to  him  for  St.  Paul's 
cathedral,  as  well  as  for  several  of  the  finest  churches  in  London. 

Had  there  existed  in  the  time  of  the  Stuarts  better  vehicles  for  the 
expression  of  public  opinion,  they  might  probably  have  been  saved 
from  some  of  those  schemes  which  proved  so  fatal  to  themselves. 
Newspapers  had  indeed  been  established  in  the  reign  of  Charles  L ; 
but  even  in  that  of  his  successor  they  were  small  and  imimportant, 
and  appeared  only  occasionally.  Towards  the  close  of  his  reign 
Charles  XL  would  allow  only  the  London  Ocizette  to  be  published. 
Till  1679  the  press  in  general  was  under  a  censorship ;  but  though 
it  was  then  emancipated  for  a  short  period,  till  the  censorship*  was 
revived  by  James,  the  liberty  was  not  extended  to  gazettes.  In  this 
state  of  things  the  coffee-houses,  which  were  established  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II. — for  tea,  coffee,  and  chocolate  were  first  introduced 
about  the  time  of  the  Restoration — were  the  chief  places  for  the 
ventilation  of  political  and  literary  opinions.  The  government  re- 
garded these  places  of  resort  with  much  uneasiness  and  suspicion, 
and  once  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  suppress  them. 


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520 


KOTES  JLND  ILLUSTRATIONa         Oeaf.  xxti. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


▲UTHORmES  FOB  THE  PERIOD 
OF  THE  STUARTS. 

Daring  this  epoch  the  materialB  of 
history  become  more  abonduit.  The 
foUowlog  list  gives  only  the  more  im- 
port«nt  writers. 

For  the  reign  of  James  I.  the  chief 
authorities  are— Winwood's  MemoriaU; 
Camden's  AtmaU  qf  King  Janet  /.,  and 
Wilson's  Eittory  of  King  Jame*  I.  (both 
in  Kennett) ;  Dalrjrmple's  MemoriaU  and 
Letter*,  illustrative  of  the  reigns  of  James 
I.  and  Charles  I. ;  Carleton's  Letters  dur- 
ing his  embassy  in  Holland ;  Rushworth's 
Historical  OMection  (1618-1648) ;  Bitch's 
Negodatxims  trcm  1692  to  1617 ;  Bacon's 
works ;  king  James's  works.  Sully's  Me- 
moires  and  Boderie's  Amhassades  en  Angle- 
terre  throw  considerable  light  on  the  state 
of  James's  foreign  relations. 

For  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  Clarendon's 
History  of  the  Rebellion  is  the  principal ; 
a  classical  performance  in  regard  to 
style  and  historical  d^cription,  espe- 
cially the  delineation  uf  characters,  but 
not  always  trustworthy.  An  unmuti- 
lated  edition  of  this  work  was  not 
published  till  1826.  To  this  must  be 
added  Clarendon's  Life  and  State  Papers; 
Whitelock's  MemoriaU  (from  Charles  I. 
to  the  Restoration),  Nalson's  CoUection 
(1639-1648);  Soobell's  Acts  and  Ordi- 
nonoei  (1640-1656);  Husband's  CoUection 
(1642-1646) ;  Thurloe's  State  Papers{lB3S- 
1660)  i  May's  HUtory  (fUie  Jjong  Parlia- 
ment ;  StraHbrd's  LetUrs  and  Despatches ; 
the  Sydney  StaU  Papers;  SpriggB's  ^nylia 
Rediviva;  Dugdale's  Short  View  qf  the 
late  Troubles:  Robert  Baillie's  Letters 
and  JoumaU  (1637-1662);  Ludlow's 
Memoirs ;  Lucy  Hutchinson's  Memoirs  of 
her  husband,  colonel  Hutchinson  ;  sir  John 
Berkeley's  Memoirg ;  John  Asbbumhara's 
]Varralive;  Falrfkx's  Memorials:  sir  T. 
Herbert's  Memoirs ;  Slingsby's  and  Hodg- 
lon's  Memoirs ;  Baxter's  Life  and  Times ; 
Bishop  Haoket's  Memorial  qf  Archbishop 
waiiMHS,  Land's  Bomains,   with  the 


History qf  his  TroubUsand  Trial ;  Carte's 
Life  qf  Ormonde ;  sir  P.  Warwick's  Me- 
moirs qf  Charles  L ;  DenzU  loid  HoUm's 
Memoirs  (1641-1648);  Bishop  HaU's 
Hard  Measure;  Evelyn's  i/emoirt  (1641- 
1796);  sir  Ed.  Wsiker's  Historical  IHs- 
courses  relative  to  king  Charles  I. ;  Dr. 
John  Walker's  Number  and  Sufferings  qf 
the  Clergy  sequestered  in  the  Great  Re- 
bellion ;  Clement  Walker's  History  i^f  In- 
dependency: Burton's  Cromwdlian  DUiry^ 
sir  John  Temple's  HUtory  of  the  Iriek 
Rebellion ;  Oliver  Cromwell's  Letter*  and 
Speeches,  with  elucidations  by  Tbcmas 
Carlyle;  S.  R.  Gardiner's  HUtory  qf 
England  from  1603-1637 ;  Markham's 
L\fe  qf  Fairfax;  Forster's  Life  qf  Sir 
John  Elioty  and  other  works. 

For  the  reigns  of  Charles  II.  and  James 
II.— Burnet's  HUtory  of  Ati  oion  Times; 
Reresby's  Memoirs;  North's  Stamen 
and  the  Live*  qf  the  Norths;  Pepys's 
/Hary  (1669-1669);  Dalrymple's  Memoirs 
qf  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  ftoxa 
Charles  II.  to  the  battle  of  La  Hogue; 
Lift  qf  Charles  IL,  collected  out  of 
Memoirs  writ  of  his  own  hand,  edited  bj 
the  Rev.  J.  S.  Clarke;  Onrespondenceol 
Henry  and  Lawrence  Hyde,  earls  of 
Oarendon  and  Rochester ;  Diary  of  Lord 
Clarendon;  and  Christie's  Lif^  qf 
Shaftesbury.  The  Mimoires  de  GraM- 
mont  Illustrate  the  court  and  times  of 
(Carles  II.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
mention  the  recent  work  of  loid  Macaulay. 
The  CEuvres  de  LouU  XIV.,  and  the  letters 
of  Barillon  and  D'Avaux,  show  the  x«la- 
Uons  of  Charles  II.  and  his  brother  with 
the  French  court.  Among  the  latest 
autboriUes  is  Ranke's  Hietory  qf  the 
Seventeenth  Century. 

Other  works  which  illustrate  the  whole 
period  are -the  Journals  of  the  Lords  and 
Commons,  the  Parliamentary  HUtory, 
Howell's  State  TriaU,  the  Hardvieke 
Papers,  Coke's  Detection  qfthe  Court  and 
StaU  qf  England  from  James  I.  to  Qtteen 
Anne,  Neal's  HUtory  of  the  Pwritaeu,  aad 
Luttrell's  Diary. 


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Medal  of  William  m.    ntncfnsBDiTS  ovillslicvs  mag.    Boat  lanreat«  to  right 

BOOK  VI. 

FEOM  THE   REVOLUTION  OF   1688  TO  THE 
YEAE  1878, 


CHAPTER  XXVn. 

WILLIAM   in.    AND   MART   H. 

WILLIAM,  h.  A.D.  1650 ;  r.  1689-1702. 
MART,  6.  A.D.  1662;  r.  1689-1694. 

1.  Character  of  William  III.  His  ministry.  Conrention  parliament. 
§  2.  Discontenta  and  mutiny.  Nonjurors.  Toleration  Act.  Settle- 
ment of  Scotland.  §  3.  James  lands  in  Ireland.  Naval  action  at 
Bantry  Bay.  Siege  of  Londonderry.  Battle  of  Newton  Butler. 
§  4.  Bill  of  Rights.  Attainders  reversed.  Change  of  ministers. 
§  5.  William  proceeds  to  Ireland.  Battle  of  the  Boyne.  Siege  of 
Limerick  and  return  of  William.  §  6.  Action  off  Beachy  Head. 
Campaign  in  Ireland.  Pacification  of  Limerick.  §  7  Altered  views  of 
William.  Massacre  of  Olencue.  §  8.  Intrigues  in  favour  of  James. 
Marlborough  .sent  to  the  Tower  §  9.  Battle  of  La  Hogue.  §  10. 
Attack  on  the  Smyrna  fleet.  Growing  unpopularity  of  William.  Ex- 
pedition to  Brest  betrayed  by  Marlborough.     §  11.  Bill  for  trietinial 


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522  WILLIAM  AND  MABT.  Obap.  xxm. 

parlimments.  Death  of  queen  Mary,  f  12.  Qcneral  corrnption.  Aboli- 
tion  of  the  censorship.  Campaign  in  Flanders.  §  13.  Conspiracy 
against  the  king.  Loyal  association.  Attainder  of  sir  J.  Penwick 
§  14.  Treaty  of  Ryswick.  §  15.  Miscellaneous  transactions.  Negoda- 
tions  respecting  the  Spanish  succession.  First  partition  treaty.  §  16. 
William's  unpopularity.  Dismissal  of  his  Dutch  guards.  Resumption 
of  forfeited  esUtes  in  Ireland.  §  17.  Second  treaty  of  partition 
William  acknowledges  the  duke  of  Anjon  as  king  of  Spain.  §  18. 
The  cabinet  council.  §  19.  Discontent  of  the  commons.  The  grand 
alliance.  Death  of  king  James  11.  Preparations  for  war.  Death  of  king 
William. 

f  1.  William  Henbt,  prince  of  Orange,  afoended  the  throne  by  the 
title  of  William  1 IL,  and  was  now  in  his  39th  year.  In  person  he 
was  of  the  middle  size,  his  shoulders  hont,  his  limbs  slender  and 
ill-shaped,  yet  capable  of  sustaining  considerable  (atigue  in  hunting 
and  other  athletic  sports,  in  which  he  delighted.  His  forehead  was 
shaded  by  light-brown  hair  ;  his  nose  was  high  and  aquiline  ;  a  pene- 
trating eye  lighted  up  a  pale  and  careworn  countenance,  the  expres- 
sion of  which  indicated  a  degree  of  sullenness  as  well  as  thought  and 
resolution.  His  manners  were  ungraceful  and  taciturn,  and  little 
calculated  to  win  love  or  popularity ;  and,  though  he  had  the  art 
to  conceal  his  desi^s,  he  could  not  always  suppress  the  mani- 
festation of  his  passions.  Notwithstanding  his  feeble  health,  he 
frequently  indulged  to  excess  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  and 
abandoned  the  society  of  his  wife  for  that  of  other  women.  He 
possessed  some  skill  as  a  linguist,  and  knew  enough  of  mathematics 
to  imderstand  fortification ;  but  he  had  no  taste  for  literature  and 
art.  A  very  indifferent  soldier,  he  was  an  excellent  politician,  never 
suffering  his  judgment  to  be  swayed  by  affection  or  enthusiasm. 

In  the  choice  of  his  ministers  William  seemed  to  ignore  personal 
as  well  as  political  animosities  and  predilections.  The  earl  of 
Nottingham,  who  had  violently  opposed  his  elevation  to  the  throne, 
as  well  as  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  who  had  zealously  promoted  it, 
were  made  secretaries  of  state.  Dan  by  and  Halifax  took  their  seats 
in  the  council,  the  former  as  president,  the  latter  as  privy  seal. 
The  great  seal  was  intrusted  to  commissioners,  with  sergeant 
Maynard  at  their  head.  The  treasury  was  also  put  into  com- 
mission, the  chief  commissioner  being  lord  Mordaunt,  afterwards 
earl  of  Peterborough ;  but  that  post  was  not  then  so  important  as  it 
subsequently  became.  At  the  same  time  William's  Dutch  favourites 
were  not  forgotten,  much  to  the  discontent  of  many  Englishmen. 
Bentinck  *  was  made  a  privy  councillor,  privy  purse,  and  groom  of 

*  Bentinck  was  created  earl  of  Portland  i  created  in  1T16  duke  of  PortUnd.  and  wat 
in  1689.    He  died  in  1709,  and  was  sue-     the  anoeetor  of  the  present  doke. 
'eeded  tn  the  title  by  his  son,  who  was  | 


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A.D.  1689. 


THE  CONVENTION   PARLIAMENT. 


523 


the  stole ;  Zuleistein  *  was  appointed  master  of  the  robes :  Schom- 
berg  t  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  ordnance ;  and  Auverquerque  % 
became  master  of  the  horse.  To  these  he  gave  his  entire  confidence, 
and  was  guided  by  their  counsels,  to  the  neglect  of  his  English 
ministers.  For  himself  William  claimed  the  full  and  undivided 
authority  of  the  crown.  The  name  of  Mary,  the  heiress  by  blood,  was 
indeed  inserted  with  his  own  in  all  the  acts  of  government ;  yet,  as 
her  easy  and  unambitious  temper  disposed  her  to  implicit  obedient  e 
to  her  husband,  she  soon  appeared  to  sink  into  the  position  of  a  queen 
consort,  and  lost  all  importance  in  the  consideration  of  the  people. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  hazards  of  an  election  under  existing  cir- 
cumstances, the  convention  passed  a  bill  for  converting  itself  into 
a  parliament,  llie  bill  received  the  royal  assent  on  the  23rd 
of  February.  Some  members  of  the  opposition  party  in  the 
commons  retired  from  ^  an  assembly  which  they  declared  to  be 
illegal ;  and  even  those  who  remained  displayed  the  greatest 
frugality  in  their  votes  for  the  ])ublic  service.  They  postponed  the 
settlement  of  the  revenue,  until  the  return  of  expenditure  and 
income  had  been  brought  in ;  granting  the  king  extraordinary 
assessments.  They  even  established  the  precedent,  which  has  since 
been  followed,  of  appropriating  the  supplies,  and  determined  that 
one-half  of  the  sum  voted  should  be  applied  to  the  public  expenses, 
and  the  other  half  to  the  civil  list.  When  William  represented 
the  justice  and  necessity  of  refunding  the  charge  of  700,000/.  in- 
curred by  the  Dutch  republic  for  his  expedition,  they  voted  only 
600,000/.  This  frugality  alienated  the  king's  mind  from  the  whigs, 
and  he  talked  of  abandoning  the  government. 

§  2.  No  sooner  was  William  seated  on  the  throne  than  he  seemed 
to  have  lost  all  his  former  popularity.  The  emissaries  of  James 
were  active,  and  even  Halifax  and  Danby  expressed  their  apprehen- 
sion that,  if  he  would  only  give  securities  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  protestant  religion,  nothing  could  prevent  his  restoration. 
Symptoms  of  discontent  having  shown  themselves  in  the  army,  the 
king  res'lved  to  send  the  malcontent  regiments  to  Holland,  and  to 
supply  their  place  at  home  with  Dutch  troops.  The  first  regiment 
of  the  line,  composed  chiefly  of  Scotchmen,  being  ordered  abroad, 
resented  this  order,  as  William  was  not  yet  their  king,  and  marched 
northwards  with  drums  beating  and  colours  flying,  carrying  with 


*  Zuleistein  was  created  In  1695  earl  of 
Rochford.  The  title  became  extinct  on 
the  death  of  the  fifth  earl  in  1830. 

t  Schomberg  was  created  dnke  of 
Schomberg  in  1689.  His  son  Charles,  the 
second  dnke.  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Marsaglia,  1693.  Another  soDtlieiiihardt, 


third  dnke  of  Schomberg,  and  first  dnke  of 
Lelnster  in  Ireland,  died  in  1719,  when  the 
title  became  extinct. 

X  AuTerquerque  was  created  in  1699 
earl  of  Grantham.  He  died  in  1764,  when 
the  title  became  extinct. 


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624  WILLIAM  AND  MART.  Obap.  zx^a 

them  four  pieces  of  artillery ;  but  being  overtaken,  near  Sleaford,  by 
three  regiments  of  Dutch  dragoons  under  Ginkell,  they  were  corn- 
polled  to  surrender,  and  nen  and  officers  were  treated  with  j;reat 
ignominy  (March  15).  This  affair  occasioned  the  mutiny  bill,  'ilie 
soldier  had  been  hitherto  regarded  only  as  a  citizen,  and  amenable 
to  the  civil  tribunals :  the  army  was  now  placed  under  martial  kw, 
and  the  mutiny  bill  has  since  been  continued  from  year  to  year. 

The  House  of  Commons,  or  such  members  of  it  as  remained,  did 
not  hesitate  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  (March  5) ;  but  many  of 
the  temporal  peers,  as  well  as  eight  bishops,  including  the  primate 
Sancroft,  refused,  and  their  example  Vas  speedily  followed  by  about 
400  of  the  inferior  clergy,  all  of  whom  were  afterwards  deprived. 
The  party  that  refused  the  oaths  were  designated  by  the  title  of  non- 
jurors. The  oaths  were  to  be  taken  by  the  beneficed  clergy,  and  by 
those  holding  academical  offices,  on  the  ensuing  1st  of  August. 
This  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  church  furnished  the  king  with 
an  opportunity  for  displaying  his  predilection  for  dissenters,  towards 
whom  he  was  naturally  inclined  by  his  religious  tenets.  The  bill 
known  as  the  Toleration  Act,  to  relieve  protestant  dissenters 
from  certain  penalties,  was  introduced  this  session,  and  passed  on 
the  24th  of  May.  All  who  took  the  new  oaths  of  allegiance  and 
supremacy,  and  made  a  declaration  against  transubstantiation,  were 
thereby  exempted  from  the  penalties  incurred  by  absenting  them- 
selves from  church,  or  by  frequenting  unlawful  conventicles.  Dis- 
jenters  were  restrained  from  meeting  with  locked  doors ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  penalty  was  enacted  against  disturbing  the  congrega- 
tion. The  ancient  penal  statutes  remained,  however,  unrepealed, 
and  persons  who  denied  the  Trinity,  as  well  as  papists,  were  excluded 
from  the  benefit  of  the  new  act.  In  November,  a  conmiission  wa* 
issued  to  the  archbishop  of  York  and  nine  other  bishops,  to  review 
the  liturgy,  in  order  to  admit  dissenters  by  adopting  certain  altera 
tions,  and  leaving  certain  ceremonies  discretionary.  But  their 
recommendations  were  rejected  by  convocation,  and  have  never 
since  been  renewed. 

During  the  debates  on  these  measures  William  and  Mary  were 
crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey  (April  11).  Sancroft,  the  primate, 
declined  to  act,  and  the  ceremony  was  performed  by  Compton,  the 
bishop  of  London.  With  regard  to  Scotland,  it  has  been  already 
mentioned  that  the  prince  of  Orange  was  acknowledged  in  January 
by  an  unauthorized  assemblage  of  Scotch  nobility  and  gentry 
resident  in  lA)ndon.  A  more  regular  convention  was  held  at  Eklin- 
burgh  in  March ;  and  50  malcontent  members  having  deemed  it 
prudent  to  withdraw,  it  was  unanimously  decided  that  James  had 
fore/aulted  his  right,  and  that  the  throne  had  become  vacant. 


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A.D.  1689.  JAMES  LANDS  IN    IRELAND.  525 

There  was,  however,  in  Scotland  a  strong  party  in  favour  of  James, 
headed  bj  the  duke  of  Grordon,  and  supported  by  the  archbishop 
of  Glasgow,  the  earl  of  Balcarras,  viscount  Dundee  (formerly 
Graham  of  Claverhouse),  and  others.  Dundee  succeeded  in  raising 
between  2000  and  3000  Highlanders,  with  whom  he  defeated  at 
Killiecrankie,  on  July  27,  the  king's  forces  of  double  the  number. 
But  Dundee  received  a  mortal  wound  in  the  action,  and  with  him 
expired  all  James's  hopes  in  Scotland.  The  Highlanders,  dispi- 
rited by  the  loss  of  their  leader,  dispersed  after  a  few  skirmishes, 
and  the  duke  of  Grordon  having  surrendered  Edinburgh  Castle  on 
June  13,  the  whole  country  was  reduced  to  obedience  to  William. 
In  return  he  abolished  episcopacy,  and  presbyterianism  was  estab- 
lished as  the  only  lawful  religion  of  the  state. 

§3.  In  Ireland  Tyrconnel  was  still  lord  deputy.  His  govern- 
ment had  been  marked  by  violence  towards  the  protestants ;  many 
towns  were  deprived  of  their  charters,  and  the  public  offices  were 
filled  with  Roman  catholics.  Alarmed,  however,  at  William's 
success,  he  pretended  to  enter  into  negociations  for  the  surrender 
of  Ireland.  The  design  was  vehemently  opposed  by  the  Irish. 
Tyrconnel  then  invited  James  to  return,  and  employed  himself  in 
raising  a  force  of  half- wild,  half-armed,  and  worse  disciplined  Irish. 
James  landed  at  Einsale  on  the  12th  of  March,  and  was  received 
with  every  demonstration  of  joy.  Louis  XIV.  had  furnished  him 
with  16  ships  of  the  line,  7  tenders,  and  3  fireships ;  but  the  whole 
land  force  which  he  brought  with  him  consisted  only  of  1200  of  his 
own  subjects  in  the  pay  of  France,  and  100  French  officers. 

At  Cork  James  was  met  by  Tyrconnel,  whom  he  raised  t«>  the 
rank  of  duke.  The  view  of  the  troops  that  were  to  fight  for  his 
cause  was  not  calculated  to  inspire  him  with  very  sanguine  hopes  of 
success.  Scarcely  two  in  a  hundred  were  provided  with  muskets 
fit  for  service ;  the  rest  were  armed  with  clubs  and  sticks  tipped 
with  iron.  James  found  himself  obliged  to  disband  the  greater  part, 
and  retained  only  35  regiments  of  infantry  and  14  regiments  of  horse. 
His  whole  artillery  consisted  of  12  field-pieces  and  4  mortars. 
After  summoning  a  parliament  to  meet  at  Dublin  on  the  7th  of 
May,  James  set  out  for  his  army  in  the  north,  where  Londonderry 
was  invested.  That  place  and  Enniskillen,  being  inhabited  by 
protestants,  were  the  only  towns  in  Ireland  that  declared  for  king 
William.  Lundy,  the  governor  of  Londonderry,  had  sent  a  message 
to  James's  head-quarters,  with  assurances  that  the  place  would  be 
surrendered  on  the  first  summons ;  but  his  treachery  was  fortunately 
discovered,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  he  escaped  with  his  life, 
by  letting  himself  down  firom  the  walls  in  the  disguise  of  a  porter. 
James,  who  had  ridden  up  with  his  staff  to  within  a  short  distance 
24* 


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526  WILLIAM  AND  MABT.  Chap.  xxm. 

of  the  pjates,  was  Balute<\  with  a  cry  of  "  No  surrender ;  "  and  at  the 
same  time  a  discbarge  from  the  fortifications  killed  an  officer  by  his 
side.  The  citizens,  after  the  flight  of  Lundy,  chose  Walker,  a 
clergyman,  and  major  Baker,  for  their  governors,  and  resolved  to 
hold  out  to  the  last  extremity. 

The  army  of  James  was  destitute  of  all  the  materials  required 
for  a  siege.  Few  of  the  soldiers  had  even  muskets,  and  it  was 
therefore  resolved  to  turn  the  assault  into  a  bloc&ade.  James  now 
returned  to  Dublin.  But  his  cause  was  ruined  by  the  violence  of 
the  Irish  parliament.  Disregarding  the  king's  wishes,  it  repealed 
the  act  of  settlement,  thus  confiscating  at  a  blow  all  the  English 
property  in  the  country.  It  passed  a  general  bill  of  attainder,  com- 
prehending more  than  2000  persons ;  and  the  scheme  for  replenishing 
the  king's  coffers  by  an  issue  of  base  coin  occasioned  universal  dislike. 

In  June  marshal  de  Rosen  was  appointed  to  take  the  command 
of  the  besieging  army  at  Londonderry.  The  town  being  completely 
invested  on  the  Land  side,  and  cut  off  from  all  relief  by  sea  by 
means  of  a  boom  about  a  mile  and  a  half  down  the  Foyle,  the 
inhabitants  were  reduced  to  the  last  extremity  of  famine,  and 
obliged  to  subsist  on  horses,  dogs,  rats,  starch,  and  other  food  of 
the  like  revolting  kind.  The  hopes  of  the  garrison  had  been  raised 
and  disappointed  by  the  appearance  of  a  small  squadron  in  the 
Lough,  commanded  by  Kirke,  of  west  of  England  notoriety,  who 
was  obliged  to  retire.  Towards  the  end  of  July,  however,  he  agun 
appeared,  and  two  merchantmen,  the  Muuntjoy  and  the  Phoenix^ 
covered  by  the  Dartmouth  frigate,  succeeded  on  the  30th  in  breaking 
the  boom.  The  Fhcmix  easily  forced  a  passage.  De  Rosen's 
trenches  were  filled  with  water ;  and  the  relief  of  the  town  deter- 
mined him  to  abandon  the  siege.  On  the  Ist  of  August  his  army 
decamped,  after  burning  their  huts.  The  siege,  one  of  the  most 
memorable  in  the  history  of  Britain,  lasted  106  days,  and  the 
garriaon  had  been  reduced  from  7000  to  about  3000  effective  men. 

On  the  same  day  that  Londonderry  was  relieved,  lord  Mount- 
cashel  had  been  completely  routed  by  the  protestants  of  Enniskillen 
at  Newton  Butler,  and  he  himself  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 
To  add  to  James's  misfortunes,  Schomberg,  whom  the  commons 
had  presented  with  100,000/.,  landed  with  10,000  men  near  Dona- 
phadee,  on  the  coast  of  Down  (August  12).  Carrickfergus  sur- 
rendered after  a  short  siege,  and  was  treated  with  great  cruelty. 
He  then  encamped  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dundalk,  the  duke 
of  Berwick,  James's  natural  son,  retiring  on  his  approach.  James, 
having  in  vain  endeavciured  to  draw  him  to  a  battle,  closed  the 
campaign  of  1089  by  retiring  into  winter  quarters  at  Atherdee. 

§  4.  While  these  things  were  passing  In  Ireland,  the  English 


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^.D.  168^1690.        BATTLE  OP  THE  BOYNE.  627 

parliameDt  bad  been  employed  on  important  measures.  Tbe  cbief 
of  tbese  was  tbe  Bill  of  Rights,  tbe  tbird  great  cbarter  of  Englisb 
liberty,  wbicb  embodied  and  confirmed  tbe  provisions  of  tbe  De- 
claration of  Right*  and  also  included  a  settlement  of  tbe  crown 
in  tbe  manner  already  related  in  tbe  preceding  chapter.f  It  reversed 
tbe  attainders  of  lord  Russell,  Algernon  Sidney,  alderman  Cornisb, 
and  Mrs.  Lisle.  Tbe  exorbitant  fines  imposed  in  tbe  preceding 
reign  were  declared  illegal,  and  tbe  money  extorted  by  Jeffreys  was 
charged  against  bis  estate,  witb  interest.  All  tbese  proceedings 
were  unexceptionable ;  but  tbe  same  cannot  be  said  of  tbe  reversal 
of  tbe  judgment  on  tbe  perjured  Oates,  and  tbe  granting  bim  a 
pension  of  300?.  a  year  (June  6). 

To  the  dismay  of  tbe  wbigs,  William  dissolved  tbe  convention 
parliament  on  February  6, 1690.  Halifax  was  soon  after  removed 
from  oflBce ;  and  Danby,  now  marquess  of  Caermartben,  appointed 
many  of  bis  own  creatures  to  tbe  bigber  offices  of  state.  Tbe  new 
parliament,  wbicb  met  in  Marcb,  comprised  many  tories.  The  king 
announced  bis  intention  of  passing  over  to  Ireland,  and  a  supply 
of  1,200,000?.  was  unanimously  voted. 

§  5.  William  arrived  at  Carrickfergus  on  June  14,  1690,  and 
proceeded  to  Scbomberg's  bead-quarters  at  Lisburn.  His  army 
amounted  to  about  36,000  men,  variously  composed  of  Englisb, 
Dutch,  Germans,  and  otber  foreigners.  On  bis  approacb  tbe  Irish 
army  retired  to  tbe  soutb  bank  of  tbe  Boyne,  wbicb  is  steep  and 
billy,  and  bad  been  fortified  witb  intrencbments.  When  James 
joined  them  tbere  witb  10,000  Frencb  troops  under  Lauzun,  bis 
whole  army  amounted  to  about  30,000  men  ;  and,  though  bis  force 
was  thus  considerably  inferior  to  tbat  of  William,  be  was  induced, 
by  the  strengtb  of  the  position,  to  bazard  a  battle.  On  the  30tb 
of  June  botb  armies  were  in  presence  on  either  bank  of  the  river ; 
and  on  tbe  following  morning  (July  1)  James  drew  up  Lis  troops 
in  two  lines,  bis  left  being  covered  by  a  morass,  whilst  in  bis  rear 
was  tbe  village  of  Dunmore,  and  three  miles  further  on  tbe  narrow 
pass  of  Duleek.  William,  who  bad  been  reconnoitring  the  enemy's 
position,  was  slightly  wounded  the  day  before  tbe  action  by  a 
cannon-ball  wbicb  grazed  bis  shoulder.  He  ranged  his  army  in 
tbree  columns.  Tbe  centre,  led  by  the  duke  of  Schomberg,  was 
to  ford  the  river  in  firont  of  tbe  enemy ;  the  right,  under  count 
Scbomberg,  bis  son,  was  to  cross  near  tbe  bridge  of  Slane ;  while 
William  himself  beaded  tbe  passage  of  tbe  left  between  the  camp 
and  the  town  of  Drogbeda.  Tbe  attack  was  successfnl  at  all 
points ;  tbe  Irish  borse  alone  made  some  resistance ;  the  foot  fled 

•  See  p.  616. 

t  The  BUI  of  Rights  ii  printed  «t  length  in  Notes  and  lUostntloni,  p.  644, 


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528  WILLIAM  AND  MARY.  Chap,  xxtil 

without  striking  a  blow.  James  parted  fk>m  his  army  at  the  pass  of 
Duleek,  and  made  the  best  of  his  way  to  Dublin.  This  engagement  9 
celebrated  as  the  Battle  of  the  Boyne,  decided  the  fate  of  James, 
though  the  loss  on  both  sides  was  small,  that  of  the  Irish  being 
about  1500,  chiefly  cavalry,  whilst  that  of  William  was  only  600, 
but  among  them  was  the  duke  of  Schomberg.  Walker,  the  brave 
defender  of  Londonderry,  also  fell  in  this  engagement.  Jame^, 
having  no  army  left— for  the  Irish  had  dispersed  themselves  in 
the  night — abandoned  Dublin  and  hastened  to  Kinsale,  where  he 
got  on  board  a  French  frigate,  and  arrived  at  Brest  on  July  9. 

William  arrived  in   Dublin  a  few  days  after  his  victory,  and 
treated  the  inhabitants  with  considerable   harshness.      He  then 
marched  southwards,  took   Wexford,  Clonmel,   Waterford,  Dun- 
cannon,  and  laid  siege  to  Limerick  (August  &-30);  but  having 
been  repulsed  in  an  assault,  and  the  rains  setting  in,  he  found  it 
necessary  to  raise  the  siege,  and  early  in  September  he  left  Ireland 
for  London.     Soon  after  his  departure,  Marlborough  landed  near 
Cork  with  5000  men ;  and,  having  received  some  reinforcements, 
tiaptured  that  town  after  a  short  siege.     He  next  took  Kinsale  after 
a  desperate  resistance;  and,  as  the  winter  was  approaching,  he 
returned  to  England,  from  which  he  had  been  absent  only  five  weeks. 
§  G.  Whilst  William  was  in  Ireland,  a  naval  engagement  took 
place  off  Beachy  Head,  on  the  30th  of  June,  between  the  combined 
Dutch  and  English  fleets,  commanded  by  admiral  Herbert,  now 
created  earl  of  Turrington,*  and  the  French  fleet  under  admiral 
Tourville.     Torrington,  with  a  policy  hardly  justifiable,  placed  the 
Dutch  vessels  in  the  van,  which  in  consequence  suffered  severely. 
The  victory   remained  with  the  French  ;  and  Torrington,  taking 
the  disabled  ships  in  tow,  made  for  the  Thames.    London  was  filled 
with  consternation,  as  it  was  expected  that  the  French  would  sail 
"^  the  river ;  but  they  made  little  use  of  their  victory.     An  inva- 
>n   at   this  juncture  would   probably  have  been  successful,  as 
e  French  had  the  command  of  the  sea,  and  might  easily  have 
iembarked  a  large  army,  whilst  there  were  not  10,000  regular 
x)ps  in  England ;  but  they  attempted  no  more  than  the  burning 
Teignmouth.      William  was  incensed  against  Torrington  on 
count  of  the  losses  suffered  by  the  Dutch,  and  denounced  him  to 
.rliameut  in  the  speech  with  which  he  opened  the  autumnal  session, 
^rrington  was  tried  by  a  court-martial  at  Sheerness,  and  honour- 
>ly  acquitted;  but  the  king  deprived  him  of  his  command,  and 
rbad  him  his  presence.    (Supplement,  Note  X.) 

*  The  title  became  extinct  on  t!ic  death  t  son  of  sir  George  Byng^  areated  jUcomA 
the  first  earl  in  1716.     The  present     Torrington  in  1731. 


looont  Torrington  in  descended  from  a  I 


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A.t>.  1690-1691.  Sl&OE  OF  LIMERICK.  529 

In  the  following  year  (1G91)  the  campaign  in  Ireland  was  brought 
to  a  close.  That  country  was  in  a  very  distracted  state.  Bodies  of 
wild  Irish,  called  rapparees,  from  a  species  of  pike  with  which  they 
committed  their  massacres,  went  roaming  about  the  country,  and 
hung  upon  and  infested  the  quarters  of  the  English  army,  who  in 
their  turn  committed  great  barbarities.  Towards  the  end  of  June, 
Ginkell,  who  commanded  the  English  forces,  bombarded  and  took 
Athlone.  It  was  a  masterpiece  of  audacity,  as  a  large  army  of  Irish, 
commanded  by  St  Ruth,  a  Frenchman,  lay  behind  the  town,  while 
the  storming  columns  had  to  ford  the  Shannou,  with  the  water 
breast-high,  in  order  to  gain  the  breach.  St.  Ruth  now  took  up  a 
strong  position  at  Aghrim,  where  Ginkell  did  not  hesitate  to  attack 
him.  For  some  time  the  battle  raged  with  doubtful  fury,  till,  St. 
Ruth  being  killed  by  a  cannon-ball,  his  army  was  seized  with  a 
panic,  and  fled  in  disorder  towards  Limerick  (July  12).  Ginkell 
sat  down  before  that  place  on  the  25  th  of  August ;  and,  after  a  siege 
of  six  weeks,  the  Irish,  much  to  the  discontent  of  the  French, 
agreed  to  the  very  favourable  terms  which  he  offered  for  a  general 
pacification.  By  the  chief  articles  of  this  treaty,  signed  October  3, 
and  called  the  Pacification  of  Limerick,  it  was  agreed  that  the  Irish 
should  enjoy  the  exercise  of  their  religion  as  in  the  time  of  Charles  II. ; 
that  all  included  in  the  capitulation  should  remain  unmolested  in 
their  estates  and  possessions ;  and  that  those  who  wished  to  retire 
to  the  continent  should  be  conveyed  thither  at  the  expense  of  the 
government.  By  virtue  of  this  last  clause,  Sarsfield  and  about 
12,000  men  were  conveyed  to  France,  and  entered  the  service  of 
Louis  XIV.  Thus  an  end  was  put  in  every  part  of  the  empire  to 
the  authority  of  James,  who  had  been  de  facto  king  in  Ireland  more 
than  a  year  and  a  half  after  his  flight  from  England. 

As  Sancrofl,  the  primate,  and  six  of  the  bishops  still  refused  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  they  were  deprived  of  their  sees  on 
February  1,  1691.  Tillotson,  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  succeeded  Bancroft 
as  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

§  7.  William  had  spent  the  greater  part  of  the  year  in  Holland, 
for  the  purpose  of  conducting  the  campaign  against  Louis  XIV.  He 
had  repaired  thither  in  the  middle  of  January ;  and  though  the  wea- 
ther was  f<)ggy,  and  the  coast  lined  with  ice,  he  attempted  to  land 
in  a  boat.  The  steersman  lost  his  way,  and  the  king  was  obliged  to 
pass  the  night  in  the  boat,  covered  up  with  a  cloak.  The  following 
day  he  succeeded  in  landing  at  Goree.  The  campaign  was  not 
marked  by  any  important  event,  except  the  taking  of  Mens  by 
Louis.  William  paid  a  short  visit  to  England  in  April,  and  finally 
returned  in  October  to  open  the  parliament.  A  bill  was  passed 
for  facilitating  the  execution  of  the  Pacification  of  Limerick,  though 


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580  WILLIAM  AND  MART.  Chap.  xxvn. 

that  treaty  was  not  approved  of  in  England.  Although  William  had 
been  brought  in  by  the  whigs,  he  was  now  chiefly  supported  by  the 
lories.  He  rejected  a  bill  which  had  passed  both  houses  for  making 
the  judges  independent  of  the  crown;  and  his  reign  was  now 
sullied  by  an  act  of  great  barbarity — the  in£unou8  massacre  of 
Glencoe.  A  pacification  had  been  entered  into  in  August  with  the 
Scotch  Highlanders,  and  an  indemnity  offered  to  all  who  should 
take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  to  the  king  and  queen  by  the  31st 
of  December,  1691.  All  the  Jacobite  heads  of  clans  had  complied, 
except  the  chief  of  the  McDonalds  of  Glencoe,  whose  delay  aroee 
more  from  accident  than  design.  He  had  rc]iaired  to  Fort  William 
on  the  31st  of  December,  where  to  his  Hurprise  and  alarm  he  found 
nobody  who  could  administer  the  oath.  Colonel  Hili,  the  com- 
mandant, directed  him  to  Inyerary ;  but  the  season  was  rigorous, 
the  country  mountainous  and  covered  with  deep  i<now,  so  that 
Maclan  did  not  arrive  till  the  6th  of  January  1692.  After  many 
entreaties,  sir  Colin  Campbell,  the  sheriff  of  Argyle,  consented  to 
receive  his  oath ;  but  sir  John  Dalrympio,  the  master  of  Stair, 
ahi-i  secretary  for  Scotland,  who  bore  a  deadly  hatred  to  the 
M  Donalds  and  the  Highlanders,  took  advantage  of  Maclan's 
nctiligoncc  to  destroy  him  and  his  whole  clan,  having  procured  from 
William  an  order  for  that  purpose. 

On  the  1st  of  February,  1692,  a  body  of  120  soldiers  appeared 
in  that  lonely  mountain-glen,  which  lies  near  Loch  Leven.    They 
were  commanded  by  Campbell  of  Glenlyun :  and  as  Campbell  was 
the  uncle  of  young  M*  Donald's  wife,  tbey  were  welcomed  with 
unsuspecting  friendship.     For  nearly  a  fortnight  the  troops  en- 
joyed free  quarters  and  hospitable  entertainment.    On  the  ev^^ning 
of  the  12th  the  officers  played  at  cards  in  the  house  of  Maclan. 
At  five  o'clock  the  next  morning,  lieutenant  Lindsay,  with  a 
party  of  soldiers,  appeared  at  his  door  and  were  instantly  ad- 
mitted.     They  had  come  in  the  guise  of  friendship  to  act  the 
part  of  assassins.    Maclan  was  shot  in  the  back  as  he  was  rising 
frr^rm  hifl  bed ;  hls  wlfc,  who  had  already  risen,  was  stripped,  and  the 
torn  (torn  her  fingers  by  the  soldiers'  teeth.     Young  and  old 
murdered  without  pity ;  even  some  of  the  women  fell  in  attempt- 
0  defend  their  children.    About  40  persons  were  massacred,  and 
any  more,  chiefly  women  and  children,  who  had  escaped  among 
Qountains,  perished  there  of  cold  and  hunger.    The  massacre 
d  havo  been  more  complete  had  lieutenant-colonel  Hamilton, 
n  the  master  of  Stair  had  charged  with  the  execution,  arrived 
le  appointed  time.    The  severity  of  the  weather  delayed  his 
al  till  the  following  day,  and  notiiing  remained  for  him  but  to 
3lete  the  inhuman  deed  by  burning  the  houses,  driving  off  the 


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AJX  16dS.       THBEAT£N£D  INVASION  BT  JAHI*J1  6Sl 

cattle,  and  dividiDg  the  spoiL  By  this  fortunate  delay  160  men 
were  enabled  to  escape  through  the  mountain-passes,  which  were 
not  sufficiently  guarded.* 

§  8.  l^his  year  (1692)  Willian.  again  embarked  for  Holland, 
leayiiig  the  administration  of  affairs  in  England  to  queen  Mary. 
He  was  not  aware  of  all  the  danger  that  threatened  his  newly 
acquired  crown.  Intrigues  had  been  formed  for  the  restoration  of 
James,  and  were  entered  into  not  only  by  nonjurors  and  tones,  but 
even  by  whigs.  One  of  the  principal  leaders  in  them  was  the  in- 
constant and  treacherous  Marlborough,  who  had  induced  the  prin- 
cess Anne  to  write  a  letter  to  her  father,  in  which  she  penitently 
asked  his  forgiveness.  Admiral  Russell,  commander  of  the  fleet, 
lord  Godolphin,  and  others^  were  also  implicated.  Marlborough 
mvited  James  to  invade  England,  and  in  some  degree  pledged  him- 
self for  the  conduct  of  the  English  army.  A  large  body  of  Irish 
troops  had  been  conveyed  to  France  in  1690 ;  and  by  the  Pacifica- 
tion of  Limerick,  which  allowed  a  free  passage,  their  number  had 
been  swelled  to  nearly  20,000.  These  were  at  James's  disposal, 
and  Louis  engaged  to  add  10,000  French.  A  camp  was  formed 
in  the  Cotentin,  near  La  Hogue ;  and  marshal  Bellefonds  was 
appointed  to  conmiand  the  army  of  invasion,  which  was  to  be 
convoyed  by  80  sail  of  the  line.  Early  in  1692  everything  was 
in  a  state  of  forwardness,  and  James  had  even  drawn  up  his 
manifesto.  With  his  usual  infelicity  of  judgment,  its  tone  was 
impolitic,  and  disgusted  many  who  might  have  been  prepared  to 
serve  him.  From  the  general  indemnity  held  out  to  others  he 
excepted  not  only  many  noblemen,  but  even  the  fishermen  who 
had  insulted  him  near  Sheemess.  The  English  ministry  thought 
that  they  could  not  do  him  a  greater  injury  than  to  publish  tho 
document  at  full  length,  accompanied  with  a  biting  commentary. 

The  government  had  received  some  vague  information  of  a  plot ; 
and  the  earls  of  Marlborough,  Huntingdon,  and  Scarsdale  were  ap- 
prehended and  sent  to  the  Tower  on  the  information  of  one  Young, 
a  man  of  in£Etmous  character,  and  actually  in  Newgate  on  a  charge 
of  forgery.  As  the  government  suspected  Marlborough,  they  en- 
couraged Young,  paid  his  fine,  and  released  him  from  prison ,  and 
Marlborough  was  detained  some  weeks  in  the  Tower,  till  Young's 
falsehood  was  discovered. 

*  It  is  urged  In  pallUtkm  of  this  bar-  ,  and  that  tribe,  If  tbey  can  bo  weU  df  •- 
barity  that  William  did  not  read  the  war-  tingnished  from  the  rest  of  the  High- 
rant,  though  it  waa  carefolly  signed  by  landers,  it  will  be  proper  for  the  vlndica- 
hlm  at  top  and  at  bottom,  and  tho  contents  tion  of  public  justice  to  extirpate  that  set 
of  it  are  too  brief  and  too  singular  to  have     of  thieves. — W.   B."    '1  he   king  never 

been  easily  overlooked.  ItmnsaafoUows:  ,  marked  his  abhorrence  of  the  deed  b9 
— *«  William  R.  AsforSCacIanof  Glenooe     pmiishing  the  actors. 


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532  WILLIAM  AND  MART.  Chap,  zxm 

§  9.  The  combined  Dutch  and  English  floete,  consisting  of  90 
sail  of  the  line,  together  with  many  frigates  and  fires  hips,  CHrrying 
6000  guns  and  about  40,000  men,  assembled  at  St  Helens  in  Miy. 
As  the  fidelity  of  the  admiral  himself,  as  well  as  of  many  of  his  officers, 
was  suspected,  with  good  reason,  Mary  wrote  a  letter  which  Kussell 
was  ordered  to  read  to  all  the  officers  of  the  fleet  assembled  on  his 
quarter-deck.  In  it  she  stated  that  she  had  heard  certain  reports 
respecting  their  conduct,  but  that  she  regarded  them  as  calumnies, 
and  put  entire  confidence  in  their  loyalty.  This  politic  stop  was 
attended  with  excellent  effects.  At  the  same  time  the  militia  vftis 
called  out,  and  a  camp  formed  between  Petersfield  and  Portsmouth. 

James  was  waiting  at  La  Hogue  for  the  arrival  of  admiral  Tour- 
ville,  who  was  to  bring  44  ships  from  Brest.  About  the  middle  of 
May  Tourville^s  fleet  was  descried  off  the  coast  of  Dorsetshire, 
whence  it  made  for  La  Hogue,  where  the  army  of  invasion  was 
embarking.  Russell  also  directed  his  course  towards  that  port; 
and  on  the  19th  of  May,  the  haze  having  suddenly  cleared  off,  the 
hostile  fleets  came  unexpectedly  in  sight  of  each  other.  TourviUe, 
though  much  inferior  in  force,  bore  down  upon  the  allies,  in  the 
expectation  that  several  of  the  English  ships  would  come  over  to 
his  side;  but  in  this  he  was  disappointed.  Russell's  ship,  the 
Britannia,  of  100  guns,  engaged  that  of  the  French  admiral,  of  104 ; 
and  the  battle,  which  raged  from  11  o'clock  to  about  4,  soon 
became  general.  The  French  admiral's  ship  was  disabled.  Towards 
evening,  a  breeze  having  sprung  up  from  the  east,  and  the  haze 
having  cleared  a  little,  the  French  were  descried  running  on  all 
sides,  and  signal  was  given  to  chase ;  but  the  pursuit  was  arrested 
by  the  flood-tide  and  the  approach  of  night.  Several  of  the  smaller 
French  ships  escaped  through  the  race  of  Aldemey  into  St  Malo ; 
the  larger  ones  sought  refuge  at  Cherbourg  and  La  Hogue  (May  19). 
Altogether  16  French  men-of-war,  eight  of  which  were  tbreo-deckers, 
were  sunk  or  burnt,  besides  several  transports  that  were  cut  out  of 
the  harbour.  This  victory  averted  the  threatened  inva.«<ion.  After 
this  battle  queen  Mary  ordered  the  royal  palace  at  Greenwich  to 
be  converted  into  an  hospital  for  disabled  seamen.* 

§  10.  The  campaign  in  Flanders  was  unfavourable  to  the  arras 
of  William.  In  June,  1692,  he  lost  Namur ;  on  August  3,  he  was 
defeated,  with  great  loss,  at  Steinkirk.  Next  year  he  sustained  a 
further  reverse  at  Landen,  where  he  was  driven  by  Luxembourg 
from  a  formidable  position.  The  only  important  event  at  sea,  in 
1693,  was  also  disastrous  to  the  allies.  The  Smyrna  fleet,  con- 
dsting  of  about  400  English,  Dutch,  and  Hamburg  merchantmen, 

*  rbe  first  stone  of  the  new  building,  the  present  Greenwich  Hospital,  was  not  laM 
till  ISH.    It  is  now  the  chief  naval  ooUege. 


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AJX  1099^1694.       DEATH  OF  QUEEN  MABY. 

was  intrusted,  after  passing  Usliant,  to  the  convoy  of  a  detached 
squadron  of  23  English  and  Dutch  men-of-war  under  sir  George 
Rooke,  while  the  remainder  of  the  combined  fleet  returned  to  Torbay. 
Tourville,  with  a  far  superior  force,  now  issued  from  the  bay  of 
Lagos ;  Kooke  was  obliged  to  fly,  and  signalled  the  merchantmen 
to  shift  for  themsdres.  About  80  of  the  latter  were  captured,  as 
well  as  three  Dutch  men-of-war;  the  rest  escaped  into  Spanish 
ports  (June  17). 

This  disgrace,  as  well  as  William's  ill  success  in  the  Netherlands, 
tended  to  increase  his  unpopularity,  and  to  encourage  the  party  of 
James  (1694).  Bristol,  Exeter,  and  Boston  adhered  to  his  cause. 
In  the  north  several  considerable  bodies  of  horse  were  enlisted  in 
his  name ;  and  many  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  engaged  for  them- 
selves, as  well  as  for  different  towns  and  counties  with  which  they 
were  connected.  Sunderland  had  again  veered  round,  and  entered 
into  correspondence  with  James.  The  treason  of  Marlborough 
proved  more  useful  to  iames  and  more  disastrous  to  his  own  country* 
Marlborough  informed  him  of  an  expedition  that  was  fitting  out  at 
Portsmouth,  under  the  command  of  the  earl  of  Berkely  and  general 
Talmash,  for  an  attack  upon  Brest  Berkely  appeared  off  that  port 
on  the  7th  of  June,  and  900  men  were  landed  in  Gamaret  Bay :  but 
the  French  were  prepared  to  receive  them,  and  they  were  all  slain 
except  100,  Talmash  himself  receiving  a  mortal  wound.  Dieppe, 
Havre,  Calais,  and  Dunkirk  were  afterwards  bombarded,  but  with- 
out much  effect. 

§  11.  As  the  parliament,  which  met  in  November  (1694),  refused 
to  grant  supplies  except  on  the  passing  of  a  bill  for  triennial 
parliaments,  William,  though  he  had  previously  refused  his  assent 
to  a  similar  bill,  was  now  obliged  to  yield.  He  had  also  another 
motive.  Mary  lay  dangerously  ill  with  the  small-pox ;  and  in  the 
event  of  her  death,  which  must  naturally  shake  his  influence  with 
the  nation,  William  was  unwilling  to  incur  any  further  unpopularity. 
1  he  queen  died  on  the  28th  of  December.  In  person  she  was  tall 
and  well  proportioned,  and  her  countenance,  though  not  regularly 
beautiful,  was  animated  and  pleasing.  Her  manners  were  affable. 
She  was  a  submissive  wife,  but  her  affections  were  no  less  limited 
than  her  abilities.  Her  death  made  no  change  in  the  government ; 
and  William,  in  accordance  with  the  act  for  settling  the  succession 
of  the  crown,  became  sole  ruler.  TiUotson  had  died  shortly  before 
the  queen  (November  22),  and  was  succeeded  in  the  primacy  by 
Tenison,  bishop  of  Lincoln. 


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534  WILLIAM  nL  Obaf.  xz¥ii. 

WILUAM  m.  ALONB,  1694-1702. 

Ankb,  influenced  by  Marlborough  and  his  wile,  had  lived  on  bad 
terms  with  her  sister  and  brother-in-law ;  bat  now,  at  the  instance 
of  Sunderland,  she  was  induced  to  send  a  letter  of  condolence  to 
William,  who  thought  it  politic  to  meet  her  advances,  and  even 
presented  her  with  the  greater  part  of  Mary's  jewels. 

§  12.  The  session  of  1G95  was  signalized  by  the  discovery  of  an 
almost  universal  corruption  in  high  places.  Sir  John  Trevor, 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  for  taking  a  bribe  of  1000  guineas, 
was  expelled  the  house  (March  18).  The  East  India  Company  had 
distributed  upwards  of  87,000/.  in  bribes  in  order  to  secure  a  new 
charter ;  of  this  sum  10,0002.  were  said  to  be  traced  to  the  king 
himself,  5000/.  to  Danby  (now  duke  of  Leeds),  and  further  sums 
to  other  men  in  power.  The  commons  impeached  the  duke  of 
Leeds ;  but  the  court  connived  at  the  escape  of  his  Swiss  servant, 
the  only  person  who  could  establish  his  gdilt>  and  the  case  was 
brought  to  an  end  by  the  sudden  prorogation  of  parliament  (May  3). 

As  the  licensiDg  act  expired  in  1693,  the  liberty  of  the  press  was 
established.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  to  renew  it  this 
year.  But  the  authors  of  the  abolition  were  hardly  aware  of  the 
important  step  they  were  taking.  Their  arguments  turned  solely 
on  matters  of  detail,  such  as  the  hardships  occasioned  to  printers, 
booksellers,  etc. ;  nor  was  the  measure  noticed  in  any  contemporary 
publication.  The  abolition  of  the  censorship  was  soon  followed  by 
the  establishment  of  several  newspapers,  llie  London  Ckuette  was 
the  only  one  previously  published. 

This  session  was  also  memorable  tor  an  excellent  statute  respect- 
ing the  law  of  treason.  "  It  provides  that  all  persons  indicted  for 
high  treason  shall  have  a  copy  of  their  indictment  delivered  to 
them  five  days  before  their  trial,  a  period  extended  by  a  subsequent 
act  to  ten  days,  and  a  copy  of  the  panel  of  jurors  ^o  days  before 
their  trial;  that  they  shall  be  allowed  to  have  their  witnesses 
examined  on  oath,  and  to  make  their  defence  by  counsel  It  clears 
up  any  doubt  that  could  be  pretended  on  the  statute  of  Edward 
VI.,  by  requiring  two  witnesses,  either  both  to  the  same  overt  act, 
or  the  first  to  one,  the  second  to  another  overt  act  of  the  same 
treason  (that  is,  the  same  kind  of  treason),  unless  the  party  shall 
voluntarily  confess  the  charge.  It  limits  prosecutions  for  treason 
to  the  term  of  three  years,  except  in  the  case  of  an  attempted 
assassination  of  the  king.  It  includes  the  contested  provision  for 
the  trial  of  peers  by  all  who  have  a  right  to  sit  and  vote  in  parlia- 
ment. A  later  statute,  7  Anne,  c.  21,  which  may  be  mentioned 
here  as  the  complement  of  the  former,  has  added  a  peculiar  privi- 


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A.i>.  1695-1096.     CONSPIRACY  AGAINST  THE  KINO.  536 

lege  to  the  accused,  hardly  less  material  than  any  of  the  rest  Ten 
days  before  the  trial  a  list  of  the  witnesses  intended  to  be  brought 
for  proving  the  indictment,  with  their  professions  and  places  of 
abode,  must  be  delivered  to  the  prisoner,  along  with  a  copy  of  the 
indictment.  The  operation  of  this  clause  was  suspended  till  after 
the  death  of  the  pretended  prince  of  Wales."  * 

After  the  prorogation  of  the  parliament,  William  passed  over 
to  Holland,  and  distinguished  himself  this  year,  in  the  campaign 
in  the  Low  Countries,  by  his  greatest  military  feat,  the  taking 
of  Namur  in  presence  of  a  large  force  of  the  enemy  (July  2). 
The  marshal  de  Luxembourg  was  dead,  and  the  French  army 
was  now  commanded  by  marshal  Yilleroi  and  marshal  Boufflers : 
France  was  becoming  exhausted  with  the  length  of  the  war,  and 
Louis  was  anxious  to  conclude  a  peace  on  any  decent  terms,  whilst 
William's  reputation  was  rising  in  Europe.  His  success  abroad 
confirmed  his  power  at  home ;  for,  though  the  Jacobite  party  was 
increasing  in  England,  they  could  hardly  hope  to  succeed  without 
the  lud  of  France. 

§  13.  A  conspiracy  against  the  throne  and  life  of  William  was, 
nevertheless,  formed  and  detected  early  in  1696.  The  principal 
agent  in  it  was  sir  Oeorge  Barclay,  a  Scotch  officer,  who  received  a 
commission  from  James  to  attempt  a  general  insurrection  in  his 
favour.  Barclay  arrived  in  London  in  January,  and  associated  in 
his  design  one  Rookwood,  a  priest ;  Ghamock,  formerly  a  fellow  of 
Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  but  now  a  captain ;  sir  John  Friend,  sir 
William  Perkins,  a  captain  Porter,  and  others.  Their  first  scheme 
was  to  seize  William  and  earry  him  over  to  France ;  but  as  this 
seemed  impracticable  without  taking  his  life,  they  resolved  to 
attack  him  in  the  midst  of  his  guards  between  Tumham  Green 
and  Brentford,  through  which  places  he  passed  every  Saturday 
to  hunt  in  Richmond  Park.  With  this  view  they  procured  a 
body  of  40  armed  men,  and  fixed  the  15th  of  February  for  the 
attempt.  But  the  secret  was  betrayed  to  the  earl  of  Portland,  a 
day  or  two  previously,  by  captain  Fisher,  one  of  the  conspirators, 
and  his  information  was  soon  after  confirmed  by  an  Irishman 
named  Prendergast.  The  king  having  consequently  remained  at 
home  on  the  15th,  and  again  on  the  22nd,  to  which  day  the  con- 
spirators had  adjourned  the  execution  of  their  plot,  they  were  seized 
with  alarm ;  some  of  them  fled,  but  others  were  captured  the  next 
night  in  their  beds. 

On  the  following  day  the  king  laid  the  whole  plot  before  the 
parliament,  and  both  houses  responded  with  a  joint  address,  breath- 
ing the  most  zealous  expressions  of  duty  and  affection.  A  loyal 
*  HalUm't  CKmttihUional  HUtory,  Ui.  2»l. 


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5$6  WILUAM  tn.  CRAP.zxTtL 

association  was  fonned  in  imitation  of  that  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
which  was  signed  the  same  day  by  400  members  of  the  House  of 
Commons ;  and  such  members  as  were  absent  were  required  to  sign 
It  by  the  16th  of  March ,  or  to  notify  their  refusal.  Tiie  association 
was  adopted,  with  very  little  alteration,  by  the  House  of  Lords; 
and  of  the  whole  parliament,  only  15  peers  and  92  commoners 
refused  to  add  their  names.  Shortly  afterwards  an  act  was  passed 
to  make  the  signing  of  the  association  imperatlye  on  all  holders 
of  civil  or  military  employments. 

Chamock,  King,  sir  John  Friend,  sir  William  Perkins,  and 
four  other  conspirators  were  condemued  and  executed.  CK«  the 
execution  of  Friend  and  Perkins,  the  celebrated  Jeremy  Collier, 
the  nonjuring  divine,  appeared  on  the  scaffold,  and  publicly 
absolved  them  (April  3).  The  trial  of  sir  John  Fen  wick,  implicated 
in  a  scheme  for  a  Jacobite  rising,  who  had  been  captured  at  New 
Romney  while  endeavouring  to  escape  to  France,  did  not  come 
on  till  the  autumn.  While  he  lay  in  Newgate  he  soughv  to  pro- 
cure a  pardon  by  turning  evidence,  and  accused  the  duke  of 
Shrewsbury,  the  earls  of  Bath  and  Marlborough,  lord  bodolphin, 
«ind  admiral  Russell,  of  corresponding  and  intriguing  with  king 
James.  Though  this  information  is  now  known  to  have  been  correct, 
William  refused  to  listen  to  it.  As  only  one  witness  could  be 
produced  against  Fenwick,  While  the  law  required  two  in  cases  of 
high  treason,  admiral  Russell,  to  his  lasting  disgrace,  brought  in 
a  bill  of  attainder  against  him,  which  was  passed  after  consider- 
able opposition.  Fenwick  was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill,  on  January 
28, 1697. 

§  14.  During  the  campaign  of  1696  the  French  remained  on  the 
defensive ;  nor  did  anything  of  importance  take  place  at  sea.  All 
parties  were  looking  forward  to  a  peace  ;  and  on  the  9th  of  May  a 
conference  was  oi)ened  between  the  belligerent  powers,  on  the 
mediation  of  the  king  of  Sweden,  at  Ryswick,  a  village  between 
Delft  and  the  Hague.  William  had  as  usual  gone  over  to  Holland. 
All  that  he  desired  was  to  fix  a  barrier  to  the  French  power  in 
Flanders,  and  to  procure  from  Louis  the  acknowledgment  of  hia 
title  to  the  English  throne ;  but  the  negociations  were  i>rotractod  by 
the  emperor  of  Germany  and  the  king  of  Spain,  who  were  desirous 
of  continuing  the  war.  William,  therefore,  while  the  hostile  armies 
lay  op|X)sed  to  each  other  near  Brussels,  caused  a  separate*  negocia- 
tion  to  be  opened  in  July  between  the  earl  of  Portland  on  his  part 
and  marshal  Boufflers  on  that  of  Louis. 

The  taking  of  Carthagena,  in  America,  by  a  French  squadron,  and 
the  ca])ture  of  Barcelona  by  a  French  army,  inclined  the  S|)aniard8 
to  come  to  terms  with  Louis,  and  tne  Pbaob  of  Ryswick  was 


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A.E;  1097-1696.        THE  SPANISH  SUCCESSION. 


637 


si^ed  on  September  10, 1697.  Louis  resigned  several  of  his  con- 
quests, aud  recognized  William  as  king  of  England.  The  peace  ol 
Ryswick  seems  to  have  been  necessary  in  consequence  of  the  defcc 
tion  of  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and  of  the  bad  state  of  public  credit  in 
England;  but  William  foresaw  that  it  could  be  no  more  than  a 
sort  of  armistice,  and  that  a  fresh  stmggle  must  soon  take  place  on 
the  subject  of  the  Spanish  succession. 

§  15.  The  parliament,  which  met  soon  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick, 
voted  that  the  army  should  be  reduced  to  7000  men,  and  they  were 
with  difficulty  persuaded  to  allow  it  to  remain  at  10,000;  at  the 
same  time  they  granted  the  king  the  large  sum  of  700,000^.  for  the 
civil  list.*  William  was  exceedingly  annoyed  at  the  vote  for  reducing 
the  army  ;  and,  before  he  roj^ired  to  Holland  in  the  spring  (1 698), 
he  ventured  to  leave  sealed  orders  that  the  army  should  be 
raised  to  16,000  men,  which  his  ministers  refused  to  obey. 
During  his  residence  in  Holland  he  negociated  a  treaty  respecting 
the  Spanish  succession.  Charles  II.  of  Spain  was  now  supposed 
to  be  at  the  point  of  death ;  and  as  he  left  no  heirs  within  the 
kingdom,  the  question  of  his  succession  threatened  to  disturb 
the  peace  of  Europe.  Philip  IV.  of  Spain  had  had  three  chil- 
dren: one  son,  Charles  II.,  and  two  daughters — the  elder,  Maria 
Theresa,  was  married  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  and  the  younger, 
Margaret  Theresa,  to  the  emperor  Leopold  L  Maria  Theresa  had 
renounced  her  pretensions  to  the  Spanish  succession  on  her  marriage 
with  the  king  of  France.  The  younger  sister,  Margaret  Theresa, 
made  a  similar  renunciation  on  her  marriage  with  Leopold;  and 
their  only  child,  a  daughter,  married  to  Maximilian  Emanuel, 
elector  of  Bavaria,  followed  their  example.  France  and  Bavaria 
maintained  that  these  princesses  had  no  power  to  renounce  the 
claims  of  their  posterity;  Louis  XIV.  therefore  demanded  the 
Spanish  throne  for  his  son  the  dauphin,  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria 
for  his  son  the  electoral  prince.  A  third  claimant  was  the  em|»eror 
Leopold,  who  by  a  second  marriage  had  two  sons,  Joseph  king  of 
the  Romans,  and  the  archduke  Charles.  Leopold  claimed  the 
succession  as  the  son  of  Maria  Anne,  daughter  of  Philip  III.,  but 
waived  his  claim  in  &vour  of  the  archduke  Charles.t 

William  would  have  been  c«»ntent  to  gratify  France,  by  conceding 
part  of  the  Spanish  dominions;  and  Louis  was,  or  pretended  to 
be,  better  satisfied  with  this  partial  inheritance  than  to  have  to 
fight  for  the  whole.  A  treaty  for  the  partition  of  Spain  was  ac- 
cordingly negociated  in  the  summer  at  Loo,  and  signed  on  the  ist 


*  Tb«7  had  resolved,  in  M«rcb,  1689, 
ftt  th .  fixed  revenue  of  the  crown  should 
>  i,aoo,ooo{. 


f  The  genealoglcAl  Uble  in  the  follow- 
ing page  exhibits  the  relationship  of  the 
different  claimants. 


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538 


WILLIAM  IIL 


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AJK  ie9a-1700.  HIS  UNPOPtJLARITT.  639 

of  October ;  acoording  to  which,  on  the  death  of  Charles  11.,  the 
dauphin  was  to  be  put  in  possession  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  the  ports 
on  the  Tuscan  shore,  and  the  marquisate  of  Final,  in  Italy ;  while 
on  the  Spanish  frontier  he  was  to  have  all  the  territory  on  the 
French  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  of  the  mountains  of  Navarre, 
Alava,  and  Biscay.  The  son  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria  was  to  in- 
fierit  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  and  the  Indies;  and  Milan  was  to  be 
assigned  to  the  archduke  Charles,  second  son  of  the  emperor.  It 
was  intended  to  keep  this  treaty  a  profound  secret  from  the  king  of 
Spain,  but  it  came  to  his  ears  and  naturally  roused  his  indignation. 
Anxious  to  preserve  the  integrity  of  the  empire,  be  drew  up  a 
will  appointing  the  electoral  prince  of  Bavaria  his  universal  heir, 
according  to  the  previous  disposition  of  Philip  IV,  But  Charles 
unexpectedly  recovered ;  and  both  the  treaty  and  the  will  were  de- 
feated by  the  demise  of  the  electoral  prince  at  Brussels  (February 
8,  1699). 

§  16.  The  new  parliament,  which  assembled  on  December  6, 1698, 
exhibited  strong  symptoms  of  discontent.  It  insisted  on  the  reduc- 
tion of  tha  army  to  7000  men,  and  also  voted  that  they  should  be 
natives  ot'  the  British  dominions.  This  involved  the  dismissal  of 
the  Dutch  guards,  the  severest  mortification  which  William  had 
ever  experienced.  On  this  occasion  he  even  condescended  to  send 
a  message  to  the  commons  by  lord  Ranelagh,  entreating  them  as 
a  personal  favour  that  his  guards  might  be  retained ;  and  when 
they  refused  to  comply,  he  burst  into  a  violent  passion,  and  threat- 
ened to  abandon  the  kingdom.  All  the  debates  of  the  commons 
continued  hostile  to  the  king.  In  the  last  session  they  had  ap- 
pointed commissioners  to  inquiie  into  the  grants  of  forfeited  estates 
in  Ireland ;  and  the  report  being  now  brought  in,  it  appeared  that 
no  fewer  than  3921  persons  had  been  outlawed  in  that  country 
since  February,  1689,  and  that  more  than  1,060,000  acres  of 
land  had  been  declared  forfeited,  the  annual  rent  of  which  was 
computed  at  211,623Z.  It  also  appeared  that  large  grants  of 
these  lands  had  been  made  to  foreigners,  as  Keppel,*  Bentinck, 
Ginkell,  and  Buvigny,  who  had  also  obtained  peerages  in  one  of 
the  two  kingdoms.  But  the  most  obnoxious  of  all  was  the  grant 
of  king  James's  private  estates,  containing  96,000  acres  and 
valued  at  26,995/.  per  annum,  to  William's  mistress,  Elizabeth 
Villiers,  now  countess  of  Orkney.  The  commons  resolved  unani- 
mously that  all  these  forfeitures  should  be  applied  to  the  public 
use;  and  they  even  added  thit  the  grants  which  had  been  ma«le 

«  Keppel  WM  created  earl  of  Albemarle  i  of  Portland,  as  already  related  (see  p 
IP  1697,  and  was  the  ancestor  of  the  522);  Ginkell,  earl  of  Atblone;  and 
present  earl.    Bentinck  v  as  created  earl  |  Ruvigny,  earl  of  Oalway. 


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540  WILLIAM  m.  Crap,  zxni 

of  them  wereareflociion  upoa  the  king^s  honour  (January  18,  1700). 
To  secure  the  king's  assent,  the  bill  for  the  resumption  of  these 
forfeitures  was  tacked  to  the  bill  of  supply.  Several  amendments 
were  proposed  and  carried  in  the  lords,  and  angry  conferences 
ensued  between  the  two  houses.  The  commons  threatened  to 
impeach  the  earls  of  Portland  and  Albemarle,  and  resolved  to 
address  the  king  that  no  foreigners,  except  prince  George  of  Den- 
mark, should  be  admitted  to  the  royal  councils.  William  began 
to  be  alarmed,  and  sent  a  private  message  to  his  friends  in  the 
lords  to  withdraw  their  opposition.  The  bill  having  passed  in  its 
original  state,  the  king  came  to  the  house,  gave  his  assent  to  it, 
and  then  suddenly  prorogued  the  parliament  without  any  speech 
(April  11). 

§  17.  The  rapid  decline  of  the  king  of  Spain's  health  hastened 
the  conclusion  of  a  second  treaty  of  partition,  which  was  signed  at 
London  on  the  21st  February,  and  at  the  Hague  on  the  14th  of 
March,  1700.  William  had  spent  f!;reat  part  of  the  preceding  sum- 
n.er  and  autumn  at  Loo  in  no<;ociaving  the  treaty  as  he  and  the 
States  were  desirous  of  bringing  the  emperor  iuto  their  views ;  but  in 
October  Leopold  formally  rejected  any  partition  whatever.  By  this 
new  treaty  the  share  formerly  allotted  to  the  electoral  prince  was  to  be 
transferred  to  the  archduke  Charles,  and  Milan  was  to  be  added  to 
the  dauphin's  portion,  w^ith  powir  to  exchange  it  for  Lorraine.  To 
prevent  the  union  of  the  imperial  crown  with  that  ot  Spain,  it  was 
provided  that  the  king  of  the  Romans  should  not  succeed  to  the 
Spanish  kingdom  in  case  oi  the  archduke's  death ;  and  a  like  pro- 
vision was  made  with  regard  to  the  king  of  France  and  the  dauphin. 

The  long-expected  death  of  Charles  11.  of  Spain,  which  followed 
[)n  the  first  of  November,  soon  discovered  how  fruitless  ha<l  been 
Edl  the  1  ains  bestowed  on  the  partition  treaties.  The  pride  ef  the 
Sp  intsh  nation  was  naturally  wounded  by  the  treaty,  and  Charles 
?8pecially  was  grievously  offended  by  it.  The  French  ambassador 
Eivailcd  himself  of  this  feeling  to  persuade  Charles  to  make  another 
will,  in  lavour  of  Philip,  duke  of  Anjou,  the  second  son  of  the 
iauphin ;  nor  did  Lewis  hesitate  to  accept  this  magnificent  bequest 
to  his  grandson.  In  case  of  his  refusal,  the  Spanish  throne  was 
to  be  tendered  to  the  archduke  Charles.  William  found  it  prudent 
to  acquiesce  in  the  new  arrangement,  and  ultimately  acknowledged 
the  title  of  the  duke  of  Anjou. 

§  18.  In  the  last  year  or  two  there  had  been  several  changes 
in  the  niinistiy.  The  kii:g  trimmed  between  whigs  and  tories 
with  a  dexteiity  which  rendered  it  difficult  to  say  to  which  he 
most  inclined.  In  this  year  the  tory  ea'rl  of  Rochester  was  appointed 
;o  the  lord-lieutenancy  of  Ireland.    A  cabinet  council,  that  is,  a 


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UW 17QL  IHB  ACT  OF  SETTLEMENT.  541 

aeleot  body  of  miniBters  with  whom  the  king  exclusiyely  oonBultttd, 
and  who  prepared  and  digested  the  measures  which  were  subee- 
quently  laid  before  the  general  body  of  the  privy  council  rather 
as  a  matter  of  form  than  of  necessity,  was  nowr^ularly  established. 
Traces  of  a  cabinet  first  begin  to  appear  under  Charles  I.,  and 
become  more  frequent  under  Charles  II.;  but  it  was  not  till  the 
reign  of  William  that  it  became  the  regular  mode  of  government. 
In  earlier  times  the  sovereign  was  accustomed  to  consult  the  whole 
body  of  the  priyy  council,  and  was  guided  by  the  opinion  of  the 
majority.  The  cabinet,  therefore,  was  a  sort  of  silent  revolution 
which  crept  in  unobserved,  and  has  never  been  recognized  by  the 
constitution. 

§  19.  In  the  new  parliament  which  assembled  in  February,  1701,  the 
tones  had  the  majority,  aud  Kobert  Harley,  one  of  their  leaders, 
was  chosen  speaker.  As  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester, 
the  only  survivor  of  Anne's  large  family,  which  happened  in  the 
preceding  July  at  the  age  of  11,  left  the  succescion  of  the  crown 
unprovided  for  after  the  demise  of  William  and  ^Vnne,  it  became 
necessary  to  make  a  new  settlement,  and  the  king  recommended 
the  subject  to  the  consideration  of  parlianiJ  .  The  next  iu 
blood,  after  the  children  of  James  II.,  was  the  duchess  of  Savoy, 
daughter  of  Henrietta,  duchess  of  (Cleans,  and  then  the  family 
of  the  elector  palatine,  all  of  whom,  however,  had  abjured  ihe 
reformed  faith,  with  the  exception  of  his  daughter  Sophia,  man  led 
to  the  elector  of  Hanover;  to  her,  therefore,  as  papists  were 
excluded  from  the  succession  by  act  of  parliament.  It  became 
necessary  to  revert.  Nor  Wh^  William  averse  to  this  arrangement 
As  he  was  desirous  of  securing  the  accession  of  the  eleccor  of 
Hanover  to  the  grand  alliance  he  was  then  meditating,  Soi>hia 
and  the  heirs  of  her  body,  being  protestants,  were  declared  next 
in  succession  to  the  king,  after  the  princess  of  Denmark  and  their 
respective  heirs.  The  act  to  settle  the  protestant  succession  was 
passed  in  the  summer  of  1701.    (Supplement,  Note  XL) 

The  commons  took  advantage  of  this  settlement  to  supply  some 
deficiencies  in  the  Bill  of  Rights,  and  therefore  this  act  (12  and  13 
William  III.  c.  2)  became  a  most  important  one,  and  put  as  it  were 
the  seal  to  the  English  constitution.  The  tory  government  showed 
themselves  on  this  occasion  no  less  the  friends  of  liberty  than  the 
whigs,  and  moved  and  carried  certain  resolutions  as  preliminary 
to  the  settlement  of  the  succession,  to  the  following  effect :  That 
whoever  should  hereafter  come  to  the  throne  should  join  in  com< 
munion  with  the  church  of  England,  as  by  law  established ;  that 
in  case  of  the  crown  devolving  on  a  foreigner,  the  nation  shall  not 
he  obliged  to  enter  into  any  foreign  war  without  the  conMatof 
25 


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542 


WILLIAM  m. 


C^P.  XSTIL 


parliament ;  that  no  fature  soYerdgn  shall  leave  Qreat  Britain  or 
Ireland  without  consent  of  parliament  *  that  all  matters  cognizahle 
m  the  privy  council  shall  be  transacted  there,  and  all  resolutions 
taken  be  signed  by  such  of  the  privy  council  as  shail  consent  to 
them ;  that  none  but  &  person  bom  or'  English  parents  shall  be 
capable  of  holding  ofiQce  under  the  crown,  or  receiving  a  grant  from 
it,  or  being  a  member  ot  parliament ;  that  no  person  m  the  service 
of  the  crown,  or  receiving  a  pension,  shall  be  capable  of  sitting 
in  the  House  of  O>nmions;  that  the  commissions  ot  the  judges 
shall  be  irrevocable  so  long  as  they  conduct  themselves  properly 
("  qttamdiu  se  bene  gesaerint  '*),  but  that  they  may  be  removed  on 
an  address  of  both  houses ;  and  that  no  pardon  under  the  great  seal 
shall  be  pleadable  to  an  impeachment  of  the  commons. 

These  provisions,  and  especially  the  last  two,  were  highly  im- 
portant safeguards  to  the  liberty  and  welfare  of  the  country.  That 
respecting  placemen  sitting  in  parliament  was  repealed  in  1706; 
but  it  was  provided  at  the  same  time  that  any  member  of  the 
lower  house  accepting  office  should  vacate  his  seat,  and  agnin  offer 
himself  to  his  constituents ;  and  that  no  person  holding  any  office 
created  since  October  25,  1705,  should  be  eligible  at  all.  The 
obligation  on  privy  ooimcillors  to  sign  their  names  to  tbe  resolu- 
tions they  approved  was  also  abrogated.  The  article  respecting  the 
sovereign  leaving  the  United  Kingdom  was  repealed  soon  after  the 
accession  of  George  I.,  and  that  respecting  the  privy  coimcil  by  Anne. 

§  20.  Both  houses  of  parliament  expressed  the  highest  disappro- 
bation of  the  partition  treaties,  to  which  they  ascribed  the  will  of 
Charles  II.  in  &vour  of  the  duke  of  Anjou.  The  comnoons  addressed 
the  king  to  remove  the  earl  of  Portlond,  the  earl  ol  Orford,*  lord 
Halifax,!  and  lord  Somers^  from  his  presence  and  councils  for 
e^  pr,  and  ordered  them  to  be  impeached  at  the  bar  of  the  lords,  on 
account  of  the  steps  they  had  taken  in  promoting  the  partition 
treaties,  as  well  as  for  other  alleged  illegal  practices.  But  as  an 
irreconcilable  difference  sprang  up  between  the  two  houses  as  to 
the  mode  of  proceeding,  and  the  commons  refused  to  appear  on  the 
day  appointed  by  the  peers,  the  impeached  ministers  were  acquitted 
(June,  1701). 


*  The  earl  of  Orford  was  admiral  Ros- 
■ell,  who  receired  this  title  in  1697.  It 
became  ezUnct  apon  hia  death  in  1737, 
but  was  revived  in  1742  In  favour  of  the 
celebrated  sir  Robert  Walpole. 

t  This  lord  Halifax  was  Charles  Mon- 
tague, a  grandson  of  the  first  earl  of 
Mancbe!tt4>r,  and  was  created  lord  Halifax 
in  1700,  and  earl  of  Halifax  in  1714.  He 
WM  of  a  dffrercnt  familjr  from  the  cele- 


brated George  Savile,  marquess  of  UaUftx. 
who  died  in  1695,  and  was  snooeeded  in 
the  title  by  his  son,  who  died  in  1709, 
when  the  title  became  extinct. 

t  Somers  was  lord  chancellor,  and  had 
been  dismissed  fh>m  office  in  the  prevfons 
year  (1700)  in  consequence  of  the  attacks 
made  upon  him  in  parliament  rbe 
present  euri  Somers  is  a  descendant  of  tb«> 
eldest  sister  of  the  chancellor. 


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A.D.  1701.  DEATH  OF  KING  JAMES  IL  543 

Although  WUliam  had  acknowledged  the  new  king  of  Spain,  he 
was  by  no  means  satisfied  with  that  arrangement,  especially  as  it 
proved  so  distasteful  to  his  subjects.  During  the  summer,  which 
he  spent  in  Holland,  negociations  had  been  going  on  between  him 
and  D'Avaux,  the  French  ambassador;  but  when  these  utterly 
failed,  William,  about  the  beginning  of  August,  1700,  set  on  foot 
a  treaty  with  the  emperor,  who  had  already  commenced  the  War 
OF  THE  Spanish  Suooession  by  attacking  the  French  m  Italy. 
William,  however,  would  engage  himself  no  further  than  for  the 
recovery  of  Flanders  and  the  Milanese,  the  former  as  a  barrier  to 
Holland,  the  latter  as  a  barrier  to  the  empire.  He  likewise  stipu- 
lated that  England  and  Holland  should  retain  whatever  conquests 
they  might  make  in  both  the  Indies.  On  these  conditions  a  treaty 
was  signed  (September  7th,  1701)  between  the  emperor,  England, 
and  the  States,  which  afterwards  obtained  the  name  of  the  Grand 
Alliance. 

On  the  6th  of  September  king  James  11.  expired  at  St.  Gkrmains. 
Ever  since  the  peace  of  Byswick,  which  extinguished  his  hopes  of 
regaining  the  English  crown,  he  had  abandoned  himself  to  all  the 
austerities  of  his  temper  and  his  religion ;  and  some  time  before 
bin  decease  he  had  fiftllen  into  a  kind  of  lethargy.  Louis  paid  him 
a  visit  as  he  lay  on  his  deathbed,  and  in  the  presence  of  his  attend- 
ants, whom  he  would  not  suffer  to  withdraw,  and  who  wept  at 
once  for  joy  and  grief,  he  declared  his  intention  of  acknowledging 
James  Francis  Edward,  son  of  James  XL,  as  king  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  He  visited  the  young  prince  in  state,  addressed  him 
by  the  title  of  majesty,  and  caused  him  to  be  acknowleaged  by 
the  French  court  and  nation.  William  immediately  remonstrated 
against  these  proceedings,  as  infringing  the  treaty  of  Byswick; 
dismissed  the  French  ambassador  and  recalled  his  own ;  while  both 
sides  began  to  make  preparations  for  war.  The  French  took 
possession  of  the  towns  on  the  Bhine ;  the  Dutch  entered  Juliers 
in  force ;  and  William  arranged  with  the  States  a  campaign  for  the 
ensuing  spring :  but,  notwithstanding  the  pressing  solicitations  of 
the  emperor,  he  would  not  declare  war  till  he  had  assured  himself 
of  the  support  of  the  English  parliament ;  and  he  left  Holland  in 
November  for  the  purpose  of  opening  that  assembly 

The  new  parliament,  chiefly  composed  of  whigs,  met  in  Decem- 
ber, when  Harley  was  again  elected  to  the  chair.  The  commons, 
in  their  address  to  the  king  on  his  speech,  warmly  conveyed  their 
approbation  of  the  course  he  had  pursued  with  regard  to  France, 
and  expressed  a  hope  that  no  peace  would  be  concluded  till  Louis 
had  atoned  for  acknowledging  the  Pretender.  A  bill  was  broim^ 
in  and  {massed  for  the  attainder  of  that  prince^  and  anotber  in  hlf 


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WILLIAM  lU. 


Chap,  zzra 


abjuration  by  all  persons  holding  employments  in  church  or  state; 
and  the  commons  voted'  40,000  men  to  act  with  the  allies,  and  a 
like  number  of  setoien  for  the  fleet.  Id  the  midst  of  these  prepara- 
tions William  met  with  an  accident  which,  in  his  rapidly  deoliniag 
state  of  health,  proved  fatal  On  the  2l8t  of  February,  1702,  while 
riding  in  the  park  of  Hampton  Court,  his  horse  fell  with  him,  and 
he  broke  his  collar-bone.  It  was  at  first  anticipated  that  the  acci- 
dent would  not  be  attended  with  any  dangerous  consequences,  and 
on  the  28th  he  was  declared  convalescent.  But  on  the  2nd  of 
March  symptoms  appeared  which  precluded  all  hope  of  recovery ; 
and  on  Sxmday,  the  8th,  he  expired,  at  the  early  age  of  51,  after 
receiving  the  sacrament  from  the  archbishop  of  Q&nterbury. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


AN  ACT  FOR  DECLARING  THE 
RIGHTS  AND  LIBERTIES  OF  THE 
BDBJECT.  AND  SETTLING  THE 
SUCCI-:SS10N  OP  THE  CROWN 
(1689). 

Whereas  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Tem- 
poral, and  Commons,  aasembled  at  West- 
minster, lawMly,  A1II7,  and  freely  repre- 
senting all  the  estates  of  the  people  of 
this  realm,  did,  upon  the  13th  day  of 
February,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  168;, 
present  unto  their  mi^Jesties,  then  called 
and  known  by  the  names  and  style  of 
William  and  Mary,  prince  and  princess  of 
Orange,  being  presnnt  in  their  proper 
persona,  a  certain  declaration  in  writing, 
made  by  the  said  Lords  and  Commons,  in 
the  words  following ;  viz. — 

Whereas  the  late  king  James  11.,  by 
the  assistance  of  divers  evil  counsellors. 
Judges,  and  ministers  employed  by  him, 
did  endeavour  to  subvert  and  extirpate 
the  protestant  religion,  and  the  laws  and 
liberties  of  this  kingdom  :— 

1.  By  assuming  and  exercising  a  power 
of  dispensing  with  and  suspending  of 
laws,  and  the  execution  of  laws,  without 
consent  of  parliament. 

a.  By  committing  and  prosecuting 
diyers  worthy  prelates,  for  humbly  peti- 
tioning to  be  excused  from  concurring  to 
the  said  assumed  power. 

3.  By  iMoing  and  causing  to  be  executed 
a  commission  under  the  great  seal  for 
erecting  a  court  called  the  court  of  Com- 
nissiooerB  for  Ecclesiastical  Causes. 

4.  ^f  levying  money  for  and  to  the  use 


of  the  crown,  by  pretence  of  prerofsltvi^ 
for  other  time,  and  in  other  manner,  than 
the  same  was  granted  by  parliament. 

6.  By  raising  and  keeping  a  sUndIng 
army  within  this  kingdom  in  time  of 
peace,  without  consent  of  parliament,  and 
quartering  soldiers  contrary  to  law. 

6.  By  causing  several  good  sul^lecta, 
being  protestants,  to  be  disarmed,  at  the 
same  time  when  papists  were  both  amed 
and  employed,  contrary  to  law 

I.  By  violating  the  freedom  of  electloii 
of  members  to  serve  in  parliament. 

8.  By  prosecutions  in  the  court  ol 
King's  Bench  for  matters  and  causes  oof- 
nizable  only  in  parliament ;  and  by  diven 
other  arbitrary  and  illegal  courses. 

9.  And  whereas  of  late  years  partial, 
corrupt,  and  unqualified  persons  have 
been  returned  and  served  on  Juries  in 
trials,  and  partlcularlj  divers  Jurors  ia 
trials  for  high  treason,  which  were  not 
freeholders. 

10.  And  excessive  bail  hath  been  re- 
quired of  persons  committed  in  crlminsl 
cases,  to  elude  the  benefit  of  the  laws 
made  for  the  liberty  of  the  snlifects. 

II.  And  excessive  fines  have  been  im- 
posed ;  and  illegal  and  cruel  punishments 
inflicted. 

I  a.  And  several  grants  and  promises 
mode  of  fines  and  forfeitures,  before  any 
conviction  or  Judgment  ngainst  the  per- 
sons upon  whom  the  same  were  to  bs 
levied. 

All  which  are  utterly  and  directly  con- 
trary to  the  known  laws  and  stsiotes,  moA 
freedom  of  this  realm. 


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NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


545 


And  whereas  the  said  Ute  king  James 
II.  having  abdicated  the  government,  and 
the  throne  being  thereby  vacant,  his  high- 
ness the  prince  of  Orange  (whom  it  hath 
pleased  Almighty  God  to  make  the 
glorious  instrument  of  delivering  this 
kingdom  fh>m  popery  and  arbitrary 
power)  did  (by  the  advice  of  the  Lords 
Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  divers  princi- 
pal persons  of  the  Conmions)  cause  letters 
to  be  written  to  the  Lords  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  being  protestants;  and  other 
letters  to  the  several  counties,  dties, 
universities,  boroughs,  and  cinque  ports, 
for  the  choosing  of  such  persons  to  repre- 
sent them  as  were  of  right  to  be  sent  to 
parliamfSDt,  to  meet  and  sit  at  West- 
minster upon  the  22nd  of  January,  in 
this  year  168|,  in  order  to  such  an  estab- 
lishment as  that  their  religion,  laws,  and 
liberties  might  not  again  be  in  danger  of 
being  subverted;  upon  which  letters 
elections  have  been  already  made. 

And  thereupon  the  said  Lords  Spiritual 
and  Temporal,  and  Commons,  pursuant 
to  their  respective  letters  and  elections, 
being  now  assembled  in  a  full  and  free 
representation  of  this  nation,  taking  into 
their  most  serious  consideration  the  best 
means  for  attaining  the  ends  aforesaid,  do 
in  the  first  place  (as  their  ancestors  in 
like  case  have  usually  done),  for  the 
vindicating  and  asserting  their  ancient 
rights  and  liberties,  declare  :— 

1.  That  the  pretended  power  of  sus- 
pending of  Uws,  or  the  execution  of  laws, 
by  regal  authority,  without  consent  of 
parliament,  is  illegal. 

2.  Thttt  the  pretended  power  of  dis- 
pensing with  laws,  or  the  execution  of 
laws,  l^  regal  authority,  as  it  hath  been 
assumed  and  exerdsed  of  late,  is  lUegal. 

3.  That  the  commission  for  erecting 
the  late  court  of  Gommissioners  for  Ec- 
clesiastical Causes,  and  all  other  commis- 
sions and  courts  of  like  nature,  are  illegal 
and  pernicious. 

4.  That  levying  money  for  or  to  the  use 
of  the  crown,  by  pretence  and  prerogative, 
without  grant  of  parliament,  for  longer 
time  or  in  other  manner  than  the  same  is 
or  shall  be  granted,  is  illegal. 

6.  That  H  is  the  right  of  the  suttlects  to 
petition  the  king,  and  all  commitments 
and  prosecutions  for  such  petitioning  are 
illegal. 

8.  That  the  raising  or  keeping  a  stand- 
ing army  within  the  kingdom  in  time  of 


peace,  unless  it  be  with  consent  of  parll** 
ment,  is  against  law. 

I.  That  the  sntjects  which  are  protes- 
tants may  have  arms  for  their  defence 
suitable  to  their  conditions,  and  as  allowed 
by  law. 

8.  That  election  of  membere  of  parlia- 
ment ought  to  be  free. 

9.  That  the  fireedom  of  speech,  and 
debates  or  proceedings  in  parliament, 
ought  not  to  be  impeached  or  questioned 
in  any  court  or  place  out  of  parliament. 

10.  That  excessive  ball  ouf^t  not  to  be 
required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  in- 
flicted. 

II.  That  Jurors  ought  to  be  duly  im- 
panelled and  returned,  and  Jurors  which 
pass  upon  men  in  trials  for  high  treason 
ought  to  be  freeholders. 

12.  That  all  grants  and  promises  of 
fines  and  forfeitures  of  particular  persons 
bctfbre  conviction  are  illegal  and  void. 

13.  And  that  for  redress  of  all  griev- 
a  nces,  and  for  the  amending,  sU^engthen- 
ing,  and  preserving  of  the  laws,  parlia- 
ment ought  to  be  held  frequently. 

And  they  do  claim,  demand,  and  insist 
upon  all  and  singular  the  premises,  as 
their  undoubted  rights  and  liberties ;  and 
that  no  declarations.  Judgments,  doings, 
or  proceedings,  to  the  pr^udice  of  the 
people  in  any  of  the  said  premises,  ought 
in  any  wise  to  be  drawn  hereafter  into 
consequence  or  example : 

To  which  demand  of  their  rights  they  are 
particularly  encouraged  by  the  declaration 
of  his  highness  the  prince  of  Orange,  as 
being  the  only  means  for  obtaining  a  ftill 
redress  and  remedy  therein : 

Having  therefore  an  entire  confidence 
that  his  said  highness  the  prince  of 
Orange  will  perfect  the  deliverance  so  far 
advanced  by  him,  and  will  still  pieserve 
them  from  the  violation  of  their  rights, 
which  they  have  here  asserted,  and  ftY>m 
all  other  attempts  upon  their  religion, 
rights,  and  Uberties: 

n.  The  said  Lords  Spiritual  and  Tem- 
poral, and  Commons,  assembled  at  West- 
minster, do  resolve,  that  William  and 
Mary,  prince  and  princess  of  Orange,  be, 
and  be  declared,  king  and  queen  of  £ng- 
land,  France,  and  Ireland,  and  the  do- 
minions thereunto  belonging,  to  hold  the 
crown  and  royal  dignity  of  the  said  king- 
doms and  dominions  to  them  the  said 
prince  and  princess  during  their  Ttym, 


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KOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS.      Chat,  xxm 


and  the  life  ot  the  sarvivor  ol  them ;  and 
that  the  sole  and  full  exercise  of  the  regal 
power  be  only  in  and  executed  ^y  the 
said  prince  oi  Orange,  in  the  names  of  the 
said  prince  and  princess,  during  their 
Joint  lives ;  and  after  their  deceases,  the 
said  crown  and  royal  dignity  of  the  said 
kingdoms  and  dominions  to  be  left  to  the 
heirs  of  the  body  of  the  said  princess ;  and 
for  default  of  such  issue  to  the  princess 
Anne  of  Denmark  and  the  heirs  of  her 
body ;  and  for  default  of  such  issue  to  the 
heirs  of  the  body  of  the  said  prince  of 
Orange.  And  the  Lords  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  and  Commons,  do  pray  the 
said  prince  and  princess  to  accept  the 
same  accordingly. 

III.  And  that  the  oaths  hereafter  men- 
tioned be  taken  by  all  persons  of  whom 
the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy 
might  be  required  by  law,  instead  of 
them ;  and  that  the  said  oaths  of  alle- 
giance and  supremacy  be  abrogated. 

I,  A.  B.,  do  sincerely  promise  and 
swear  that  I  will  be  faithful  and  bear  true 
allegiance  to  their  mi^jesties  king  William 
and  queen  Mary :  So  help  me  God. 

I,  A.  B.,  do  swear  that  I  do  fh)m  my 
heart  abhor,  detest,  and  abjure  as  impious 
and  heretical,  that  damnable  doctrine  and 
position  that  princes  excommunicated  or 
deprived  by  the  pope,  t  r  any  authority  of 
the  see  of  Rome,  may  be  deposed  or  mur- 
dered by  their  sul^ects,  or  any  other 
whatsoever.  And  I  do  declare  that  no 
foreign  prince,  person,  prelate,  state,  or 
potentate  hath,  or  ought  to  have,  any 
Jurisdiction,  power,  superiority,  pre- 
eminence, or  authority,  ecclesiastical  or 
spiritual,  within  this  realm :  So  help  me 
God. 

IV.  Upon  which  their  said  nu^esties 
did  accept  the  crown  and  royal  dignity  of 
the  kingdoms  of  England,  France,  and 
Ireland,  and  the  dominions  thereunto  be- 
longing, according  to  the  resolution  and 
desire  of  the  said  Lords  and  Commons 
contained  In  the  said  declaration. 

V.  And  thereupon  their  mi^esties  were 
pleased  that  the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  and  Commons,  being  the  two 
houses  of  parliament,  should  conUnue  to 
sit,  and  with  their  miOesties'  royal  con- 
currence make  eflTectual  provision  for  the 
settlement  of  the  religion.  Uws,  and 
Ubertles  of  this  kingdom,  so  that  the 
same  for  the  future  might  not  be  In 
<>*nger   again   of  being    subverted;   to 


whidi  the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and  Tan* 
poraU  and  Commons,  did  agree  «id  pro- 
ceed to  act  accordingly. 

VI.  Now,  in  purauanceof  the  premieeSt 
the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporsl, 
and  Commons,  in  parliament  aseemUed. 
for  the  ratifying,  confirming,  and  estab* 
lishing  the  said  declaration,  and  tht 
articles,  clauses,  matters,  and  things 
therein  contained,  by  the  force  of  a  law 
made  in  due  form  by  authority  of  parlia- 
ment, do  pray  that  it  may  be  declared 
and  enacted,  that  all  and  singular  the  rights 
and  liberties  asserted  and  claJnoed  in  the 
said  declaration  are  the  true,  ancient,  and 
Indubitable  rights  and  liberties  of  the 
people  of  this  kingdom,  and  so  shall  be 
esteemed,  allowed.  a4Judged,  deemed,  and 
taken  to  be,  and  that  all  and  every  the 
particulars  aibresaid  shall  be  firmly  and 
strictly  holden  and  observed,  as  they  are 
expressed  in  the  said  declaration ;  and  all 
offlcere  and  ministers  wtutsoever  shall 
serve  their  mi^esties  and  their  succeesors 
according  to  the  same  in  all  times  to 
come. 

VII.  And  the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  and  Commons,  seriously  con- 
sidering how  it  hath  pleased  Almighty 
God,  in  His  marvellous  providence  and 
merciful  goodness  to  this  nation,  to  pro- 
vide luid  preserve  their  said  miOesties* 
royal  persons  most  happily  to  reign  over 
us  upon  tho  throne  of  their  anoeetors,  for 
which  they  render  unto  Him  from  the 
bottom  of  their  hearts  their  humblest 
thanks  and  prait>es,  do  truly,  firmly,  as- 
suredly, and  in  the  sincerity  of  their 
hearts,  think,  and  do  hereby  reoognisn 
acknowledge,  and  declare,  that  klnr 
James  II.  having  abdicated  the  goven 
ment.  and  their  m^esties  having  accepted 
the  crown  and  royal  dignity  as  aforesaid, 
their  said  mi^Jesties  did  become,  were,  are, 
and  of  right  ought  to  be,  by  the  laws  of 
this  realm,  our  sovereign  liege  lord  and 
lady,  king  and  queen  of  England.  France, 
and  Ireland,  and  the  dominions  thereunto 
belonging,  in  and  to  whoee  princely  per- 
sons the  royal  state,  crown,  and  dignity 
of  the  said  realms,  with  all  hononrsL 
styles,  titles,  regalities,  prerogatives, 
powers.  Jurisdictions,  and  authorities  to 
the  same  belonging  and  appertafaiing, 
are  most  fully,  rightfully,  and  entirely 
invested  and  incorporated,  united  and 
annexed. 

VIII.  And  for  preventing  all  ^ 


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64:7 


and  divisioos  In  this  realm,  by  reaaoD  of 
any  pretended  titles  to  the  crown,  and  for 
preeerving  a  certainty  in  the  snocsssion 
thereof,  in  and  upon  which  the  nnity, 
peace,  tranquillity,  and  safety  of  this 
nation  doth,  under  Ood,  wholly  consist 
and  depend,  the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  and  Commons,  do  beseech  their 
majesties  that  it  may  be  enacted,  estab- 
lished, and  declared,  that  the  crown  and 
regal  government  of  the  said  kingdoms 
and  dominions,  with  all  and  singular  the 
premises  thereunto  belonging  and  apper- 
taining, shall  be  and  continue  to  their 
said  majesties,  simI  the  survivor  of  them, 
during  their  Uves,  and  the  lUe  of  the 
survivor  of  them.  And  that  the  entire, 
perfect,  and  full  exerdss  of  the  regal 
power  and  government  be  only  in  and 
executed  by  his  ma^nij,  in  the  names  of 
both  their  misJesties  during  their  Joint 
lives;  and  after  their  deceases  the  said 
crown  and  premises  shall  be  and  remain 
to  the  heirs  of  the  body  of  her  majesty ; 
and  for  defimlt  of  soch  issue,  to  her  royal 
highness  the  princess  Anne  of  Denmark 
and  tbe  heirs  of  her  body ;  and  for  de&ult 
of  such  Issue,  to  the  heirs  of  the  body  of 
his  said  miO«>t7 :  -And  thereunto  the  said 
Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Com- 
mons, do,  in  the  name  of  all  the  people 
aforesaid,  most  bnmbly  and  foithfuUy 
submit  themselves,  their  heirs  and  pos- 
terities for  ever;  and  do  foithftilly  pro- 
mise that  they  will  stand  to,  maintain, 
and  defend  their  said  mi^^eties,  and  also 
the  limitation  and  succession  of  the 
crown  herein  specified  and  contained,  to 
the  utmost  of  their  powere,  with  their 
lives  and  eaUtes,  against  sU  persons 
whatsoever  that  shall  attempt  anything 
to  the  contrary. 

DL.  And  whereas  it  hath  been  found  by 
experience  that  it  is  inconsistent  with  the 
safoty  and  welfare  of  this  protestant  king- 
dom to  be  governed  by  a  popish  prince, 
or  by  any  king  or  queen  marrying  a 
papist ,  the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and  Tem- 
poral, and  Commons,  do  further  pray  that 
it  may  be  enacted,  that  all  and  every  per- 
son and  persons  that  is.  are,  or  shall  be 
reconciled  to,  or  shall  hold  communion 
with,  the  see  or  church  of  Bome,  or  shall 
profess  the  popish  religion,  or  shall  marry 
a  papist,  shall  be  excluded,  and  be  for 
ever  inmpable  to  inherit,  possess,  or  enjoy 
the  crown  and  government  of  this  realm, 
snd  Ireland,  and  the  dominions  thereunto 


belonging,  or  any  part  of  the  same,  or  to 
have,  use,  or  exercise  any  regal  power, 
anthority,  or  Jurlsuiction  within  the  same ; 
and  in  all  and  every  such  case  or  esses 
the  people  of  these  realms  shall  be  and 
are  hereby  absolved  of  their  allegiance ; 
and  the  said  crowu  and  government  shall 
from  time  to  time  descend  to,  and  be  en- 
Joyed  by,  such  person  or  persons,  being 
protestants,  as  should  have  inherited  and 
ei^yed  the  same  in  case  the  said  person 
or  persons  so  reomciled,  holding  com- 
munion, or  professing,  or  marrying  as 
aforesaid,  were  naturally  dead. 

X.  And  that  every  king  and  queen  of 
this  realm  who  at  any  time  hereafter  shall 
oome  to  and  succeed  In  the  imperial 
crown  of  this  kingdom  shall,  on  tbe  first 
day  of  the  meeting  of  the  first  parliament 
next  after  his  or  her  coming  to  the  crown, 
sitting  in  his  or  her  throne  in  the  House 

I  of  Peers,  in  the  presence  of  the  Lords  and 
Commons  therein  assembled,  or  at  his  or 
her  coronstion,  before  such  person  or 
persons  who  shall  administer  the  corona- 
tion oath  to  him  or  her,  at  tht  time  of  his 
or  ber  taking  the  said  oath  (whicb  shall 
first  happen),  make,  subscribe,  and  audibly 
repeat  the  declaration  mentioned  In  the 
statute  made  in  the  13th  year  of  the  reign 
of  king  Charles  II.,  InUtuled,  **An  Act  for 
the  more  effectual  preserving  tbe  King's 
Person  and  Government,  by  disabling 
Papists  from  sitting  in  either  House  of 
Parliament."  But  if  it  shall  happen  that 
such  king  or  queen,  upon  his  or  her  suc- 
cession to  the  crown  of  this  realm,  shall 
be  under  the  age  of  twelve  years,  then 
every  such  king  or  queen  shall  make, 
subscribe,  and  audibly  repeat  the  said 
declaration  at  his  or  her  coronation,  or 
i  the  first  day  of  meeting  of  the  first  par- 
I  lisment  as  aforesaid,  which  shall  first 
j  happen,  after  such  king  or  queen  shall 
have  attained  the  said  age  of  twelve 
years. 

XI.  All  which  their  majesties  are  con- 
tented and  pleaHTd  shall  be  declared, 
enacted,  and  e!*Uibli»hcd  by  authority  of 
this  present  ptrliAment.  and  shall  stand, 
remain,  and  be  the  law  of  this  realm  for 
ever;  and  the  same  are  by  their  said 
miyjesties,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Tem- 
poral, and  Commons,  in  parliament  ss- 
sembled.  and  by  the  authority  of  the 
same,  declared,  enacted,  or  established 
accordingly. 


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548 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa       Cbat,  xxm 


XIL  And  be  it  ftvtber  deoltfed  and 
enacted  by  the  anthoritj  elbreeeld,  that 
from  and  after  this  preeent  aeeston  of 
parliament  no  dispensation  bj  fum  ob- 
itanU  of  or  to  any  statute,  or  any  part 
thereof,  shall  be  allowed,  bnt  that  the 
same  shall  be  held  void  and  of  no  effect, 
except  a  dispensation  be  allowed  of  in 
0iich  statate,  and  except  in  such  cases  as 
shall  be  specially  provided  for  lirr  one  or 


more  bill  or  bUls  to  be  passed  during  tUi 
present  session  of  parliament. 

Xm.  Provided  that  no  charter,  or 
grant,  or  pardon  granted  belbre  the  SSrd 
day  of  October,  in  the  year  of  our  LonI 
1689,  shall  be  any  ways  impeached  or  fai* 
validated  by  this  act,  bat  that  the  ssme 
shall  be  and  remain  of  the  same  force  avi 
eillBct  in  law,  and  no  other  than  as  if  this 
act  had  never  been  made. 


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Medal  of  queen  Anne,  in  honour  of  the  Unkm,  ■track  at  Leipilg. 
Obr. :  AmtA  D .  0  .  mao  .  n  vkttm  bbit ji  .  fba  .  r  hib  .  bsoiva.    Bast,  crowned 
to  left.    ReT. :  bt  bxtbbis  btiam  qbata.    Two  female  flgorea.  standing.  Joining 
wieaUiB ;  behind  them,  view  of  a  city. 


CHAPTER  XXVm. 

QUBKN  ANNE,  h,  A.D.  1666 ;  r.  1702-1714. 

§  1.  Accession  and  coronation  of  Anne.  Influence  of  lord  and  ladj  Marl- 
borough.  Campaign  of  1702.  Success  at  Vigo.  §  2.  Marlborough 
made  a  duke.  His  intrigues.  State  of  |>artie.s.  §  3.  Campaigns  of 
1703  and  1704.  Battle  of  Blenheim.  Taking  of  Gibraltar.  §4.  Cam- 
paigns of  1705  and  1706.  Battle  of  Kamillies.  §  5.  Union  with 
Scotland.  §  6.  Campaigns  of  1707,  1708,  and  1709.  Battles  of 
Oudenarde  and  Malplaquet.  §  7.  Decline  of  Marlborough's  influence. 
§  8.  Trial  of  Dr.  Sacheverell.  Change  of  ministry.  Character  of  the 
times.  §  9.  New  parliament.  Harley  stabbed.  Becomes  lord  treasurer 
and  earl  of  Oxford.  Act  against  occasional  conformity,  and  Schism  Act. 
§  10.  Marlborough  accused  of  peculation,  and  censured  by  the  commons. 
Proceedings  in  Flanders.  The  duke  of  Ormond  withdraws  the  English 
forces  from  the  allies.  §  11.  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  §  12.  Manoeuvres  of 
the  Jacobites  and  Hanoyerians.  §  13.  Rupture  between  Oxford  and 
Bolingbroke  Oxford  dismissed.  The  duke  of  Shrewsbury  appointed 
treasurer.     Death  and  character  of  the  queen. 

§  1.  On  the  demise  of  William,  Anne,  princess  of  Denmark,  imme- 
diately ascended  the  throne  by  virtue  of  the  act  of  1689,  and  was 
proclaimed  on  the  8th  of  March,  1702.  On  the  12th  of  April  the 
late  king  was  privately  interred,  and  on  the  23rd  the  queen  was 
crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Somers,  Halifax,  and  other  whig 
leaders,  were  not  admitted  to  the  privy  council ;  the  marq  uess 
of  Normanby  *  was  made  privy  seal  (April  21) ;  lord  (jodolphin,  lord 


•  John    Sheffield,  marquess   of  Nor- 
manby, was  created  duke  of  Buckingham 
in  1763.    The  title  became  extinct  on  the 
26* 


death  of  his  son  in  1T92.  The  present 
marquess  of  Normanby  belongs  to  a  differ- 
ent family. 


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550  ANNS.  Chap,  xxtql 

high  treasurer  (May  12) ;  the  earl  of  Nottingham  and  sir  Charles 
Hedges,  principal  secretaries  of  state  (May  2).  Marlhorough,  who 
had  been  the  faithful  friend  of  Anne  when  she  was  of  little  account 
with  the  nation,  received  the  most  substantial  marks  of  her  fetYour. 
He  was  made  a  knight  of  the  garter,  and  captain-general  of  all  the 
queen's  forces ;  and,  towards  the  end  of  March,  he  had  proceeded  to 
Holland  in  the  character  of  extraordinary  ambassador.  Anne  was 
entirely  governed  by  lady  Marlborough,  who  ruled  her  through  the 
ascendency  which  a  strong  mind  naturally  exercises  over  a  weak 
one.  In  their  confidential  intercourse  all  titles  and  ceremony  were 
dropped:  Anne  became  Mrs.  Morley,  and  lady  Marlborough  Mrs. 
Freeman — a  name  that  expressed  the  character  of  her  influence. 
Prince  George  of  Denmark,  who  was  even  weaker  than  his  consort 
the  queen,  yielded  without  a  struggle  to  all  these  arrangements; 
and  Marlborough  ahd  his  wife  might  almost  be  regarded  as  the 
sovereigns  of  England. 

Soon  after  her  accession,  Anne  had  notified  to  her  allies  abroad 
her  determination  to  pursue  the  policy  of  the  late  king ;  and  when 
Marlborough  returned  from  his  embassy,  war  was  at  his  instance 
declared  against  France  and  Spain  (May  4).  In  July  Marlborough 
assumed  the  command  of  the  allied  army  in  Flanders ;  and,  though 
he  was  disappointed  in  bringing  the  enemy  to  a  general  engagement^ 
he  finished  the  campaign  with  reputation  by  reducing  Venloo,  Rure- 
monde,  and  the  citadel  of  Lidge,  by  which  he  obtained  the  command 
of  the  Meuse. 

In  Italy  and  (Germany  the  campaign  was  not  marked  by  any  im- 
portant event.  At  sea  the  English  and  Dutch  combined  fleets 
under  sir  George  Rooke,  with  12,000  troops  on  board  commanded 
by  the  duke  of  Ormond,  after  making  an  unsuccessful  attempt  upon 
Cadiz,  proceeded  to  Vigo,  where  the  Spanish  galleons  had  just 
arrived  under  convoy  of  80  French  men-of-war.  The  allies  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  six  vessels;  13  were  sunk  or  burnt.  AD  the 
galleons  were  cither  taken  or  destroyed ;  and  though  the  greatest 
part  of  the  treasure  had  been  carried  oflF,  yet  the  English  and  Dutch 
obtained  a  large  booty  (October  12).  In  the  same  summer  admiral 
Benbow,  commander  of  the  English  fleet  in  the  West  Indies,  dis- 
played the  most  distinguished  valour,  in  sustaining  five  days,  when 
deserted  by  several  of  his  captains,  a  fight  against  a  French  fleot 
of  much  superior  force  (August  24).  His  own  ship  was  reduced  to 
a  mere  wreck ;  he  was  wounded  in  the  arm  and  face,  and  had  his  leg 
shot  away ;  but  he  contrived  to  get  into  Kingston,  Jamaica,  where 
he  died  soon  after  of  his  wounds  (November  4).  He  had  ordered 
four  of  his  captains  to  be  tried  by  a  court-martial,  two  of  whom  were 
condemned  and  shot ;  one  was  cashiered,  and  another  died  previously 
to  his  trial  (October  8> 


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Ajx  1703-1708.     MARLBOROUGH  CREATED  A  DUKE.  561 

§  2.  The  new  parliament  met  (October  20) ;  and  a  committee  of 
the  commons  presented  Marlborough,  who  had  now  returned  to 
England,  with  the  thanks  of  the  house.  The  queen  created  him  a 
duke,  and  settled  on  him  for  life  a  pension  of  5000Z.  a  year,  payable 
out  of  the  revenue  of  the  post-office.  She  likewise  desired  the 
commons  to  settle  the  pension  for  ever  on  the  heirs  male  of  his 
body ;  but  they  received  the  message  in  silence  and  astonishment, 
and  after  a  warm  debate  the  proposal  was  rejected.  Marlborough 
was  unpopular  for  his  avarice,  his  meanness,  and  his  political 
delinquencies.  Notwithstanding  his  high  post,  he  was  suspected 
of  listening  to  the  intrigues  of  the  court  of  St.  Germains  to  obtain 
the  repeal  of  the  act  of  settlement ;  and  Anne  herself  was  thought 
to  be  not  averse  to  the  succession  of  the  Pretender.  To  stimulate 
Marlborough's  exertions,  a  marriage  was  proposed  between  his 
third  daughter  and  the  prince  of  Wales ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  Hanoverians,  hearing  of  this  project,  started  a  counter  one  of 
a  marriage  between  the  same  lady  and  the. electoral  prince.  At 
this  period  a  strong  Jacobite  fiction  existed  in  the  kingdom.  The 
House  of  Lords  were  much  more  whiggish  than  the  commons.  To 
support  the  court  interests.  Finch,  Qower,  Granville,  and  Seymour, 
four  tories,  were  raised  to  the  peerage,  and  other  lords  were  advanced 
to  higher  titles.  A  bill  brought  into  the  commons  (November, 
1703)  to  prevent  occasional  conformity,  was  defeated  by  a  majority 
of  12  in  the  lords,  11  of  the  bishops  voting  against  it.  They  also 
presented  an  address  to  the  queen  in  behalf  of  the  protestant  succes- 
sion and  the  princess  Sophia. 

§  3.  In  1703  the  defection  of  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and  of  Peter  XL, 
king  of  Portugal,  who  joined  the  Grand  Alliance,  proved  a  great 
blow  to  the  affairs  of  Louis,  particularly  as  the  latter  event  opened 
a  way  for  the  allies  into  the  heart  of  Spain.  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, the  campaign  of  this  year  was  in  favour  of  the  French. 
They  gained  several  advantages  in  Germany,  and  their  allies  the 
Bavarians  pressed  hard  upon  the  Austrians.  Marlborough  was 
more  fortunate.  Bonn  surrendered  to  him  on  the  15th  of  May, 
after  a  siege  of  12  days.  He  took  the  fortresses  of  Huy,  Limburg, 
and  Gueldres ;  but  as  the  numerous  towns  which  the  French  had 
garrisoned  in  the  Low  Countries  had  reduced  the  strength  of  their 
army,  they  were  cautious  in  taking  the  open  field,  and  all  Marl- 
borough's endeavours  to  draw  them  to  an  engagement  proved 
unsuccessful.  In  spite  of  his  ill  success,  the  emperor,  renouncing, 
in  his  own  name  and  in  that  of  his  eldest  son,  all  pretension  to  the 
throne  of  Spain,  en  used  his  second  son  to  be  crowned  king  of  that 
country,  with  the  title  of  Charles  III.  Towar«ls  the  end  of  the  year 
the  new-made  monarch  arrived  at  Spithead ;  and,  after  visiting  the 


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552  ANNE.  Chap.  xxTin. 

queen  at  Windsor,  proceeded  on  his  way  to  Portugal.  His  title 
was  acknowledged  by  all  the  allies.  Shortly  before  hin  arrival 
(November  26),  England  had  been  visited  by  the  greatest  storm 
ever  known  in  this  country.  Whole  forests  were  uprooted,  and  the 
damage  in  London  alone  was  estimated  at  1,000,000^.  At  sea  12 
ships  of  the  royal  navy  were  cast  away,  besides  a  great  number  of 
merchantmen,  and  1500  men  were  lost  in  the  royal  navy. 

The  campugn  of  the  last  year  having  rendered  the  allies  masters 
of  the  Meuse  and  of  Spanirii  Guelderland,  Marlborough  conceived 
a  bolder  and  more  extensive  plan  of  operations  for  1704.  As  Leopold 
was  hard  pressed  by  the  French  and  Bavarians,  Marlborough  con- 
certed arrangements  for  his  relief  with  prince  Eugene.  Directing 
his  march  on  Maestricht,  and  thence  through  Juliers  to  Ooblentz,  he 
crossed  the  Rhine  at  that  place ;  then  passing  the  Main  and  Neckar, 
he  was  joined  by  prince  Eugene  at  Mindelsheim.  Hence  the  latter 
proceeded  to  Philipsburg,  to  take  the  command  of  the  army  of  the 
Upper  Rhine ;  and  Marlborough,  pursuing  his  march  towards  the 
Danube,  formed  a  junction  with  the  imperialists  under  prince 
Louis  of  Baden  at  Winterstellen.  The  allied  forces,  consisting  of 
96  battalions  of  foot  and  202  squadrons  of  horse  and  dragoons,  and 
having  48  pieces  of  cannon,  encamped  on  the  river  Brenz  (June  28), 
within  two  leagues  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria's  army.  The  enemy's 
force  was  inferior,  consisting  of  88  battalions  and  160  squadrons 
only ;  but  they  were  much  stronger  in  artillery,  having  90  guns 
and  40  mortars  and  howitzers.  On  the  2nd  July  the  allies  attacked 
and  took  Donauwerth,  thus  separating  the  enemy's  forces  on  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Danube,  and  securing  a  bridge  over  that  river. 
The  loss  was  great  on  both  sides ;  and  the  elector  retreated  towards 
Augsburg,  followed  by  the  allies.  Both  armies,  however,  soon 
received  an  accession  of  force^the  Bavarians  being  joined  by  the 
French  under  marshal  Tallard,  and  Marlborough  by  prince  Eugene, 
who  had  followed  Tallard  through  the  Black  Forest.  The  forces  on 
each  side  now  amounted  to  between  50,000  and  60,000  men,  but 
the  enemy  were  rather  superior.  They  were  encamped  on  a  height 
near  Hochstadt,  with  the  Danube  on  their  right ;  and  the  village 
of  Blenheim,  which  lies  on  the  Danube,  was  a  little  in  front  of  their 
right  wing.  Their  left  was  covered  by  a  thick  wood,  and  consider- 
ably in  advance  of  their  front  was  a  rivulet  and  morass.  Notwith- 
standing the  strength  of  their  position,  Marlborough  resolved  to 
attack  them.  Marshal  Tallard,  who  commanded  the  enemy's  right, 
and  who  was  opposed  to  Marlborough  at  the  head  of  the  allied  left, 
conceiving  that  Blenheim  would  be  the  principal  object  of  attack, 
had  occupied  that  village  with  28  battalions  and  eight  squadrons  of 
dragoons — a  fetal  error,  by  which  he  weakened  the  centre  of  his  line. 


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▲.D.  1708-1704.        BATTLE  OF  BLENHEIM.  653 

Marlborough  passed  the  rivulet  and  morass  without  opposition  ; 
and,  directing  some  of  his  infantry  to  attack  Blenheim,  and  another 
village  which  the  enemy  had  occupied,  led  his  cavalry  and  the 
remainder  of  his  forces  against  Tallard.  The  struggle  was  long  and 
desperate,  but  at  length  the  enemy's  right  was  completely  routed, 
and  numbers  were  put  to  the  sword  or  driven  into  the  Danube. 
All  the  enemy's  troops  that  had  been  thrown  into  Blenhdm,  being 
cut  oflf  from  the  main  body,  were  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion, 
Prince  Eugene,  who  commanded  the  right  of  the  allies,  could  make 
no  impression  against  the  elector  of  &yaria  and  marshal  Marsin 
till  after  the  defeat  of  Tallard,  when  the  Bavarians  made  a  speedy 
and  skilful  retreat  in  three  columns.  The  French  and  Bavarians 
lost  more  than  half  of  their  army  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners ; 
and  marshal  Tallard  himself  was  captured,  together  with  the  camp, 
baggage,  and  artillery.  The  loss  of  the  allies,  however,  was  also 
very  great,  amounting  to  about  12,000  killed  and  wounded,  August  2 
(13  N.S.),  1704.  The  elector  and  marshal  Marsin  retreated  on  Ulm, 
whence  they  joined  marshal  Villeroi  on  the  Rhine. 

This  victory  decided  the  fete  of  Germany.  The  elector  of 
Bavaria,  whose  troops  had  lately  alarmed  Vienna  itself,  not  only 
lost  his  conquests,  but  even  his  own  dominions  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  emperor.  The  remains  of  the  vanquished  army  were  obliged 
to  cross  the  Rhine ;  and  the  victors  also  entered  Alsace,  and  took 
the  important  fortresses  of  Landau  and  Traerbach.  Marlborough 
repaired  to  Berlin,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  king  of  Prussia, 
who  engaged  to  assist  the  duke  6f  Savoy  with  8000  men ;  and 
thence  proceeding  to  Hanover  and  the  Hague,  sirrived  in  London 
(December  14),  accompanied  by  marshal  Tallard  and  26  other 
prisoners  of  distinction.  He  received  the  thanks  and  congratulations 
of  the  queen,  and  of  both  houses  of  parliament ;  the  royal  manor  of 
Woodstock  was  granted  to  him,  and  a  splendid  mansion  erected 
upon  it,  which  received  the  name  of  Blenheim  from  the  place  of  his 
victory. 

In  Flanders  the  campaign  was  wholly  defensive  and  unimpor- 
tant ;  in  Italy  the  balance  of  success  inclined  to  the  French.  In 
the  Spanish  peninsula  Philip  V.,  the  new  king  of  Spain,  obtained 
some  advantages  in  an  invasion  of  Portugal ;  whilst  Charles  III., 
who  had  landed  in  that  country  in  March,  with  8000  English  and 
Dutch  troops,  was  repulsed  by  the  duke  of  Berwick  in  an  attempt 
which  he  made  upon  Castile,  in  conjunction  with  the  king  of 
Portugal  After  landing  Charles  III.  at  Lisbon,  and  making  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  upon  Barcelona,  Rooke  attacked  and  took 
GKbraltar,  ten  days  before  the  battle  of  Blenheim  (July  23, 1704). 
Subsequently,  in  coAJunction  with  the  Dutch  adniiral  Culemberg, 


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554  ANKE.  Ohap.  xxrm. 

he  fell  in,  ofif  Maiaga,  with  a  French  fleet  of  52  ships  under  the 
oount  of  Toulouse,  which  had  been  despatched  to  assist  the  Spaniards 
in  recovering  Gibraltar,  llie  combat  ended  in  a  drawn  battle^  and 
Gibraltar  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  English. 

§4.  In  the  following  year  (1705),  the  earl  of  Peterborough, 
having  embarked  with  a  land  force  on  board  the  fleet  of  sir 
Cloudesley  Shovel,  and  being  joined  by  a  Dutch  squadron  under 
admiral  Allemonde,  proceeded  to  the  coast  of  Catalonia.  Bar- 
celona capitulated  after  a  siege;  the  fortresses  of  Lerida  and 
Tortosa  were  taken  without  a  blow;  and  almost  the  whole  of 
Valencia  and  Catalonia  acknowledged  Charles  III. 

In  the  Netherlands,  Marlborough,  at  the  request  of  the  Dutch, 
confined  his  operations  to  the  defence  of  their  frontier.  Leopold 
died  this  year  (May  5),  and  was  succeeded  by  hb  son  Joseph  L, 
who  had  more  talents  and  enterprise  than  his  fiilher.  Marlborough 
paid  him  a  visit  towards  winter  at  Vienna,  when  the  principality 
of  Mindelsheim  was  conferred  upon  him,  with  the  rank  of  a  prince 
of  the  empire.  On  the  whole,  the  campaigns  in  Germany  and 
Italy  were  favourable  to  the  French. 

Marlborough  compensated  for  his  inactivity  in  1705  by  the 
brilliant  victory  of  Bamillibs,  near  Tirlemont,  (i;ained  over  marshal 
ViUeroi,  May  12  (23  N.S.)  1706.  The  forces  were  nearly  equal  on 
both  sides ;  but  the  French  were  totally  defeated,  with  a  loss  ofabout 
14,000  men,  killed,  wounded,  or  prisoners,  whilst  the  loss  of  the 
allies  amounted  to  3500.  Towards  night  the  rout  of  the  French 
became  complete.  They  lost  about  120  colours,  100  pieces  of 
artillery,  and  a  vast  quantity  of  baggage.  The  consequence  of  this 
victory  was  the  conquest  of  Brabant,  and  almost  all  Spanish 
Flanders.  In  return  for  these  achievements  the  English  parliament 
perpetuated  Marlborough's  titles  in  the  feniale  as  well  as  the  male 
line,  and  continued  the  pension  of  5000^.  granted  by  the  queen  to 
his  fiunily  for  ever. 

The  victory  over  the  French  at  Turin,  by  prince  Eugene  and  the 
duke  of  Savoy,  put  an  end  to  i^  the  hopes  of  the  Bourbons  in 
Italy.  In  Spain  the  Anglo-Portuguese  army,  under  the  earl  of 
Gralway  (Ruvigny)  and  the  marquis  do  lat<  Minas,  penetrated  to 
Madrid.  Philip  V.  abandoned  his  capital  and  retired  to  Burgos; 
but  Ghdway  and  Las  Minas,  neglecting  to  pursue  their  advantages, 
were  ultimately  driven  from  the  Spanish  capital  by  the  duke  of 
Berwick,  and  obliged  to  retire  into  Valencia.  In  the  same  year  the 
English  fleet,  under  sir  John  Leake,  took  Majorca  and  Iviza,  and 
reduced  them  under  the  authority  of  Charles  IIL 

§  5.  As  the  succession  to  the  orown  was  soon  to  be  diverted  into 
a  new  line,  the  project  of  a  Union  with  Scotland,  which  had 


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A.D.  1705-1707.  UNION  WITH  SCOTLAND.  555 

occasionally  engaged  the  attention  of  statesmen  from  the  time  of 
James  I.,  now  became  urgent  Anne,  in  her  speech  to  her  first 
parliament,  had  recommended  it  as  mdispensable  to  the  peace  and 
security  of  both  kingdoms.  William,  anxious  for  the  \mion,  had 
neglected  to  provide  for  the  succession  to  the  Scottish  crown ;  and 
a  large  party  in  that  country,  headed  by  the  duke  of  Hamilton, 
were  in  favour  of  the  Stuarts.  A  bill  for  the  Hanoverian  succession 
was  rejected  by  the  Scotch  parliament  with  every  mark  of  anger 
and  contempt ;  many  were  for  sending  lord  Marchmont,  its  pro- 
poser, to  the  castle  of  Edinburgh ;  and  it  was  carried  by  a  large 
majority  that  all  record  of  it  should  be  expimged  from  their  pro- 
ceedings (1703).  Exasperated  by  the  fedlure  of  the  Darien  scheme, 
the  Scotch  passed  an  "  Act  of  Security,"  by  which  it  was  provided 
that  the  parliament  should  meet  on  the  twentieth  day  after  the 
queen's  decease  to  elect  a  successor,  who  should  not  be  the  successor 
to  the  crown  of  England,  unless  under  conditions  which  might  secure 
the  honour  and  independence  of  Scotland.  The  queen  refused  her 
assent  to  this  bill ;  but  in  the  following  year  (August  5,  1704)  she 
thought  proper  to  allow  another  bill,  to  the  same  effect,  to  be 
touched  with  the  sceptre,  of  which  the  main  proviso  was  that  the 
successor  to  the  crown  should  be  a  protestant  of  the  royal  line  of 
Scotland,  and  at  the  same  time  not  the  successor  to  the  English 
crown.  As  the  house  of  Hanover  was  thus  excluded,  the  duke  of 
Hamilton  himself,  the  great  promoter  of  the  bill,  seemed  in  a  fair 
way  to  obtain  the  crown. 

Against  this  Act  of  Security  the  English  parliament  resolved  to 
provide  by  an  Act  of  Security  of  its  own.  It  was  resolved  that 
no  Scotchmen,  not  actually  residing  in  England  or  Ireland,  should 
enjoy  the  privileges  of  Englishmen  till  a  union  of  the  two  king- 
doms should  be  effected,  or  the  succession  made  identical  in  Scotland 
and  England;  that  the  bringing  of  Scotch  cattle  into  England, 
and  of  English  wool  into  Scotland,  should  be  prohibited ;  and  that 
the  fleet  should  have  orders  to  seize  all  Scotch  vessels  trading  with 
France.  These  resolutions,  which  were  almost  equivalent  to  a 
declaration  of  war,  were  reduced  into  a  bill ;  and  another  act  was 
passed  to  appoint  commissioners  to  treat  of  a  union.  The  lords 
also  addressed  the  queen  to  fortify  Newcastle,  Tynemouth,  Carlisle, 
and  Hull,  to  call  out  the  militia  of  the  four  northern  counties, 
and  to  station  an  adequate  number  of  regular  troops  on  the  Scottish 
borders.  The  commons  rejected  the  proposed  bill  on  the  groimd 
that  the  fines  levied  by  it  rendered  it  a  money  bill;  but  they 
passed  another  to  the  same  effect  (February  3, 1705),  which  went 
through  the  lords  without  any  amendment. 

The  question  of  union  was  again  introduced  into  th«  Scotch 


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656  ANNE.  Ohap.  txjixl 

parliament,  with  so  much  sucoess  that  commissioners  were  ap- 
pointed to  repair  to  London  and  discass  the  terms.  These  were 
accepted  the  next  year,  and  the  discussion  was  reopened  in  the 
Scotch  parliament.  The  following  were  the  more  important  among 
tiie  articles  agreed  upon: — ^That  the  two  kingdoms  should  be 
united  under  the  name  of  Great  Britain ;  that  the  succession  should 
be  yested  in  the  I'rincess  Sophia  and  her  heirs,  being  protestants; 
that  there  should  be  but  one  parliament  of  the  united  kingdom, 
to  which  16  Scotch  peers  and  45  commoners  should  be  elected; 
that  there  should  be  complete  freedom  of  trade  and  navigation 
throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  and  a  reciprocation  of  all  rights, 
privileges,  and  advantages. 

These  articles  were  highly  unpopular  in  Scotland  ;  but  without 
the  succour  of  France  it  seemed  hopeless  to  resist  them,  and  the 
reverses  of  Louis  in  the  war  put  it  out  of  his  power  to  assist  the 
Pretender.  In  the  parliament,  indeed,  where  the  peers  and  com- 
mons sat  in  one  house,  a  spirited  opposition  was  led  by  the  duko 
of  Hamilton  and  Fletcher  of  Saltoun,  and  during  the  progress  of 
the  debates  violent  tumults  occurred  in  Edinburgh.  The  lower 
classes  of  the  Scotch,  and  especially  the  presbyterians  of  the  west, 
were  almost  universally  opposed  to  the  union,  and  offers  were  made 
to  Hamilton  from  various  quarters  to  march  to  Edinburgh  and 
disperse  the  parliament  But  that  nobleman,  though  loud  in 
debate,  was  timid  in  action.  He  would  not  listen  to  such  vigorous 
counsels ;  and  he  even  shrank  from  an  agreement  which  he  had 
made  with  his  adherents,  to  protest  against  the  measure,  and  quit 
the  parliament  in  a  body.  All  the  articles  were  eventually  adopted 
by  a  large  majority  (January  16, 1707). 

The  nobles  favourable  to  the  arrangement  endeavoured  to  soothe 
the  angry  passions  of  the  people ;  others  were  brought  over  by  pro- 
mises and  bribes,  some  of  very  insignificant  amount  The  clergy 
were  won  by  the  assurance  that  presbyterianism  should  be  the  only 
recognized  religion  in  Scotland,  whilst  a  general  indemnity  was 
promised  for  the  losses  the  Scotch  had  incurred  in  the  Darien  scheme. 
The  Union  Bill  received  the  royal  assent  (March  6, 1707).  The 
union  was  appointed  to  commence  on  May  1,  which  was  made 
a  day  of  thanksgiving;  and  the  first  parliament  of  Great  Britain 
was  to  meet  on  the  23rd  of  the  following  October. 

§  6.  As  the  allies,  flushed  with  their  good  fortune,  rejected  the 
French  king's  overtures  for  a  peace,  Louis  made  vigorous  pre- 
parations. The  year  opened  for  him  with  a  gleam  of  success,  by 
the  recapture  of  Majorca  by  the  count  de  Villars  (January  5, 
1707).  In  Spain  also,  Galway  and  Las  Minas  were  defeated  by 
the  duke  of  Berwick  at  Almanza :  Arragon  was  again  reduced  under 


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A.D.  1707-1708.  PROOBESS  OF  THE  WAR  557 

the  authority  of  Philip  V.,  and  Charles  IIL  maintained  himself  only 
in  Catalonia.  But  in  (Germany  the  French  were  eyentually  obliged 
to  recross  the  Rhine;  and  by  the  capitulation  of  Milan,  signed 
in  March,  they  agreed  to  eyacuate  Italy.  This  event  left  prince 
Eugene  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  at  liberty  to  invade  France.  Accord- 
ingly they  passed  the  Yar,  and,  advancing  along  the  coast  of 
Provence,  appeared  before  Toulon  on  the  17th  of  July,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  blockaded  it  by  sea.  The  French, 
however,  had  thrown  8000  men  into  Tonlon  a  few  hours  before  the 
arrival  of  prince  Eugene ;  and  by  their  vigorous  defence,  the  advance 
of  the  duke  of  Burgundy  with  a  considerable  force,  and  the  ill  con- 
dition of  the  invading  army,  the  allies  were  compelled  to  abandon 
the  enterprise. 

A  terrible  fate  overtook  rir  Cloudesley  Shovel  and  his  fleet  on 
their  return.  That  admiral  sailed  from  GKbraltar  on  the  29th 
September  with  a  fleet  of  15  sail  of  the  lino  and  some  frigates.  On 
October  22  they  arrived  in  the  mouth  of  the  Channel,  when,  by 
some  mistake  in  the  course,  the  admiral's  ship,  tlie  Association, 
striking  on  some  rocks  to  the  west  of  the  Scilly  Islands,  foundered, 
and  all  on  board  perished.  The  Eagle  and  the  Bomney  met  with  the 
same  fate.  The  St,  George  struck  on  the  rocks,  but  was  washed  ofif 
again.  Shovel  had  raised  himself  by  his  abilities  and  courage  from 
the  station  of  a  common  sailor. 

The  campaign  in  Flanders  produced  no  remarkable  action. 
Louis  XIV.  was  sinking  into  dotage,  and  had  surrendered  himself 
to  the  government  of  Madame  de  Maintenon.  Tet  the  resources 
of  France  were  still  able  to  inspire  alarm.  Early  in  1708  a 
squadron  of  frigates  and  small  ships  of  war  was  collected  at  Dim- 
kirk ;  troops  were  marched  thither  from  the  surrounding  garrisons : 
and  on  the  6th  of  March  the  Pretender  put  to  sea  with  5000  men 
under  his  command  for  the  purpose  of  invading  England.  But  his 
fleet  was  dispersed  by  admiral  Byng,  and  returned  one  by  one  to 
Dunkirk  The  alarm  created  a  run  upon  the  Bank ;  loyal  addresses 
were  presented  to  the  queen  by  both  houses,  the  commons  suspended 
the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and  the  country  bristled  with  military 
preparations. 

Ghent  and  Bruges,  disgusted  with  the  extortions  of  the  allies,  in 
which  Marlborough  and  Cadogan  are  said  to  have  been  implicated, 
opened  their  gates  to  the  French,  who  directed  their  march  towards 
Antwerp,  and  laid  siege  to  Oudenardb.  Here  they  were  signally 
defeated  by  Marlborough  (July  1 1, 1708).  In  this  battle  the  electoral 
prince  of  Hanover,  afterwards  George  II.,  gave  distinguished  proofs 
of  valour.  The  more  important  operations  of  this  campaign  were 
the  capture  of  Lille,  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Flanders,  after 


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558  ANKE.  Chap,  xxyixl 

a  four  monthB'  riege,  the  compelliDg  the  elector  of  Bayaria  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Brussels,  and  the  recovery  of  Bruges  and  Ghent  The 
duke  of  Vend6me,  who  commanded  the  French  armj,  was  recdved 
so  coldly  hy  Louis,  that  he  retired  to  one  of  his  estates ;  being  Uie 
fifth  marshal  of  France  who  had  been  driven  from  the  service  by 
Marlborough's  successes. 

In  the  same  year  general  Stanhope  became  master  of  the  island 
of  Minorca,  by  the  capture  of  Port  Mahon  (September  30). 

The  misfortunes  of  Louis  prompted  him  to  sue  for  peace,  and  in 
1709  conferences  were  opened  at  the  Hague.  The  marquis  de  Torcy, 
the  French  ambassador,  was  instructed  to  offer  the  most  liberml 
terms,  and  he  at  last  agreed  that  Philip  should  relinquish  the  whde 
of  the  Spanish  succession,  with  the  exception  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 
But  as  the  allies  refused  even  these,  and  their  demands  appeared 
worse  than  a  continuance  of  hostilities,  the  pride  of  the  French  was 
roused,  and  they  determined  to  resist  to  the  utmost. 

In  June,  1709,  Marlborough  assumed  the  command  of  the  allied 
army  in  Flanders,  amounting  to  about  110,000  men.  After  taking 
Tournay,  one  of  the  strongest  places  in  the  Netherlands,  the  allies 
appeared  before  Mons.  To  relieve  it,  marshal  Yillars  intrenched 
himself  at  Malplaquet,  a  league  from  the  town.  From  this  post 
he  was  driven  by  the  allies,  after  a  most  sanguinary  conflict,  in  which 
the  latter  lost  about  20,000  men,  while  the  loss  of  the  French  did 
not  exceed  12,000  (September  11).  The  surrender  of  Mons  (October 
CO)  finished  the  campaign  in  Flanders. 

Negociations  for  a  peace  were  again  opened  in  March,  1710. 
Though  France  was  willing  to  make  further  concessions,  the  allies 
rose  in  their  demands,  and,  not  satisfied  that  Louis  should  renounce 
Spain  for  his  grandson,  insisted  that  he  should  actually  assist  them 
in  expelling  him.  The  war  continued.  The  allies  took  Douay, 
Bethune,  St.  Yenant.  and  Aire,  but  with  the  loss  of  26,000  men. 
In  Spain  Philip  V.  was  defeated  by  count  Staremberg  at  Almenara, 
and  still  more  decisively  at  Saragossa.  General  Stanhope,  with 
5000  British  troops,  had  a  great  share  in  this  victory.  On  Sep- 
tember 21  Stanhope  entered  Madrid,  and  viCj  shortly  afterv^ards 
followe4l  by  Charles  III.  But  they  were  coK'*'/  received,  and,  as  two 
French  armies  were  entering  Spain,  it  was  Nuoemed  prudent  to  retire 
into  Catalonia.  Stanhope,  who  brought  up  the  rear,  was  overtaken 
at  the  village  of  Brihnega  by  the  duke  of  Yenddme,  and  was  obliged 
to  surrender  at  discretion  (December  10). 

§  7.  In  1704  Marlborough  and  Godolphin,  who  directed  the 
government,  had  moulded  the  ministry  more  to  their  liking,  l^ 
appointing  Harley  secretary  of  state  in  place  of  the  earl  of  Notting- 
ham, and  making  Henry  St  John,  a  young  man  of  great  aUli^, 


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^.  iK  1709-17ia     TRIAL  OF  DB.  SACHrVIIIlELL.  559 

secretary  at  war.  The  whigs  formed  a  strong  party,  led  by  wliat 
was  called  the  junto,  consisting  of  the  lords  Somers,  HaliliEa,  Whar- 
ton, Orford,  and  Sunderland.  Harley  intrigued  against  them,  and 
undermined  the  duchess  of  Marlborough's  influence  with  the  queen. 
The  duchess  had  recommended  a  relative  named  Abigail  Hill  (after- 
wards Mrs.  Masham),  the  daughter  of  a  Turkey  merchant,  as  bed- 
chamber woman  to  the  queen.  Anne  had  become  weary  of  the 
duchess  in  consequence  of  her  arrogance.  The  duke  and  his  sup- 
porters had  resolved  on  Barley's  ruin,  when  an  accident  afforded 
them  the  desired  opportunity.  The  corres^ndence  of  marshal  Tal- 
lard,  who  was  still  a  prisoner,  passed  through  Har ley's  office ;  and,  as' 
that  minister  did  not  understand  French,  it  was  read  by  Gregg, 
one  of  his  clerks,  a  needy  Scotchman.  Gregg  took  the  opportimity 
to  enclose  in  a  letter  of  the  marshal's  one  of  his  own,  in  which  he 
made  an  offer  to  the  French  minister  to  betray  the  secrets  of  his 
office  for  a  consideration.  The  letter  was  intercepted ;  and  Gregg 
was  tried,  condemned,  and  hanged  at  Tyburn  (January,  1708). 
Attempts  were  made  before  his  execution  to  procure  his  evidence 
against  Harley ;  but  he  fully  acquitted  that  minister,  who  was 
indeed  entirely  innocent.  Marlborough  and  Godolphin  informed  the 
queen  of  their  determination  not  to  act  with  Harley,  and  absented 
wemselvcs  from  the  counciL  After  a  short  struggle  Anne  was 
obliged  to  give  way ;  Harley  retired  from  office,  and  was  followed  by 
St.  John  and  sir  Simon  Harcourt,  the  attorney-general.  Their 
places  were  supplied  by  Mr.  Boyle,  Mr.  Robert  Walpole,  and  sir 
James  Montftgue.  But  this  affair  only  served  to  inflame  the  queen 
agunst  the  vhigs,  whose  fall  was  now  rapidly  approaching. 

§  8.  Dr.  Sacheverell,  rector  of  St.  Saviour's,  Southwark,  being 
appointed  to  preach  before  the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen  at  St.  Paul's, 
on  the  5th  November,  1709,  took  occasion  to  inveigh  with  great 
violence  against  toleration  to  dissenters.  He  insisted  upon  the 
doctrine  of  passive  obedience  and  non-resistance,  and  reflected  in 
severe  terms  upon  the  government,  and  especially  upon  Godolphin, 
to  whom  he  gave  the  name  of  Volpone(the  **  old  fox  "),  a  character 
in  one  of  Ben  Jonson's  comedies.  The  majority  of  the  court  of 
aldermen,  being  of  the  low  ohmrh  party,  reused  to  thank  Sache- 
verell for  his  sermon;  but  the  lord  mayor,  who  was  on  the 
opposite  side,  encouraged  the  doctor  to  print  it.  The  political 
passions  of  the  nation  were  excited  to  the  highest  pitch,  and 
40,000  copies  of  the  sermon  were  sold  in  a  few  weeks.  The  more 
violent  of  the  ministry,  and  especially  Godolphin,  who  had  been 
personally  attacked,  were  exasperated  against  Sacheverell,  and  re- 
solved to  impeach  him  for  the  doctrines  he  had  promulgated  in  his 
ssrmon.    Articles  were  exhibited  against  him,  and  he  was  brought 


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560  ANNE.  Chat,  xxvra. 

to  trial  before  the  peers  in  Westminster  Hall  (February  27, 1710), 
He  was  charged  with  reflecting  on  the  late  revolution  and  at- 
tempting to  render  it  odious  and  unjustifiable,  with  opposing  toler- 
ation to  dissenters,  and  suggesting  that  the  church  of  England 
was  in  danger  from  the  queen*s  ministers.  The  populace  of  London 
was  greatly  excited.  It  escorted  Sacheverell  every  day  from  his 
lodgings  in  the  Temple  to  Westminster  with  vociferous  cheer- 
ing, pulled  down  several  meeting-houses,  and  insulted  those  mem- 
bers of  parliament  who  took  the  most  prominent  part  against  its 
favourite.  The  lords,  however,  decreed  that  Sacheverell  should 
be  suspended  from  preaching  for  a  term  of  throe  years,  and  that  his 
sermon  should  be  burnt  by  the  hands  of  the  common  hangman. 
They  also  sentenced  to  the  same  fate  the  decrees  of  the  university 
of  Oxford,  published  in  1683,  on  occasion  of  the  Rye-house  plot, 
inculcating  the  doctrine  of  passive  obedience  and  non-resistance,  and 
lately  republished  in  a  pamphlet,  in  answer  to  Hoadley's  work  on 
The  Original  of  Oovemment, 

The  mildness  of  the  sentence  displeased  the  commons,  especially 
as  it  was  regarded  as  a  triumph  by  Sacheverell's  supporters.  But 
the  temper  of  the  nation  had  been  so  plainly  exhibited  in  this  trial 
that  the  queen  and  the  tory  party  no  longer  hesitated.  MarU 
borough,  offended  at  an  attempt  to  promote  colonel  Hill,  brother  of 
Mrs.  Masham,  without  his  approbation,  retired  into  the  country,* 
threatening  to  resign  the  command  of  the  army.  By  degrees 
changes  were  made  in  the  ministry.  In  April,  1710,  the  duke 
of  Shrewsbury,  who  had  taken  part  against  the  ministers  in 
Sacheverell^s  case,  was  made  lord  chamberlain.  On  the  14th  of 
June  the  seals  were  taken  from  the  earl  of  Sunderland,  Marl- 
borough's son-in-law,  and  lord  Dartmouth  was  made  secretary  of 
state  in  his  place.  On  the  8th  of  August  Godolphin  himself  was 
ordered  to  break  his  staff  as  treasurer,  and  the  treasury  was  put  in 
commission  with  lord  Powlett  at  the  head ;  Harley,  however,  who 
now  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  possessed  in  reality  the 
greatest  share  in  the  queen's  confidence.  But  a  complete  alteration 
of  the  ministry  was  not  effected  till  September,  when  lord  Rochester 
superseded  lord  Somers  as  president  of  the  council,  St.  John  became 
a  secretary  of  state  instead  of  Mr.  Boyle,  Harcourt  was  made  lord 
chancellor  instead  of  lord  Gowper,  and  the  duke  of  Ormond  obtained 
the  lieutenancy  of  Ireland  in  place  of  the  witty  and  inx>fligate  earl 
of  Wharton.  Other  minor  changes  were  effected.  The  dukes  of 
Somerset  and  Newcastle  were  the  only  whigs  who  retained  oflBoe.* 

*  One  of  the  reasons  for  appointing  St.  ■  and  might  therefore  be  nseftal  in  the  ex- 
John  waa,  that  he  was  the  only  person  pected  neROciationB  for  a  peace.  It  Is  a 
about  the  court  who  understood  French*  I  striking  characteristic  of  this  period  that 


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AJ>.  1710-171L 


HABLEY  STABBED. 


661 


§  9.  In  the  new  parliament,  which  met  in  November,  1710,  the 
iory  party  predominated.  Sacheyerell  had  made  a  sort  of  progress 
into  Wales,  and  was  received  by  the  mayors  and  corporations  of 
various  towns  in  great  state.  The  people  came  to  meet  him  with 
white  favours  and  sprigs  of  gilded  laurel  in  their  hats,  and  the 
hedges  where  he  passed  were  decked  with  flowers.  These  were 
plain  symptoms  of  the  popular  sentiments,  and  in  the  ensuing 
elections  the  whigs  were  defeated  wherever  the  popular  voice  was 
allowed  to  prevail.  Though  the  queen,  in  her  opening  speech,  inti- 
mated a  desire  for  peace,  she  signified  her  resolution  of  prosecuting 
the  war  with  the  utmost  vigour.  The  parliament  responded  with 
enthusiasm,  and  voted  during  the  session  the  large  sum  of  more  than 
14,000,0002.  They  instituted  an  inquiry  into  the  conduct  of  the 
war  in  Spain ;  passed  a  vote  of  censure  upon  the  late  ministry ; 
and  an  attempted  vote  of  thanks  to  Marlborough  &iled  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  Marlborough  retained  the  command  of  the  army ;  but 
resigned  all  the  places  Ueld  by  his  duchess ;  absented  himself  from 
court ;  and  in  February,  1711,  proceeded  to  Holland  to  conduct  the 
campaign. 

About  this  time  an  event  that  might  have  proved  fatal  to  Harley 
served  only  to  further  his  promotion.  A  French  adventurer,  who 
assumed  the  title  of  the  marquis  de  Guiscard,  had  insinuated 
himself  into  the  favour  of  the  previous  ministry  by  pretending  that 
he  could  raise  an  insurrection  in  France.  St.  John,  on  becoming 
a  minister,  had  procured  Guiscard  a  pension  of  5002.  a  year ;  but 
Harley  incurred  his  hatred  by  reducing  it  to  4002.,  and  refusing  to 
make  it  permanent  Shortly  afterwards  Guiscard  was  detected  in 
a  treasonable  correspondence  with  France,  and,  on  being  brought 
before  the  council  for  examination  (March  8),  he  stabbed  Harley 
with  a  pocket-knife,  the  blade  of  which  fortunately  broke  by 
striking  the  breastbone.  Unaware  of  this  circumstance,  Guiscard 
redoubled  his  blows,  till  he  was  stabbed  by  St.  John  and  others. 
He  was  carried  to  Newgate,  where  he  soon  after  expired  of  his 
wounds  (March  17, 1711).  Harley's  hurt  was  slight,  but  it  pro- 
cured him  much  sympathy.  The  commons  addressed  the  queen 
in  terms  the  most  flattering  to  that  minister,  and  when  he  next 
appeared  in  his  seat  he  was  congratulated  by  the  speaker  in  the 


Harley,  who  wm  in  fkToar  of  the  Hano- 
▼dian  snooeeskm,  oorreeponded  with  mar- 
■hal  Berwick  tor  the  reetoration  of  the 
Stuarts,  on  condition  of  Anne  retaining 
the  crown  for  life,  and  aeourity  being 
given  for  the  religion  and  liberties  of 
Bngland.  ¥arlborongh.  on  the  other 
hand,  thongh  in  faToor  of  the  Stoaru  and 


corresponding  ¥rith  the  court  of  M.  Oer- 
mains,  did  not  scmple  to  address  the 
elector  of  HanoTer  with  assurances  of  hla 
devotion,  and  to  denounce  Harley  and  his 
associates  as  entertaining  a  design  to  place 
the  I>retender  on  the  throne.  Butli  Harley 
and  St.  John  had  been  brought  up  among 
tiie  nonconformists. 


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562 


AHKS. 


Gbap.  zxTin. 


Dftzne  of  tiie  tioiue  on  his  foitanate  esoape.  The  queen  bestowed 
more  substantial  marks  of  £Eiyour  by  creating  Mm  earl  of  Ozfoid 
and  M(»timer.    Shortly  after,  he  was  made  lord  high  treasurer.* 

As  the  tories  had  a  dedded  majority  in  the' new  parliament,  lord 
Nottingham,  a  vehement  churchman,  easily  persuaded  it  to  pass  a 
lull  to  prevent  occasional  conformity ;  that  is,  conformity  of  the 
dissenters  with  the  provisions  of  the  Test  Act  by  receiving  the 
sacrament  according  to  the  rites  of  the  church  of  England,  in  orlcat  to 
qualify  themselves  for  office  in  corporations.  This  bill  was  followed 
by  the  Schism  Act,  which  extended  and  confirmed  one  of  the  clauses 
in  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  compelling  all  schoolmasters  to  make  a 
declaration  before  the  bishop,  of  conformity  to  the  established  church, 
as  a  condition  for  exercising  their  profi98sion.t 

The  new  ministry  were  inclined  to  peace,  as  the  most  effectual 
means  of  breaking  the  power  of  Marlborough ;  and  the  death  of  the 
emperor  Joseph,  which  occurred  this  year,  opened  the  prospect  of  its 
attainment  (April  17, 1711).  Charles  YL,  the  titular  king  of  Spain, 
was  elected  his  successor  in  the  empire.  Thus  the  views  of  England 
with  regard  to  the  war  were  entirely  changed ;  since  the  reunion  uf 
Spain  with  the  empire  would  have  revived  the  days  of  Charles  Y., 
whilst  it  was  the  very  object  of  the  war  to  prevent  the  accumulation 
of  too  much  power  in  the  hands  of  a  single  family.  The  last 
campaign  in  Flanders,  conducted  by  Marlborough,  proved  wholly 
unimportant.  Communications  had  already  been  privately  opened 
with  the  court  of  France ;  and  the  States,  though  averse  to  peace, 
reluctantly  named  Utrecht  as  the  place  of  conference. 

$  10.  A  report  laid  before  the  House  of  Conmions  by  the  com- 
missioners of  the  public  accounts,  on  the  21st  of  December,  contained 
the  deposition  of  sir  Solomon  Medina,  a  Dutoh  Jew,  charging  the 
duke  of  Marlborougb  with  various  peculations  in  the  contracts  tot 
bread  and  the  pay  of  foreign  troops  for  the  army  in  Flanders.  The 
sums  were  enormous,  amounting  in  all  to  little  less  than  half  a 
million  of  public  money,  of  which  he  had  rendered  no  account. 
Besides  the  duke,  Cardonnel,  his  secretary,  Robert  Walpole, 
secretary  at  war,  and  others,  were  implicated  in  similar  corrupt 
proceedings.  The  duke  opposed  the  ministry  in  their  desire  for 
peace,  and  was  supported  in  his  views  by  the  elector  of  Hanover. 
Baron  de  Bothmar,  the  Hanoverian  envoy,  had  come  to  London 
in  November  in  company  with  Marlborough,  and,  in  the  name 


*  His  son,  Edward  Hsrloj,  the  second 
esrl  of  Oxford,  was  the  ooUeotor  of  the 
€elet>rated  Harleian  BfSS.  now  in  tlie 
British  Museum.  The  titis 
extinct  in  1863. 


fTbe    Act 
formity,  and  the  Schism  Act,  were  re- 
pealed in  the  reign  of  George  I.  (ITUiX 


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AJ>.  1711-1713.     MABLBOROUQH  CENSURED.  663 

of  the  elector,  presented  a  memorial  against  the  peace.  The 
queen  aud  the  House  of  Commons  were  indignant  at  this  inter- 
ference. A  proposal  of  the  majority  of  the  ooimcil  for  apprehending 
Bothniar  was  preyented  by  Oxford.  The  views  of  Marlborough 
were  supported  by  a  majority  of  the  peers,  and  an  amendment  on 
the  address  was  carried.  To  overcome  this  opposition,  Oxford 
persuaded  the  queen  to  create  twelve  new  peers  (December  31, 
1711).  They  were  received  by  the  house  with  much  derision; 
and  the  profligate  but  witty  earl  of  Wharton,  in  allusion  to  their 
number,  inquired  of  them  whether  they  voted  individually  or  by 
their  foreman.  On  the  previous  day  the  queen  had  dismissed 
Marlborough  from  all  his  employments. 

The  commons  proceeded  to  pass  a  vote  of  censure  upon  Marl- 
borough, for  unwarrantable  and  illegal  practice  in  contracts,  and  for 
taking  2}  per  cent  on  the  pay  of  the  foreign  troops  in  the  English 
service.  The  attorney-general  was  directed  to  prosecute  him; 
but  this  last  step  was  never  followed  up.  It  has  been  urged  in  his 
defence  that  this  (jercentage  was  a  volimtary  (layment  by  the  allied 
ininces,  and  that  the  profit  on  the  contracts  had,  long  before  Marl- 
borough's time,  been  the  usual  perquisite  of  the  commander-in-chief 
in  the  Netherlands.  In  1712,  Marlborough  retired  to  Antwerp  in 
disgust.  Godolphin,  his  former  colleague,  had  died  the  September 
before.  It  was  of  him  that  Charles  IL  used  to  say,  that  he  was 
never  in  the  way  nor  out  of  the  way. 

Cardonnel  was  expelled  the  house.  Walpole  was  also  expelled 
and  committed  to  the  Tower,  for  taking  a  bribe  of  1000  guineas 
on  contracts  for  forage  made  by  him  when  secretary  at  war. 

Although  the  conferences  were  opened  at  Utrecht  on  the  18th  of 
January,  the  aUies  as  usual  took  the  field  in  the  spring.  The 
British  forces  in  Flanders  were  now  commanded  by  ^e  duke  of 
Ormond,  who  had  received  instructions  to  avoid  a  battle  imless  at 
great  advantage.  Shortly  afterwards  he  separated  his  troops  from 
those  of  the  allies,  and  received  from  Louis  the  surrender  of  Dunkirk, 
which  had  been  stipulated  as  the  condition  of  a  cessation  of  arms. 
After  the  withdrawal  of  the  British,  part  of  Eugene's  army  was 
defeated  by  marshal  Villars  at  Denain,  and  other  reverses  followed. 
The  good  fortune  of  the  aUies  deserted  them  with  the  loss  of  the 
English. 

S  11.  Meanwhile  negociatlons  were  proceeding  at  Utreoht.  The 
plenipotentiaries  for  Great  Britain  were  the  earl  of  Strafford  and 
the  bishop  of  Bristol.  They  were  assisted  by  Prior,  the  poet,  who 
had  negociated  the  prelinunaries.  A  peace,  known  as  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht,  was  at  length  signed  (March  31, 1713).  By  the  principal 
articles,  as  between  France  and  England,  Louis  agreed  to  abandon 


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564  ANNE.  Chap.  xxTin. 

the  Pretender ;  to  acknowledge  the  queen's  title  and  the  protestant 
suooession;  to  raze  the  fortifications  of  Dunkirk;  to  oede  Nora 
Sootia  (Acadia),  Newfoundland,  Hudson's  Bay,  and  the  i^iland  of 
St.  Christopher.  The  kingdom  of  Naples,  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and 
the  Spanish  Netherlands,  were  assigned  to  the  emperor ;  Sicily  fell 
to  the  iluke  of  Savoy,  with  the  title  of  king.  Sardinia  wns  given  to 
the  elector  of  Bavaria.  To  the  States  of  Holland  was  conceded  the 
military  occupation  of  Namur,  Charleroy,  Luxemhourg,  Tpres,  and 
Nieuport,  in  addition  to  their  other  possessions  in  Flanders ;  but 
they  engaged  to  restore  Lille  and  its  dependencies ;  whilst  the  king 
of  Prussia  exchanged  Orange,  and  the  possessions  belonging  to  that 
family  in  Franche  Compt4,  for  Upper  Gueldres.  Great  Britain  was 
left  in  possession  of  GKbraltar  and  Minorca.  At  the  same  time  a 
treaty  of  commerce  between  France  and  England  was  also  signed. 
Peace  was  not  concluded  between  the  emperor  and  France  till  the 
following  year,  by  the  treaty  of  Kastadt  (March  7, 1714). 

As  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  was  only  effected  after  a  violent  struggle 
between  the  whigs  and  tories,  its  merits  have  generally  been  viewed 
through  the  medium  of  party  prejudice.  It  was  asserted  that,  from 
the  exhausted  condition  of  FWioe,  more  advantageous  terms  might 
have  been  exacted ;  that  they  had  in  fact  been  previously  offered ; 
and  that  the  great  object  for  which  the  war  had  been  undertaken, 
the  exclusion  of  the  Bourbons  fix)m  the  throne  of  Spain,  was  not 
accomplished.  Louis  indeed  undertook  that  Philip  should  renounce 
the  throne  of  France,  but  at  the  same  time  he  acknowledged  that  such 
an  act  was  legally  invalid ;  whilst  the  recent  death  of  the  dauphin, 
of  Ills  son,  and  his  eldest  grandson,  left  only  a  sickly  infant  between 
Philip  and  the  crown  of  France.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  have 
been  as  impolitic  to  continue  the  war  in  order  to  set  Charles  upon 
the  throne  of  Spain,  after  he  had  become  emperor,  as  to  leave  it  in 
possession  of  Philif>.  The  Spaniards  were  contented  with  Philip 
for  their  king,  and  England  had  no  right  to  control  their  inclina- 
tions. The  cost  of  the  war,  a  burthen  borne  chiefly  by  Kngland, 
though  she  had  no  direct  interest  in  it,  had  reached  nearly  69 
millions.  On  the  whole,  the  conditions  exacted  from  France  were 
not  disadvantageous.  The  peace  was  popular  in  England,  and, 
when  proclaimed  on  the  6th  of  May,  1713,  was  received  with 
great  demonstrations  of  joy  by  the  populace. 

§  12.  The  queen's  health  was  now  rapidly  declining,  and  the 
prospect  of  her  dissolution  embittered  the  struggle  between  the 
Jacobites  and  the  adherents  of  the  house  of  Hanover.  The  whigs 
urged  the  elector  to  a  step  which  gave  great  offence  to  the  queen. 
Schutz,  the  Hanoverian  envoy,  demanded  for  the  electoral  prince  a 
writ  to  take  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  as  he  had  been  lately 


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AJ>  171^1714.  HEB  DEATH.  665 

created  duke  of  Cambridge  (April  12, 1714).  Anne  forbade  Sohutz 
to  appear  again  at  court,  declaring  that  she  would  suffer  the  last 
extremities  rather  than  permit  any  prince  of  the  electoral  family  to 
reside  in  England  during  her  life.  She  wrote  also  to  the  elector,  to 
the  princess  Sophia,  and  to  the  electoral  prince,  expressing  her 
surprise  at  the  step  they  had  taken,  and  insinuating  that  it  might 
endanger  their  succession.  Not  long  afterwards  (May  28),  the 
princess  Sophia  died  suddenly  in  the  garden  at  Herrenhausen, 
aged  83. 

§  13.  After  the  prorogation  of  parliament  (July  9),  Oxford  and 
Bolingbroke,  long  irreconcilable  enemies,  f<  11  into  an  open  rupture. 
The  latter  endeavoured  to  persuade  the  queen  that  his  rival  bad 
privately  encouraged  the  demand  of  a  writ  for  the  electoral  prince, 
and  on  the  27th  of  July  Oxford  was  deprived  of  the  treasurer's  staff. 
Bolingbroke's  triumph  was  short-lived.  The  agitation  of  this 
political  crisis  bad  a  fatal  effect  on  the  queen's  declining  health. 
A  discharge  from  her  leg  suddenly  stopped,  and  she  fell  into  a 
lethargy.  While  she  lay  in  this  state,  the  duke  of  Shrewsbury,* 
who  was  both  lord  chamberlain  and  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
concerted  with  the  dukes  of  Argyle  and  Somersf^t  a  plan  for  defeat- 
ing the  schemes  of  Bolingbroke.  Without  being  summoned,  they 
suddenly  appeared  at  the  coimcil  (July  30),  to  offer,  they  said, 
their  advice  at  this  juncture.  Shrewsbury  thanked  them;  and, 
after  ascertaining  from  the  physicians  the  dangerous  state  of  the 
queen,  it  was  proposed  that  Shrewsbury  should  be  recommended  to 
her  without  delay  as  treasurer.  The  proposition  was  immediately 
submitted  to  the  queen,  who  had  recovered  some  degree  of  con- 
sciousness; and  she  not  only  gave  him  the  treasurer's  staff,  but 
also  continued  him  in  his  other  offices. 

Anne  expired  at  Kensington  (August  l),in  the  50th  year  of  her  age 
and  the  13th  of  her  reign.  She  was  of  middle  stature,  her  hair  and 
complexion  dark,  her  features  strongly  marked,  the  expression  of  her 
countenance  rather  dignified  than  agreeable.  She  understood  music 
and  painting,  and  had  some  t-iste  for  literature.  Regarded  as  a 
staunch  friend  to  the  church  of  England,  the  various  measures 
passed  in  her  reign  for  extending  its  influence,  procured  for  her 
the  name  of  good  queen  Anne.  With  her  ended  the  reign  of  the 
Stuarts.    Her  consort,  prince  George  of  Denmark,  bad  died  in  1708. 

•  He  WIS  the  son  of  the  llth  earl  of  i  bis  ooosiD  racoeeded  to  the  earldom.    He 

Shrevsbnry,  and  was  created  a  duke  by  I  was  the  last  lord  high  treasurer.     SIncr 

William  III.  in  1694.    The  dukedom  be-  |  then  the  trtwarj  has  been  held  in  a.ur 

COM  eactinct  tipon  his  death  in  1718,  but 

26 


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MedalofO«oigeI. 
ObT.:   OBORG  IVD.D.O.M. BRIT. FR. R  HIB.RKX  DVXB*L. S.R.I. IU&  But, 
laureate  to  right.     Rev. :  aOCbDbmb  dionVs  DIVImm  obbb  bbItakskm.     Tht  bom  ol 
Bninswiok  springiDg  from  Hanover  to  EngUnd.    Below,  "^xn  mox  armcir  oan. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
HOUSE  OF  BBUNSWICK. 

GEORGE  I.,  6.  A.D.  X660 ;   r,  1714-1727. 

§  1.  Accession  of  George  I.  His  character.  New  ministry.  §2.  ImpeadH 
m«nt  of  Boliagbroke,  Oxford,  and  Ormond.  §  3.  Mar's  rebellion. 
§  4.  The  Pretender  lands  in  Scotland.  Rebellion  suppressed.  Eseco- 
tions.  Repeal  of  Triennial  Act.  §  5.  Unpopularity  of  the  king.  His 
feyouriies  and  mistresses.  Treaty  with  France  and  Holland.  §  6. 
Hanoverian  politics.  Sweden  favours  the  Pretender.  Change  of 
ministry.  §  7.  Designs  of  Alberoni.  Quadruple  alliance.  Defeat  of 
the  Spanish  fleet  at  Cape  Passaro.  §  8.  Projected  Spanish  invasion. 
Walpole  and  Townshend  join  the  mmistry  §  9.  The  South-Sea  bubble. 
§  10.  The  South-Sea  directors  punished.  Death  of  Marlborough. 
Atterbury's  plot.  §  11.  Disturbuices  in  Ireland  on  account  of  Wood's 
halfpence.  Malt-tax  in  Scotland.  Order  of  the  Bath  §  12.  Con- 
federacy between  the  emperor  and  Spain.  Alliance  with  France  and 
Prussia.     Death  of  the  king. 

§  1.  George  I.  succeeded  queen  Anae  as  quietly  as  if  he  had  been 
the  undisputed  heir  to  the  throne.  No  sooner  had  the  queen 
expired  than  Kreyenberg,  the  Hanoverian  resid'  nt,  produced  an 
instrument  in  the  handwriting  of  the  elector,  nominating  18  peers, 
who,  according  to  the  Regency  Bill  passed  in  1705,  were,  with  the 
primate  and  six  great  officers  of  state,  to  act  as  lords  justices  till  his 
arrival.  The  peers  selected  were  mostly  whigs,  including  the  dukes 
of  Shrewsbury,  Somerset,  and  Argyle,  lords  Cowper,  Halifax,  and 
Townshsnd;  but  ndther  Marlborough  nor  Somers  were  among 


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AJX  1714.  AOCBSSION  OF  QEOBGE  L  567 

the  number.  Marlbarough  had  landed  at  Dover  on  the  very  day 
of  the  queen's  death.  He  was  indignant  at  finding  himself  excluded ; 
but  was  in  some  degree  consoled  by  the  reception  he  met  with 
from  the  citizens  of  London,  where  he  made  a  sort  of  public  entry. 
Then,  having  taken  the  oaths  in  the  House  of  Lords,  he  retired 
into  the  coimtry. 

.  The  new  king  was  proclaimed,  both  in  Dublin  and  Edinburgh, 
without  opposition  or  tumult  On  the  5th  of  August  the  lonis 
justices  delivered  a  speech  to  the  parliament,  recommending  them 
to  provide  for  the  dignity  and  honour  of  the  crown;  and  loyal  and 
dutiful  addresses  were  unanimously  voted  by  both  houses.  George 
was  immediately  acknowledged  by  Louis  XIY.  and  the  other 
European  powers.  A  British  squadron  had  been  despatched  to 
wait  for  him  in  Holland;  but  he  did  not  set  out  from  Hanover  till 
August  31,  and  landed  at  Greenwich  on  September  18,  accom- 
panied by  his  eldest  son,  George  Augustus,  who  was  at  once 
created  prince  of  Wales. 

The  monarch  who  now  ascended  the  throne  of  England  was  54 
years  of  age,  h'^avy  in  look,  awkward  and  undignified  in  manner 
and  address,  without  the  slightest  tincture  of  literature  or  science. 
He  possessed,  however,  that  taste  for  music  which  characterizes  his 
country ;  he  disliked  pomp,  and  was  even  averse  to  popular  applause. 
His  ignorance  of  the  En^h  manners  and  language  added  t«i  his 
other  disadvantages  in  the  new  scene  of  life  in  which  he  was  to 
appear.  Tet  his  Hanoverian  subjects  parted  from  him  with  regret. 
He  was  honourable,  benevolent,  and  sincere ;  economical  even  to 
niggardliness;  regular  in  the  distribution  of  his  time ;  and,  though 
he  was  not  deficient  in  personal  courage  and  military  knowledge, 
he  was  a  lover  of  peace. 

G^eorge  at  once  placed  the  government  in  the  hands  of  the  whigs. 
Before  he  landed,  he  sent  directions  to  remove  Bolingbroke  from 
the  office  of  secretary  of  state  (August  28),  and  to  appoint  in  his 
place  Charles,  lord  Townshend,  who  must  now  be  considered  as 
prime  minister  (September  17).  The  duke  of  Shrewsbury  resigned 
the  offices  of  treasurer,  and  o^  lord-lieutenant  of  L-eland,  where  he 
was  succeeded  by  Sunderland.  The  treasury  was  put  in  commis- 
sion, with  lord  Halifiax  at  the  head.  General  James  Stanhope  was 
made  second  secretary  of  state ;  William,  lord  Cowpcr,  chancellor ; 
the  earl  of  Wharton,  privy  seal ;  the  earl  of  Nottingham,  president 
of  the  council ;  Mr.  Pulteney,  secretary  at  war ;  the  duke  of  Argyle, 
commander-in-chief  for  Scotland.  Marlborough  and  the  leading 
whigs  were  graciously  received  br  the  king,  but  it  was  with  difficulty 
that  Oxford  was  permitted  to  kit^s  his  hand.  Marlborough  was 
reinstated  in  his  old  offices  of  captain-general  and  master  of  the 


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568  QEOBGE  L  Obaf.  zztx. 

ordnance;  and  his  three  sons-in-law  received  appdntments.  His 
merits  were  too  great  to  he  OTerlooked,  hut  the  court  was  aware 
of  his  predilection  for  the  Stuarts,  and  he  soon  found  that  he  was 
not  trusted.  Even  now,  when  holding  a  high  post  under  the  house 
of  Brunswick,  he  sent  a  loan  to  the  Pretender,  which  probably 
assisted  the  rebellion  of  1715.  The  chevalier  St.  Qeorge,  as  the 
Pretender  was  usually  called,  was  still  residing  in  Lorraine ;  and, 
having  repaired  to  the  baths  of  Plombi^res,  he  published  a  mani- 
festo asserting  his  right  to  the  English  crown  (August  29). 

§  2.  The  parliament  met  March  17,  1715,  and  was  opened  by 
the  king  in  person  ;  but,  as  he  was  ignorant  of  the  English  tongue, 
his  speech  was  read  by  the  chancellor.  A  civil  list  was  settled  on 
the  new  sovereign  of  700,000^.,  as  it  had  been  settled  on  queen 
Anne.  It  soon  appeared  that  the  new  ministers  were  determined  to 
impeach  their  predecessors.  Bolingbroke  took  the  alarm  and  fled 
to  the  continent,  where  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Pretender  as 
secretary  of  state;  Oxford,  of  a  more  phlegmatic  temperament, 
calmly  waited ;  the  duke  of  Ormond  braved  the  storm,  and  con- 
tinued in  the  same  style  of  living  as  before.  A  secret  committee 
was  appointed  by  the  commons  to  inquire  into  the  )ate  nego- 
ciations  .  April  1) ;  and  when  the  report,  drawn  up  by  Walpole  had 
been  read,  the  three  noblemen  just  mentioned  were  impeached  of 
high  treason.  Various  articles  were  alleged  against  them  ;  but  the 
charge  most  insisted  on  was  that  of  procuring  Toumay  for  the  king 
of  France,  an  act  which  the  committee  endeavoured  to  bring  under 
the  statute  of  Edward  III.  as  an  adhering  to  the  queen's  enemies 
(August  20).  Lord  Straffonl,  one  of  the  plenipotentaries  at  Utrecht, 
was  also  accused  of  high  crimes  and  misdemeanours,  but  no  notice 
was  taken  of  his  two  colleagues  (September  1).  Ormond  fled  to 
France ;  but  before  he  went  he  visited  Oxford  in  the  Tower,  and 
counselled  him  to  attempt  his  escape.  The  ex*treasurer  refused, 
and  Ormond  took  leave  of  him  with  the  words,  "  Farewell,  Oxford 
without  a  head !  "  To  which  the  latter  replied,  **  Farewell,  duke 
without  a  duchy !  **  Ormond  never  returned,  and  died  abroad  in 
1745  at  the  age  of  80.  Bills  of  attainder  against  him  and  Boling- 
broke were  passed  without  opposition.  These  impeachments  were 
merely  the  results  of  party  animosity,  and  could  not  be  justly 
maintained,  for  the  peace  had  been  approved  by  two  parliaments. 
Yet  Oxford  was  detained  two  years  in  the  Tower,  till  Townshend 
and  Walpole,  his  greatest  enemies,  had  both  quitted  ofiice.* 

§  3.  The  death  of  Louis  XIV.  (September  1,  New  Style)  was  a 
severe  blow  to  the  Pretender^  who  was  meditating  an  inva^on. 

-  The  roaniftssUtkni  of  popuUir  dlfoontant  «l  tlMM  proMCoUou  led  to  the  Rtot 
Aot  C^nlj,  1 7 1 S),  which  ia  still  in  force. 


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Aj).  1716.  mae's  rebellion.  669 

The  duke  of  Orleans,  who  now  became  regent  in  the  minority  of 
Louis  XY.,  held  lUfferent  yiews  from  Louis  XIY.  He  could  not 
indeed  altogether  reject  the  claims  of  a  kinsman;  but  he  was 
unwilling  to  compromise  the  peace  with  England,  and  would  only 
promise  secret  assistance.  Meanwhile  the  earl  of  Mar  began 
prematurely  and  unadvisedly  an  insurrection  in  Scotland.  He 
despatched  letters  to  the  principal  gentry,  inviting  them  to  meet 
him  at  a  great  hunt  at  Braemar,  in  Aberdeenshire  (August  26). 
Seizing  the  opportunity  of  inveighing  against  the  Union,  he  urged 
other  topics  calculated  to  inflame  his  audience ;  and  on  the  3rd  of 
September,  though  he  had  no  more  than  60  followers,  he  raised  the 
standard  of  the  Pretender.  His  force  had  swelled  to  about  5000 
men  when  he  entered  Perth  (September  16). 

This  insurrection  created  great  alarm,  llie  Habess  Corpus  Act 
was  suspended,  and  several  noted  Jacobites  were  arrested  in  London, 
Edinburgh,  and  other  places.  As  the  number  of  regular  troops  in 
England  was  but  small,  the  Dutch  contingent  of  6000  men  was 
sent  for,  as  stipulated  by  an  article  in  the  guarantee  of  succession. 
Argyle,  who  had  been  despatched  to  support  the  king's  cause  in 
Scotland,  had  at  his  disposal  only  about  1000  foot  and  800  horse ; 
yet  Mar  remained  inactive.  In  the  northern  oountie?s  Mr.  Forster 
and  the  earl  of  Derwentwater,  hearing  that  orders  had  been  issued  to 
arrest  them,  rose  in  arms  and  proclaimed  the  Pretender  at  Work- 
worth  (October  7).  Lord  Kenmure  did  the  same  at  Moffat ;  and 
being  soou  after  joined  by  the  earls  of  Nithisdale,  Wintoun,  and  Cam- 
wath,  he  crossed  the  border  and  joined  Forster.  Their  united  force, 
amounting  to  500  or  600  horsemen,  proceeded  by  Mar's  directions 
to  Kelso,  where  they  were  joined  by  brigadier  M'lntowh  with 
1400  foot  (October  22).  Edinburgh,  which  lay  between  the  forces 
of  Mintosh  and  Mar,  might  easily  have  been  taken ;  but  no  regular 
plan  of  a  campaign  had  been  formed  ;  and,  after  a  senseless  march 
along  the  Cheviots,  Forster  determineid  t<>  proceed  into  Lancashire. 
Though  many  of  his  men  had  deserted,  he  entered  Lancaster  without 
resistance,  and  proceeded  to  Preston,  from  which  place  Stanhope's 
regiment  of  dragoons  and  a  militia  regiment  retired  on  his  approach. 
Here  he  received  an  accession  of  1200  men,  but  badly  armed  and 
discipline!! ;  and  when  general  Carpenter  arrived  (November  13) 
with  900  cavalry  and  two  regiments  of  foot,  Forster  surrendered 
almost  without  a  blow.  Among  the  prisoners  on  this  occadon 
were  lords  Derwentwater,  Nithisdale,  Wintoun,  Kenmure,  and  many 
other  members  of  old  northern  families. 

On  the  same  day  a  battle  had  been  fought  between  Mar  and 
Argyle  at  SherrifF-Muir,  near  Stirling.  The  latter  was  now  at  the 
head  of  between  3000  and  4000  regular  troops,  while  Mar's  force  had 


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570  GJBOBGE  L  Chap.  zzn. 


Medal  of  the  elder  Pretender  end  hie  wift. 
Obr. :  LACOBVB  .m.D.o.M.B.y.ir.H.  bsx.    Bust  enned,  to  **^^»»* 

increased  to  10,000,  still  badly  anned  and  discipliDed.  In  the  battle, 
the  right  wing  of  each  army  defeated  its  opponents ;  bat  Argyla 
remained  in  possession  of  the  field,  whilst  Mar  retired  to  Perth, 
and  the  weather  prevented  further  operations. 

§  4.  Though  the  rebellion  had  been  imadvisedly  began,  the  P^ 
tender  and  the  duke  of  Ormond  felt  themselves  called  upon  to  act, 
whatever  might  be  the  event.  Ormond  landed  in  Devonshire  with 
about  40  officers  and  men ;  but,  finding  nobody  willing  to  join  him, 
he  returned  to  St.  Malo.  The  Pretender,  sailing  fix)m  Dunkirk  aboat 
the  middle  of  December,  in  a  small  vessel  of  eight  guns,  landed  at 
Peterhead  on  the  2nd,  accompanied  by  six  gentlemen  disgoised  as 
French  naval  officers.  Mar  immediately  proceeded  to  pay  bis 
respects  to  him,  and  was  create  a  duke.  On  January  6, 1716,  the 
Pretender  made  his  public  entry  into  Dundee  on  horseback,  foUowed 
by  a  troop  of  nearly  300  gentlemen.  Thence  he  proceeded  to 
Scf)nc,  performed  several  acts  of  state,  and  appointed  the  23rd  of 
January  for  his  coronation.  But  James  was  not  the  man  for  such 
a  conjuncture.  Meagre  in  person  and  sparing  of  speech,  instead  of 
encourapjing  his  followers,  he  talked  to  them  of  his  misfortanes. 
One  of  them  says,  "  We  saw  nothing  in  him  that  looked  like  s^nrit 
He  never  appeared  with  cheerfulness  and  vigour  to  animate  us.  Our 
men  began  to  despise  him ;  some  even  asked  if  he  could  speak.** 

On  the  advance  of  Argyle,  Perth  was  pronounced  untenable  by 
a  council  of  the  insurgent  generals ;  and  on  the  30th  of  January, 
a  day  of  evil  omen  for  the  Stuarts,  orders  were  issued  to  retreat 
northwards.  Argyle  entend  Pertlt  about  twelve  hours  after  the  rebels 


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AJX  171^-1716.  THE  SEPTENNIAL  ACT.  571 


Bar.  t  OLXMnmiA  .  maohab  .  bbitakkiab  .  bt  .  o  .  bbg.    Bast  to  left. 

had  quitted  it  The  latter  proceeded  to  Dundee,  and  thence  to 
Montrose,  wheriB  James  was  urged  by  his  council  to  escape 
(February  4).  Accompanied  by  Mar,  he  embarked  on  board  a  small 
French  vessel  lying  in  the  roads,  while  the  rebel  army  gradually 
dispersed.  James  landed  at  Gravelines  after  a  passage  of  seven  days, 
and  proceeded* to  St.  Germains,  whore  he  dismissed  Bolingbroke 
in  displeasure.  On  the  24th  of  February,  lords  Derwentwater  and 
Kenmure  were  executed  on  Tower  hill.  Lord  Nithisdale,  who  bad 
also  been  sentenced  to  death,  escaped  the  night  bi  fore  through  the 
heroic  devotion  of  his  wife,  who  changed  clothes  with  him.  About 
forty  of  the  inferior  criminals  were  executed. 

The  repeal  of  the  Triennial  Act  of  1694,  and  the  enactment  of 
the  Septennial  Act,  was  one  of  the  immediate  effects  of  this 
rebellion.  In  the  present  state  of  the  nation  it  was  considered 
hazardous  by  the  ministry  to  dissolve  the  parliament.  The  bill  of 
repeal  was  originaterl  in  the  lords  by  the  duke  of  Devonshire,  and 
appears  to  have  excited  little  discontent  (May  7,  1716).  But  as 
additional  powers  had  been  already  conferred  on  the  magistrates 
for  suppressing  any  symptoms  of  popular  dislike  (1715),  no  opportu- 
nity was  offered  for  the  expression  of  public  opinion. 

§  6.  To  enable  the  king  to  proceed  to  Hanover,  the  restraining 
clause  in  the  Act  of  Settlement  was  repealed  (June  26).  Jealous 
of  his  son,  George  refused  him  the  full  authority  of  regent,  and 
would  only  name  him  guardian  of  the  realm  and  lieutenant,  an 
office  unknown  since  the  time  of  the  Black  Prince ;  and  several 
restrictions  were  placed  upon  his  authority.   The  foreign  favourites, 


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57S  OEOBOB  I.  Okaf. 

Bothmar,  Bemsdorj^  Robethoiiy  were  suspected  of  taking  bribes 
kft  their  good  offices  with  the  king ;  and  his  foreign  mistresses  also 
incurred  great  odium.  The  baroness  Schulenburg,  the  chief  of 
them,  was  made  duchess  of  Munster  in  Ireland,  and  duchess  of 
Kendal  in  England.  The  baroness  Kilmansegge,  another  fovourite, 
was  created  countess  St  Darlington.  The  rapacity  of  both  was 
unbounded,  but  neither  had  the  smallest  sbare  of  ability.  During 
his  absence  in  Hanover,  the  king  dismissed  lord  Townshend  from 
his  post  of  secretary  of  state,  and  general  Stanhope  was  appointed 
in  his  room  (December  12).  Townshend's  dismissal  was  onpopular. 
His  offence  consisted  in  having  encouraged  the  prince  of  Wales  in 
opposition  to  his  fieither's  authcnity.  He  was,  however,  induced  to 
accept  the  lord-lieutenancy  of  Ireland  (January  14, 1717). 

The  late  rebellion  made  it  v^y  desirable  to  deprive  the  Pretender 
of  all  support  from  France.  The  regent,  the  duke  of  Orleans,  was  not 
averse  to  an  English  alliance.  In  the  event  of  the  death  of  LouisXY^ 
he  was  heir  to  the  throne  of  France,  as  Philip  V.  of  Spain  had 
renounced  his  pretensions.  But  as  it  was  known  that  Philip  did  not 
mean  to  abide  by  that  renunciation,  the  alliance  of  England  might 
be  useful  to  the  duke.  Stanhope,  who  had  accompanied  the  king 
in  his  journey,  entered  into  negociations  with  the  abb^  (afterwards 
cardinal)  Dubois,  first  at  the  Hague  and  then  at  Hanover.  He 
was  succeeded  in  this  mission  by  lord  Gadogan ;  and  on  the  28th 
of  November  a  treaty  was  signed  between  the  two  countries.  Earlier 
in  the  year  defensive  alliances  had  been  concluded  with  the  emperor 
and  the  Dutch.  As  the  latter  subsequently  acceded  to  the  terms 
of  the  English  and  French  alliance  (January  4, 1717),  the  previous 
convention  between  France  and  England  was  abandoned,  in  orda 
that  the  new  arrangement  might  appear  as  a  Triple  Alliance.  In 
consequence  of  this  treaty  tie  Pretender  was  compelled  to  quit 
Fi-anoe,  and  he  resided  sometimes  at  Rome,  sometimes  at  Urbinci. 
Soon  after,  he  contracted  a  marriage  with  the  princess  Clementina, 
granddaughter  of  John  Sobieski,  the  late  king  of  Poland ;  but  she 
was  arrested  at  Innsbriick,  on  her  way  to  Italy,  by  the  emperor's 
orders,  at  the  instance  of  the  British  cabinet,  and  detained  till  1719, 
when  she  managed  to  escape  and  the  marriage  was  consummated. 

§  6.  By  the  Hanoverian  succession  England  became  embroiled 
in  continental  politics,  and  the  interests  of  this  country  were 
often  made  subservient  to  the  kin^s  views  in  favour  of  his  elec- 
torate. The  bishoprics  of  Bremen  and  Yerden,  formerly  belonging 
to  Hanover,  had  been  secularized  at  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  and 
ceded  to  Sweden ;  but  they  had  been  conquered  by  Frederick  IV. 
of  Denmark  after  the  defeat  of  Charles  XU.  at  Pultawa.  On  the 
return  of  that  monarch,  the  king  of  Denmark,  trembling  for  his 


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4.D.  171ft-1718.       THE  QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE.  673 

oonquests,  ceded  them  to  George  I.,  as  elector  of  Hanover  (1715), 
on  condition  of  his  joining  the  coalition  against  Sweden,  and 
paying  150,0007.  In  order  to  carry  out  these  arrangements,  a 
British  squadron,  under  sir  John  Norris,  was  despatched  to  the 
Baltic  in  the  autumn  of  1716.  But  this  was  not  the  whole  of  the 
evil.  In  retaliation,  baron  GKJrtz,  minister  of  Charles  XII.,  set 
on  foot  a  Jacobite  conspiracy  for  the  invasion  of  Scotland  with 
12,000  Swedish  soldiers.  As  Charles  XII.  would  neither  avow  nor 
disavow  these  practices,  count  Gyllenborg,  the  Swidish  ambassador, 
in  spite  of  his  official  privileges,  y^&8  arrested  in  London,  on  full 
proofs  of  his  complicity  in  the  plot  (January  29, 1717).  Walpole 
fell  under  suspicion  for  his  lukewarmness  in  supporting  the  king's 
wiahes;  and  as  the  followers  of  Townshend  voted  against  the  sup- 
I-lies  required  for  this  Swedish  affair,  he  was  dismissed  from  the  lord- 
lieutenancy  of  Ireland  (April  10,  1717).  Next  morning  Walpole 
resigned,  and  his  example  was  followed  by  other  ministers.  General 
Stanhope  now  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  and  was  shortly  afterwards  raised  to  the  peerage 
with  the  title  of  viscount  Stanhope.*  Sunderland  and  Addison, 
the  celebrated  author,  were  made  secretaries  of  state,  and  Graggs 
secretary  at  war  (April  16). 

§  7.  At  this  time  Spain  was  governed  by  cardinal  Alberoni,  the 
son  of  a  working  gardener,  who  by  his  great  abilities  had  raised 
himself  to  that  height  of  power  and  grandeur.  Both  he  and 
Philip  V.  found  much  cause  of  discontent  in  the  state  of  Europe. 
Philip's  title  had  never  been  acknowledged  by  the  emperor ;  whilst 
the  alliance  of  the  latter  with  England,  and  the  triple  alliance 
between  France,  England,  and  Holland,  concluded  in  1717,  seemed 
to  isolate  Spain  from  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  seizure  of  one  of  his 
ministers  by  the  Austrians  increased  the  exasperation  of  Philip. 
He  resolved  upon  war,  seized  Sardinia,  and  threatened  Sicily.  At 
this  time  Alberoni  was  intriguing  with  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden, 
and  with  the  Czar,  in  favour  of  the  Stuarts ;  he  was  also  in  corre- 
spondence with  the  Pretender  at  Rome,  and  was  employing  agents 
to  foment  dissensions  in  England.  This  state  of  things  required 
vigorous  counsels.  In  the  summer  Stanhope  proceeded  to  Paris, 
and  succeeded  in  concluding  a  new  treaty  with  France  and  the 
emperor,  which,  after  the  accession  of  the  Dutch,  was  styled  the 
Quadruple  Alliance  (July  22,  1718).  Its  avowed  object  was  the 
preservation  of  the  peace  of  Europe.  Stanhope  then  proceeded 
to  Ma«irid,butdid  not  succeed  in  overcoming  the  stubborn  hostility 
of  Alberoni.     Meanwhile  the  Spanish  troops,  after  taking  Sardinia, 

*  He  WM  created  earl  SUnliopa  in  the  following  year  (17I8X  and  was  the  ancestor 
of  tbe  present  earL 

26* 


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674  GEORGE  L  Chap,  xxn 

bad  landed  in  Sicily  (July  1),  and  taken  Palermo  and  Messina, 
though  the  citadel  of  the  latter  place  held  out  To  prevent  the 
loss  of  the  island,  Admiral  Byng  *  was  despatched  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean with  20  ships  of  the  line.  On  July  31,  1718,  an  action, 
said  to  have  been  begun  by  the  Spaniards,  took  place  off  Cape 
Passaro,  ending  in  their  total  defeat,  and  the  destruction  of  a  great 
number  of  their  ships.  Alberoni  recalled  his  minister  from  London, 
and  seized  all  British  goods  and  vessels  in  Spamsh  ports ;  but  no 
declaration  of  war  was  made  till  towards  the  end  of  the  year,  and 
then  by  the  French  and  British  cabinets.  In  retribution  for  the 
injuries  inflicted  on  the  Spaniards  by  the  English,  Alberoni  fitted 
out  an  armament  of  five  ships  to  support  the  pretensions  of  James; 
but  it  was  dispersed  in  a  storm,  and  only  two  of  the  frigates  reached 
Scotland. 

$  8.  In  March,  1719,  at  the  invitation  of  Alberoni,  the  Pretender 
repaired  to  Spain,  and  was  received  at  Madrid  with  royal  honours. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  year  the  cardinal  was  dismissed,  and 
Philip  announced  his  accession  to  the  Quadruple  Alliance  (January, 
1720),  renewing  his  renunciation  of  the  French  crown,  and  en- 
gaging to  evacuate  Sicily  and  Sardinia  within  six  months.  After 
the  death  of  Charles  XII.  (December  11, 1718),  the  new  queen  of 
Sweden,  Ulrica,  yielded  Bremen  and  Verden  to  (Jeorge  I. 

The  Stanhope  administration  had  been  eminently  successfuL 
The  Schism  Act  was  repealed,!  peace  secured  abroad,  and  the  danger 
of  Horaestic  couspiracy  and  rebellion  lessened  by  the  banishment 
of  the  Pretender  from  Prance.  Early  in  1720,  the  ministry  was 
strengthened  by  the  accession  of  Townshend  and  Walpole,  who 
were  induced  to  accept  subordinate  places — ^the  former  as  president 
of  the  council,  the  latter  as  paymaster  of  the  forces.  Walpole  had 
lately  displayed  distinguished  ability  in  opposing  and  procuring  tlie 
rejection  of  the  peerage  bill,  intended  to  limit  the  royal  prerogative 
in  the  creation  of  peers,  by  providing  that  th^ir  present  number 
should  not  be  increased  beyond  six,  except  in  favour  of  the  blood- 
royal.  He  also  induced  the  prince  of  Wales  to  write  a  submissive 
letter  to  his  father,  and  thus  succeeded  in  healing  the  breach  between 
them.  The  quarrel  had  proceeded  to  such  an  extent  that,  during 
the  king's  visit  tc  Hanover  in  the  previous  year,  the  prince  had 
not  even  been  mentioned  in  the  regency,  and  the  government  was 
vested  in  lords  justices. 

§  9.  In  1711  Barley  had  established  the  South  Sea  Company  as 
a  means  of  relieving  the  public  burthens.    A  portion  of  the  national 

•  He  wu  created  ▼iaooimt  Tonrlngton  in  1721,  and  war  the  ancestor  of  tlM  prasenl 

vifloouiii. 
f  See  p.  562. 


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A.a  1720-1721.       THE  SOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE.  575 

debt  was  thrown  into  a  stock  to  pay  six  per  cent  interest  at  the  end 
of  five  years,  and  the  proprietors  were  to  enjoy  the  monopoly  of  trade 
to  the  coast  of  Peru.  Little,  however,  was  obtained  from  Spain, 
except  the  Asiento  treaty,  or  contract  for  supplying  negroes,  the 
privilege  of  annuaUy  sencUng  one  ship  of  less  than  500  tons  to  the 
South  Sea,  and  of  establishing  certain  factories;  and  even  these 
trifling  privileges  were  interrupted  by  the  Spanish  war.  Neverthe- 
less the  company  flourished,  and  was  regarded  as  a  sort  of  rival  to 
the  Bank  of  England.  As  the  government  was  desirous,  towards 
the  end  of  1719,  of  getting  rid  of  the  unredeemable  annuities  granted 
during  the  last  two  reigns,  and  amounting  to  800,000^.  per  annum, 
these  two  corporations  competed  for  the  purchase,  and  at  last  the 
South  Sea  Company  ofifered  the  enormous  sum  of  7^  millions. 
They  had  the  right  of  paying  off  the  annuitants,  who  accepted 
South  Sea  stock  in  lieu  of  their  government  stock ;  and  two-thirds 
of  them  consented  to  the  offer  of  8^  years'  purchase.  The  example 
of  Law's  Mississippi  scheme  in  Paris  had  created  a  rage  for  specula- 
tion. Large  subscriptions,  opened  by  the  South  Sea  Cknnpany, 
were  rapidly  filled;  its  trade  was  regarded  as  a  certain  road  to 
fortime,  and  in  August  the  £100  stock  rose  to  £1000 !  A  third  and 
a  fourth  subscription,  larger  than  the  former,  were  now  opened,  the 
directors  engaging  that  aftir  Christmas  their  dividend  should  not 
be  less  than  50  yer  cent  A  variety  of  other  bubbles  were  started 
at  the  same  time,  and  the  nation  was  seized  with  a  sort  of  madness. 
Not  only  men  of  all  ranks,  ages,  and  professions,  but  women  also, 
flocked  to  'Change  Alley.  The  very  streets  were  lined  with  desks 
and  clerks,  and  oonverted  into  counting-houses.  Among  these 
projects  was  a  fishery  for  wrecks  on  the  Irish  coast,  a  scheme  to 
make  salt  water  fresh,  to  extract  oil  from  sunflowers,  silver  from 
lead,  iron  from  pit-coal,  and  many  others  of  a  like  description.  One 
ingenious  projector  published  **  an  undertaking  to  be  revealed  in 
due  time,"  in  shares  of  100/.,  with  a  deposit  of  two  guineas,  and  in 
the  evening  decamped  with  1000  subscriptions!  By  proceeding 
against  some  of  these  companies  the  South  Sea  Company  itself 
caused  the  first  alarm.  The  general  delusion  was  exposed ;  but  the 
public  mind,  once  roused,  turned  its  attention  to  the  company's  own 
affairs.  Holders  of  stock  were  anxious  to  realize,  and  by  the  end 
of  September  it  had  falleu  from  1000  to  150.  The  news  of  the 
crash  produced  in  Paris  by  the  failure  of  Law's  scheme  completed 
the  panic.  Thousands  of  families  were  at  once  reduced  to  beggary. 
On  every  side  mi^bt  be  heard  execrations,  not  only  against  the 
company,  but  against  the  ministry,  and  even  the  king  and  his 
mistresses.  The  matter  whs  taken  up  in  both  houses,  and  is  said 
to  have  produced  the  death  of  Stanhope.     Attacked  by  the  young 


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Chap.  ixn. 


duke  of  Wharton  *  with  great  virulence,  the  premier  replied  with 
such  heat  as  to  occasion  an  apoplexy,  of  which  he  expired  the 
following  day  (February  5,  1721). 

§  10.  Townsbend  now  became  secretary  of  state,  and  Aislalne 
resigned  the  chancellorship  of  the  exchec^uer  to  Walpole  (February 
8).  A  committee  of  the  commons,  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
affairs  of  the  South  Sea  Company,  brought  to  light  details  of  gross 
corruption.  In  order  to  procure  the  passing  of  their  bill,  the 
directors  had  distributed  large  bribes  to  the  duchess  of  Kendal, 
Madame  de  Platen  (sister  of  the  counte<»s  of  Darlington),  and  to 
several  of  the  ministers,  as  the  earl  of  Sunderland,  secretary  Craggs, 
Mr.  Aislabie,  and  others.  The  estbtes  of  the  directors  were  con- 
fiscated, and  applied  to  the  benefit  of  the  sufferers. 

The  death  of  Stanhope,  C.  aggs,  and  Sunderland,  at  this  period, 
and  the  expulsion  of  Aislabie,  placed  the  chief  power  of  the  admi- 
nistration in  the  handb  of  Walpole,  who  continued  to  wield  it  for  a 
period  of  twenty  years.  Parliament,  dissolved  March  10,  1722,  was 
succeeded  by  another  equally  whiggish.  The  duke  of  Marlborough, 
who  had  long  laboured  under  a  i)aralytic  attack,  expired  (June  16, 
1722).  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  generals  England  ever  pro- 
duced ;  but,  though  he  posses.sed  a  solid  understanding,  a  certain 
degree  of  natural  eloquence,  and  a  pleasing  address,  yet,  like  many 
of  his  contemporaries,  he  could  n  ither  write  nor  spell  his  native 
language  correctly.  Avarice  was  the  great  blemish  of  his  character, 
which  frequently  betrayed  him  into  acts  of  meanness.  His  ducheas 
survived  until  1744. 

On  September  22  the  Pretender  published  at  Lucca  a  strange 
manifesto,  to  the  effect  that,  if  George  would  restore  him  to  the 
throne,  he  would  in  return  make  George  king  of  Hanover !  It  was 
circulated  in  England,  and  ordered  by  both  houses  to  be  burnt 
by  the  hangman.  This  year  a  Jacobite  plot  was  discovered,  in 
which  Atterbury,  bishop  of  Rochester,  and  three  or  four  peers,  were 
concerned.  It  was  to  be  assisted  by  an  invasion  from  Spain.  A 
bill  of  pains  and  penalties  was  brought  into  the  lords  against 
Atterbury,  who  was  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to  banishment 
(May,  1723).  At  Calais  he  met  Lord  Bolingbroke,  who  had 
obtained  a  pardon  and  was  returning  to  England.  The  bishop  died 
in  exile  at  Paris  (February  22,  1732),  and  was  privately  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey  the  May  following. 

§  11.  In  1724  a  serious  tumult  was  excited  in  Ireland  by  the 
coinage  of  "  Wood's  halfpence."    Copper  coin  had  long  been  scarce 


*  His  father,  the  earl  of  Wharton,  a  di»- 
tlnguished  whig,  mentioned  in  the  reign 
0f  queen  Anne,  was  created  a  marquess 


in  1716,  and  died  In  the  aaaie  y«ar.    Hli 

son  was  created  a  dnke  in  1718  and  died 
in  1731,  when  the  title  became  extincL 


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AJ).  1724-1725.      DISTURBANCE  IN  SCOTLAND.  577 

in  that  country.  To  remedy  this  defect,  a  patent  was  granted  to 
William  Wood,  a  coDsiderable  ironmaster,  for  coining  halfpence 
and  farthings  to  the  value  of  100,000Z.  Wood  was  arrogant  and 
indiscreet,  but,  according  to  sir  Isaac  Newton,  then  master  of  the 
mint,  he  appears  to  have  executed  his  contract  honestly.  The  Irish 
privy  council  and  parliament  set  their  faces  against  the  new  coinage. 
A  i»opular  clamour  was  raised.  Swift,  who  had  been  living  quietly 
the  last  ten  years,  seized  the  opportunity  for  exerting  his  unrivalled 
powers  of  sarcasm,  and  wrote  his  "  Drapier's  Letters,"  displaying 
astonishing  art  and  vigour.  In  the  midst  of  the  storm  lord  Carteret, 
afterwards  lord  Granville,  the  new  lord-lieutenant,  landed  in  Ireland. 
He  issued  a  proclamation  against  the  '*  Drapier's  Letters ;  **  ofifered 
a  reward  of  300/.  for  the  discovery  of  the  author;  and  caused 
Harding,  the  printer,  to  be  apprehended.  But  the  grand  jur\ 
threw  out  the  bill;  and  a  second  jury,  so  far  from  entertaining 
the  charge,  made  a  presentment,  drawn  up  by  Swift  himself, 
against  all  persons  who  should,  by  fraud  or  otherwise,  impose 
Wood's  halfpence  nponthe  public.  The  ministry  withdrew  Wood's 
patent,  and  granted  him  a  pension  of  3000/.  for  eight  years,  by 
way  of  compensation. 

In  1725,  the  imposition  of  threepence  on  every  barrel  of  alo 
brewed  in  Scotland  occasioned  serious  riots  in  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow.  The  impost  was  occasioned  by  the  unwillingness  of  the 
Scotch  to  pay  their  pro|  ortion  of  the  malt  tax ;  but  it  was  popularly 
ascribed  to  the  corruption  of  the  Scotch  members,  to  whom  Walpole 
allowed  10  guineas  a  week  during  their  stay  in  London,  telling  them 
that  they  must  make  good  the  cost  out  of  the  Scotch  revenue,  or  else 
'*  tie  up  their  stockings  with  their  own  garters."  It  was  an  age  of 
corruption.  Lord  chancellor  Macclesfield  was  this  session  found 
guilty  of  peculation  in  his  high  oflBce,  and  was  fined  30,000/. 

In  June,  1725,  the  king  revived  the  order  of  the  Bath,  which  had 
lain  in  abeyance  ever  since  the  coronation  of  Charles  II.  Walpole 
and  his  son  were  made  knights.  In  the  following  year  sir  Robert 
was  invested  with  the  Garter. 

§  12.  The  emperor  and  the  king  of  Spain  had  now  laid  aside 
their  quarrels,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna  had  formed  a  close 
confederacy  against  France  and  England  (April  30,  1725).  To 
obviate  this  danger,  the  English  court  concluded  at  Hanover  a 
defensive  alliance  with  France  and  Russia  (September  3,  1725). 
No  actual  hostilities,  however,  occurred  till  1727,  when  the 
Spaniards  n.ade  an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  Gibraltar.  A  general 
war  seemed  now  inevitable :  but  the  Dutch  and  the  Swedes  had 
acceded  to  the  treaty  of  Hanover;  Russia  had  receded  from  her 
engagements  with  the  emperor;  and  the  lattar,  conscious  of  his 


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GEORGE  I. 


OhAP.  tttt 


weakness,  detennined  to  abandon  Spain.  On  May  31,  the  pre- 
liminaries of  a  peace  were  signed  at  Paris.  Spain  and  England 
remained  in  a  state  of  semi-hostiUty. 

Gkorge  L  had  started  for  Hanover  this  summer  as  usual,  accom- 
panied by  lord  Townshend  and  the  duchess  of  KendaL  He  was 
seized  on  the  road  with  an  apoplexy ;  and  being  carried  towards  the 
residence  of  his  brother,  the  prince  bishop,  at  OsnabriLck,  expired  in 
his  coach  before  he  arrived  (June  11,  1727).  His  consort,  Sophia 
Dorothea  of  Zell,  had  died  a  few  months  before,  after  a  confinement 
of  32  years  in  the  castle  of  Ahlen,  for  a  suspected  intrigue  with 
count  Ronigsmark,  a  Swede.  It  is  said  that  in  her  last  illness  she 
intrusted  to  a  faithful  attendant  a  letter  addressed  to  the  king,  in 
which,  after  protesting  her  innocence,  and  complaining  of  his  ill 
usage,  she  summoned  him  to  meet  her  within  a  year  and  a  day  before 
the  tribunal  of  God,  to  answer  for  his  conduct.  The  story  goes,  that 
this  letter  was  put  into  the  king's  coach  as  he  entered  (Germany, 
and  he  was  so  alarmed  that  he  fell  into  a  convulsion  and  died. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS.' 


THE  CONVOCATION  OF  THE 
ENGLISH  CHURCH. 

The  CoDTocatioD  virtually  oeaMd  to 
exist  under  George  L  Ull  its  recent 
rcviTal;  and  the  following  acooont  of 
its  history,  abridged  from  Hallam.  will 
be  nseltil  to  students.  The  convocation 
of  the  province  of  Canterbmy  (for  that 
of  York  seems  never  to  have  been  im- 
portant) is  summoned  by  the  arch- 
bishop's writ,  under  the  king's  direction, 
along  with  every  parliament,  to  which 
it  bears  analogy  both  in  its  constituent 
parts  and  in  its  primary  functions. 
It  consists  (since  the  Beformation)  of 
the  sulft-agan  bishops,  forming  the 
upper  house ;  of  the  deans,  ardMieacons, 
a  proctor  or  proxy  for  each  chapter, 
and  two  from  each  diocese  elected 
by  the  parochial  deigy,  who  together 
constitute  the  lower  house.  In  this 
assembly  subsidies  were  granted,  and 
ecclesiastical  canons  enacted.  In  a  few 
instances,  as  under  Heniy  VIII.  and  Elisa- 
beth, convocation  was  consulted  on  mo- 
mentous questions  affecting  the  national 
religion.  The  king's  supremacy  was 
approved  in  1633,  the  articles  of  futh  were 
confirmed  in  1562,  by  the  convocation.  But 


their  power  to  enact  tnA  canons  without 
the  king's  licence  was  expressly  taken 
away  by  a  statute  of  Henry  Yin. ;  and, 
even  sul^Ject  to  this  condition,  their  power 
is  limited  by  several  later  acts  of  parlia- 
ment:—such  as  the  acts  of  uniformity 
under  Elizabeth  and  Charles  II.;  that 
confirming,  and  therefore  rendering  un- 
alterable, the  thiity-nine  articles;  thoae 
relating  to  non-resldenoe  and  other 
church  matters:— and  still  more,  per- 
haps, by  the  doctrine  gradually  estab- 
lished in  WestminstAr  Hall,  that  new 
ecclesiastical  canons  are  not  binding  oo 
the  laity.  The  convocation  aoowdin^. 
with  the  exception  of  1603,  when  it 
established  some  regulatioos,  and  of 
1640  (an  unfortunate  jMrecedent),  when 
it  attempted  more,  had  little  business 
but  to  grant  subsidies,  which,  however, 
were  from  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  always 
confirmed  l^  an  act  of  parliament;  an 
intimation,  no  doubt,  that  the  legislature 
did  not  wholly  acquiesce  in  their  power 
even  of  binding  the  clergy  in  a  nutter  of 
property.  This  practice  of  ecclesiastical 
taxation  was  silently  discontinued  inl6e4 ; 
and  ttom  that  time  the  clergy  have  been 
taxed  at  the  same  rate  and  in  the  same 
manner  with  the  laity.  (See  p.  458.)  It 


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NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


679 


was  the  iwtona  oooaeqnenoe  of  ibis  OMW- 
tlon  of  all  boBinen,  thai  the  coDVootlton, 
after  a  few  fonnalitlea,  either  a4Joiinied 
itaell  or  was  prorogoed  l^  a  royal  writ ; 
nor  had  it  ever,  with  the  few  exoeptioDS 
above  noticed,  sat  for  more  than  a  few 
days,  tUl  its  snpply  conld  be  voted.  Bat 
about  the  time  of  the  Revolntion  of  1688 
the  party  most  adverse  to  the  new  order 
sednlonsly  propagated  a  doctrine  that  the 
convocation  onght  to  be  advised  with 
upon  all  questions  affecting  the  church, 
and  ought  even  to  watch  over  its  interests 
as  the  parliament  did  over  those  of  the 
kingdom.  The  oommmis  had  so  fer  en- 
couraged this,  as  to  refer  to  the  convoca- 
tion the  great  question  of  a  reform  in  the 
liturgy  for  the  sake  of  comprehension; 
but  it  was  not  suffered  to  sit  much  during 
the  rest  of  William's  reign.  The  succeed- 
ing reign,  however,  began  under  tory 
auspices,  and  the  convocation  was  in  more 
sctivity  for  some  years  than  at  any  former 
period.  The  lower  house  of  that  assembly 
disUnguished  itself  by  its  opposition  to  the 
bishops,  especially  to  those  who,  having 
been  appointed  by  whigs,  were  supposed  to 
advocate  doctrines  adverse  to  the  clergy 
and  fevourable  to  dissenters.  Whilst, 
therefore,  the  divine  right  of  episcopacy 
was  generally  held  by  the  lower  house  of 
convocation,  individual  bishops  wen  aot 


exempt  fkom  some  severe  rwlecuooB  on 
their  conduct  and  their  tenets. 

The  government  of  George  I.  at  first 
permitted  the  convocation  to  bold  its 
sittings;  but  in  consequence  of  the  attack 
made  on  Hoadly,  bishop  of  Bangor, 
which  gave  rise  to  the  celelmited  Ban- 
gorian  controversy,  the  convocation  was 
prorogued  by  government  in  1717,  ind 
never  sat  again  for  business  till  the  reign 
of  queen  Victoria.— CbntiOMKoiKri  Bit- 
tory,  lit  324  seq. 

Hoadly  was  sttacked  by  the  lower  house 
(1)  for  propagating  opinions  subvendve  of 
all  government  and  discipline  In  the 
church  of  Christ ;  (2)  for  impugning  the 
royal  supremacy  In  causes  ecclesiastical, 
and  denying  the  right  of  the  legislature 
to  enforce  obedience  in  religious  mattera. 

In  October.  1852,  a  royal  licence  was 
issued,  permitting  convocation  to  resume 
its  synodkal  ftuctions,  and,  simulta- 
neously with  Uie  opening  of  the  new  par- 
liament in  November,  the  convocatloo 
met  for  the  despatch  of  business.  On  this 
occasion  it  was  a4}oumed  after  a  week's 
session,  but  since  then  the  duration  of  its 
sittings  aiid  the  scope  of  its  discussions 
have  bffn  considerably  enlarged ;  the  chief 
practical  triiit  of  its  labours,  as  ye^  being 
the  revised  lectlonary. 


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MedalofOeorgeir. 
Obr. :  GKUtoiTS  .  n  .  d  :  o  :  mag.  bhi  :  fra  :  kt  .  h  :  rbx  .  r.  o.    Bust  to  ilgkt. 

Below,  L.  NATTBR.  P. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

aEOROB  n.,  h.  1683 ;  r.  a.d.  1727-1760. 

§  1.  Accession  of  George  II.  His  character.  Ministry.  §  2.  Treaty  of 
Seville.  The  royal  family.  Rupture  with  Spain.  §  3.  Rise  of  Pitt 
Decline  of  Walpole's  power.  §  4.  Attack  on  Porto  Belle  and  St.  Jago. 
Anson's  voyage.  §  5.  Resignation  of  Walpole.  New  ministry.  Inqairy 
into  Walpole's  administration.  §  6.  War  of  the  Austrian 'succession. 
Campaigns  of  1742  and  1743.  Battle  of  Dettingen.  §  7.  Pelham's 
ministry.  Threatened  invasion  of  the  Pretender.  The  French  fleet  dis- 
persed. §  8.  Ministerial  arrangements.  War  with  France.  Battle 
of  Fontenoy.  §  9.  The  Pretender  Charles  Edward  in  Scotland.  His 
character.  The  raising  of  the  standard  and  march  to  Edinburgh. 
§  10.  Battle  of  Preston  Pans.  March  to  Derby.  §  11.  Retreat  of  the 
Pretender.  Battles  of  Falkirk  Muir  and  CuUoden.  Flight  of  prince 
Charles  and  others.  Executions.  §  12.  Change  of  ministry.  Treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  §  13.  Later  life  of  the  Pretender.  Halifax  settled. 
Death  of  Frederick,  prince  of  Wales.  §  14.  Newcastle's  ministry. 
Hostilities  between  France  and  England.  The  French  take  Minorca. 
§  15.  Trial  and  execution  of  admiral  Byng.  Pitt  prime  minister. 
§  16.  Expedition  to  Rochefort.  Seven  Years'  War.  Convention  of 
Klostcr  Seven.  §  17.  Campaign  of  1758.  Conquest  of  Cape  Breton. 
Cherbourg  destroyed.  §  18.  Campaign  of  1759.  Naval  victories 
Battle  of  Minden.  Conquest  of  Canada.  Death  of  general  Wolfe. 
Death  of  George  II. 

$  1.  George  II.  was  44  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  his  accession. 
In  temper  he  was  not  so  shy  and  reserved  as  his  father,  and  he  was 
subject  to  violent  gusts  of  anger;   but  his  ruling  passion  wa^ 


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A.D.  1727.  ACCESSIOIJ    OF  GEORGE  TL  8tti 


twxv.  •  OFTiMO  PRivcxpi.    TetiMtjle  temple.    Below,  oioiooozzxzL 

avarice.  He  was  fond  of  music,  but  had  no  taste  for  literature. 
His  mind  had  been  little  cultivated,  but  he  loved  justice,  and  he  was 
personally  courageous.  His  habits  of  life  were  temperate  and 
regular.  His  fluency  in  speaking  English  gave  him  an  advantage 
over  his  father,  who  had  been  obliged  to  converse  with  Walpole 
in  Latin,  which  the  latter  had  almost  forgotten,  and  the  king  had 
never  perfectly  learnt.  In  1 705  George  II.  had  married  the  princess 
Caroline  of  Anspach,  who  at  that  time  possessed  considerable  beauty. 
Her  manners  were  graceful  and  dignified,  and  her  conduct  was  marked 
with  propriety  and  good  sense.  Her  influence  over  her  husband 
was  unbounded,  and  during  ten  years  she  may  be  said  to  have 
ruled  England.  The  issue  of  this  marriage  were  two  sons,  Frederick, 
prince  of  Wales,  bom  in  1707,  William,  duke  of  Cumberland,  bom 
in  1721,  and  five  daughters. 

When  the  news  of  his  fat^.r^/s  death  reached  the  palace  at  Rich- 
mond, George  II.  had  retired  to  bed  for  his  customary  afternoon's 
doze.  Sir  Robert  Wal|)ole  knelt  down,  kissed  his  hand,  presented 
Townahend's  letter  announcing  his  father's  death,  and,  in  the  full 
expectation  that  he  should  be  retained  in  his  office,  inquired  who 
should  draw  the  necessary  declaration  to  the  privy  council.  To  his 
surprise  and  mortification,  the  king  selected  sir  Spencer  Compton, 
one  of  his  favourites  when  prince  of  Wales ;  but  Compton  was  so 
ignorant  that  he  could  do  nothing  without  Walpole's  advice  and 
assistance.  Queen  Caroline  was  in  favour  of  Walpole,  who  in  a  few 
days  triumphed  over  the  king's  prejudices,  and  the  old  ministers 
were  reappointed. 

§  2.  The  first  ten  or  twelve  years  of  the  new  king's  reign  were 


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582  GEORGE  IL  Chap.  xxx. 

marked  by  few  erents  of  importance.  Walpole  mfdntained  his 
power  bj  his  parliamentary  tactics  and  unscrupulous  bribery.  The 
nation  was  peaceable  and  prosperous.  In  the  spring  of  1728  the 
king  of  Spain  notified  his  desire  for  peace ;  but  the  negociations  were 
long  protracted.  By  the  treaty  of  Seville,  not  finally  concluded  till 
November  9,  1729,  a  defensive  alliance  was  established  between 
England^  Spain,  and  France,  to  which  Holland  subsequently  acceded. 
The  EngUsh  trade  to  America  was  placed  on  its  former  footing ;  all 
captures  were  restored,  and  the  Aaiento  was  confirmed  to  the  South 
Sea  Company.*  Gibraltar  was  tacitly  relinquished  by  Spain,  and 
the  strong  lines  of  San  Roque  across  the  isthmus  were  now  con- 
structed. A  few  months  after  this  treaty  lord  Townshend  resigned, 
after  an  open  rupture  with  Walpole  (May,  1730).  The  two  secre- 
taries of  state  were  now  lord  Harrington  and  the  duke  of  Newcastle. 

Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  lived  on  bad  terms  with  his  father, 
George  II.,  as  George  II.  had  done  with  G^rge  I.  Weak  and 
vain,  he  was  easily  led  by  flatterers.  He  affected  to  patronize 
literature,  probably  because  his  father  despised  and  n^lected  it ;  and 
his  residence  was  frequented  by  men  of  wit  and  genius,  especially 
by  Bolingbroke,  whose  "  Patriot  King  "  was  composed  in  anticipa- 
tion of  his  future  reign,  and  as  a  sort  of  satire  on  that  of  his  father. 
In  1737  the  difference  between  the  prince  and  the  king  came  to  an 
open  rupture.  Frederick,  who  had  married,  in  1736,  Augusta  of  Saxe 
Gotha,  was  ordered  to  leave  St.  James*s,  with  all  his  family,  and 
took  up  his  residence  at  Norfolk  House  in  St.  James's  square 
(September  14).  All  persons  who  visited  him  were  ft>rbidden  to 
appear  at  court.  The  separation  of  the  royal  family  was  followed 
in  a  few  weeks  by  the  death  of  queen  Caroline  (November  20, 1737). 
Next  year  the  king,  in  defiance  of  all  decency,  brought  over,  as  his 
mistress,  Sophia  de  Walmoden,  a  married  lady,  who  was  created 
countess  of  Yarmouth  (February,  1740).  This  is  the  last  instance 
in  England  of  a  king's  mistress  being  raised  to  the  peerage. 

Events  were  now  rapidly  tending  to  a  war  with  Spain.  The 
Spaniards  complained  of  the  illicit  proceedings  of  English  traders ; 
the  English  of  the  right  of  search  exercised  in  an  insolent  manner 
by  the  Spaniards.  There  was  likewise  a  question  between  the 
two  countries  respecting  the  boundaries  of  Georgia,  a  new  settlement 
in  America  named  in  honour  of  the  king.  The  nation  was  at  that 
time  greatly  incensed  by  a  tale  which  Burke  afterwards  characterized 
as  "  The  Fable  of  Jenkins's  Ears."  Jenkins  was  the  master  of  a  small 
trading  sloop  in  Jamaica,  which  seven  years  before  had  been  over- 
hauled by  a  Spanish  guarda-costa,  the  commander  of  which,  finding 
nothing  contraband,  tore  off  one  of  Jenkins's  ears,  bidding  him  carry 
•  See  p.  5t5. 


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A.D.  1728-1789.       RISE  OF  THE  ELDER  PITT.  583 

it  to  king  George,  and  tell  him  that  if  he  had  caught  the  king  he 
would  have  served  him  in  the  same  manner.  This  ear  (which,  how- 
ever, some  affirmed  he  had  lost  in  the  pillory)  Jenkins  carried  about 
with  him  wrapped  up  in  cotton.  He  was  now  produced  at  the  bar 
of  the  House  of  Ck)mmons,  in  order  to  excite  the  public  indignation ; 
and  on  being  asked  by  a  member,  what  were  his  feelings  at  the 
moment  of  the  outrage,  Jenkins  answered,  *'  I  recommended  my  soul 
to  Gk)d,  and  my  cause  to  my  country."  These  words  ran  through 
the  nation  like  wildfire,  and  the  cry  of  "  No  search  "  was  taken 
up  by  all  as  a  watchword.  Averse  to  war  as  he  was,  Walpole  felt 
that  something  must  be  done  to  appease  the  public  feeling.  A 
fleet  of  10  sail  of  the  line  was  despatched  to  the  Mediterranean ; 
letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  were  issued ;  troops  and  stores  were 
sent  to  (Georgia ;  and  the  British  merchants  in  Spain  were  recom- 
mended to  register  their  goods  before  notaries,  in  case  of  a  rupture. 
These  vigorous  measures  extorted  from  the  Spaniards  (January  14, 
1739)  a  convention,  the  terms  of  which  were  announced  by  the 
king,  in  his  opening  speech  to  the  parliament,  "  with  great  satisfac- 
tion "  and  appear,  in  fact  to  have  been  tolerably  favourable.  But  the 
nation  was  not  satisfied.  The  compensation  offered  by  Spain  was 
deemed  inadequate ;  above  all,'  the  obnoxious  right  of  search  was 
still  retained ;  and  Walpole  carried  the  address  on  the  king's  speech 
only  by  a  small  majority. 

§  3.  Among  the  ranks  of  the  opposition,  William  Pitt,  afterwards 
earl  of  Chatham,  now  rose  to  eminence.  He  was  the  grandson  of 
Thomas  Pitt,  governor  of  Madras,  and  was  bom  in  1708.  Educated 
at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  he  was  compelled  by 
ill  health  to  leave  the  university  without  taking  a  degree,  and 
he  completed  his  education  by  a  tour  on  the  continent.  Having 
obtained  a  cometcy  in  the  Blues,  ho  entered  parliament,  as  member 
for  Old  Sarum,  in  1735,  and  joined  the  opposition  against  Walpole. 
Plis  figure  was  tall  and  striking,  his  nose  aquiline,  his  eye  fiery  and 
expressive,  his  voice  at  once  harmonious  and  powerful.  His  grand 
and  imposing  oratory  had  an  overpowering  effect  upon  his  hearers. 
Superior  to  his  contemporaries  in  his  freedom  from  venality  and 
intrigue,  he  was  too  often  inclined  to  be  overbearing,  in  the  con- 
sriousness  of  his  power  and  the  integrity  of  his  motives;  and  his 
temper,  owing  partly  to  his  bad  health,  was  not  unfrequently  bitter, 
wayward,  and  impracticable.  His  patrimony  was  only  100/.  a  year ; 
his  cometcy  he  lost  through  some  impassioned  speeches  against  the 
minister.  Taken  into  the  service  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  he  did  not 
cease  to  launch  invectives  against  Walpole. 

Nearly  all  the  men  of  the  greatest  ability  were  now  on  the  side 
of  the  opposition.     Walpole*s  staunchest  supporters  were  in  the 


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584  QEOBGE  IL  Chap.  xxx. 

House  of  Peers ;  but  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  a  ready  debater,  and 
lord  chancellor  Hardwicke  did  not  cordially  agree  with  him  on  the 
Spanish  question.  The  king  himself  advocated  vigorous  measures 
against  Spain ;  and  Walpole  fbund  it  necessary  to  choose  between 
a  war  of  which  he  disapproved,  and  retirement  from  office.  He 
determined  on  the  former ;  and,  as  the  Spaniards  had  evaded  the 
peremptory  demands  made  \x\x>n  them,  war  was  declared  amidst 
great  public  rejoicings  (October  23,  1739). 

§  4.  A  squadron  had  already  been  despatched  to  the  West  Indies 
under  admiral  Vernon,  and  on  the  20th  of  November  he  appeared 
off  Porto  Bello  on  the  isthmus  of  Darien.  The  Spaniards  were 
unprepared,  and  the  place  was  captured  without  much  resistance; 
but  little  treasure  was  found.  In  the  following  year,  Vernon  was 
reinforced  by  a  large  armament  commanded  by  sir  Chaioner  Ogle, 
with  a  military  force  mider  lord  Cathcart.  When  the  fleet  assembled 
at  Jamaica,  it  was  found  to  consist  of  115  ships,  30  of  which  were 
of  the  line,  carrying  15,000  sailors  and  12,000  troops.  Vernon 
resolved  to  attack  Carthagena,  the  strongest  Spanish  settlement  in 
America,  having  a  garrison  of  4000  men  with  300  guns.  It  was  not 
till  March  4,  1741,  that  the  British  fleet  appeared  before  the  place. 
The  harbour  was  entered  after  considerable  resistance,  and  Vernon 
despatched  a  ship  to  England  to  announce  his  approaching  victory. 
The  troops  were  landed  and  a  night  assault  planned ;  but,  though 
it  was  conducted  with  determined  bravery,  it  was  repulsed  with 
great  loss.  Vernon  and  Wentworth,  who  had  succeeded  Cathcart, 
did  not  co-operate  cordially.  Sickness  broke  out  among  the  soldiers, 
and  in  a  few  days  their  effective  force  was  reduced  to  one-half. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  was  resolved  to  return  to  Jamaica,  all 
the  damage  done  to  the  Spaniards  consisting  in  the  destruction  of 
their  forts.  Vernon  afterwards  proceeded  to  St.  Jago,  in  Cuba, 
but  on  reconnoitring  he  thought  it  prudent  to  withdraw. 

Another  squadron,  under  commodore  Anson,  had  been  despatched 
in  September,  1740,  to  sail  round  Cape  Horn  and  attack  Peru,  The 
sufferings  and  adventures  of  Anson  on  this  expedition,  during  which 
he  circumnavigated  the  globe,  and  returned  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Spithead  in  the  Centurion^  his  only  remaining  ship,  in 
Jime,  1744,  have  been  detailed  in  a  well-known  narrative.  So  far 
as  the  war  was  concerned,  the  expedition  resulted  only  in  the 
capture,  plunder,  and  destruction  of  the  town  of  Paita,  and  in 
the  taking  of  several  prizes,  the  most  important  of  which  was  one 
of  the  great  Manilla  galleons,  having  on  board  silver  coin  and  ingots 
worth  a  million  and  a  half. 

§  5.  The  third  parliament  of  George  II.  met  on  December  4, 1741, 
and  proved  unfavourable  to  Walpole.      He  was  defeated   in   the 


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A.D.  1741-1742.     WAB  OF  THE  AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSION.      585 

election  of  a  chairman  of  committees,  and  again  on  the  question  of 
the  Westminster  election,  where  it  was  alleged  that  the  govern- 
ment candidates  had  been  brought  in  through  the  interference  of 
the  military.  Another  defeat  on  the  Chippenham  election  petition 
determined  him  reluctantly  to  resign  (February  17,  1742).  The 
king  parted  with  him  with  all  the  marks  of  profound  regret,  and 
created  bim  earl  of  Orford.  The  country  had  prospered  and  grown 
rich  under  his  long  and  peaceful  administration.  He  never  after- 
wards took  much  part  in  politics,  and  died  in  1745.* 

The  king  now  sent  for  William  Pulteney,  one  t  f  the  most  dis- 
tinguished statesmen  of  the  time.  He  would  accept  no  place 
himself,  but  only  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  and  a  peerage  with  the 
title  of  earl  of  Bath.  He  consented  that  the  king's  old  fav-»urite, 
sir  Spencer  Compton,  now  lord  Wilmington,  should  be  at  the  head 
of  the  treasury;  and  he  named  Mr.  Sandys  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  lord  Carteret  secretary  of  state,  and  the  marquess  of 
Tweeddale  as  secretary  for  Scotland.  Lord  Hardwicke,  the  chan- 
cellor, and  several  others,  retained  their  posts.  Carteret  was  in 
reality  the  prime  minister,  and  favoured  the  king's  proposals  for 
war.  Walpole  had  endeavoured  to  procure  a  promise  from  Pulteney 
that  no  proceedings  should  be  instituted  against  him ;  but  Pulteney 
refused,  and,  before  he  proceeded  to  the  House  of  Peers,  supported 
a  motion  of  lord  Limerick's,  in  March,  1742,  for  an  inquiry  into 
the  last  ten  years  of  Walpole's  administration.  The  motion  was 
carried  by  a  small  majority,  and  a  secret  committee  of  21  persons 
was  named.  But  its  discoveries  led  to  nothing  of  importance,  and 
the  design  was  abandoned. 

§  6.  Meanwhile  England  had  taken  part  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian 
*»ucces8ion.  The  emperor  Charles  VI.  bad  died,  October  20, 1740. 
The  succession  of  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa  to  his  Austrian  domi- 
nions was  guaranteed  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  to  which  England 
was  a  party,  but  it  was  also  claimed  by  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  whose 
pretensions  were  supported  by  France  and  by  the  Hourbon  king  of 
Spain.  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  better  known  as  Frederick  the 
Great,  resolved  to  profit  by  the  conjuncture,  and,  entering  Silesia  at 
the  head  of  30,000  men,  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Molwitz  (1741). 
A  French  army  was  poured  into  Bavaria.  The  elector,  inaugiurated 
as  duke  of  Austria,  marched  against  Vienna,  whilst  Maria  Theresa, 
with  her  infant  son  Joseph,  took  refuge  among  the  Hungarians, 

*  After  bis  son  Robert  and  bis  grand- 
son George  bad  beid  tbe  earldom,  it  de- 
volved (1791)  on  Horatio,  the  tbird  son  of 
sir  Robert  (bom  October  6.  1717),  wbo  is 
better  known  as  Horace  Walpole,  and 
whose  letters  are  an  important  source  for 


the  history  of  these  times.  The  earldom 
of  Orford  became  extinct  on  his  death 
(1797),  but  was  revived  (1806)  in  &vour 
of  bis  couBln  Horatio,  by  whose  descendant 
it  is  sUU  held. 


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586  QEORQE  n.  Chap,  zxx, 

who  reoeiyed  her  with  the  cry :  "  Moriamur  pro  Bege  noetro,  Maria 
Theresa — Let  us  die  for  our  king,  Maria  Theresa."    The  English 
parliament,  zealous  in  her  cause,  voted  her  a  yearly  subsidy  of 
300,000^.,  and  a  sum  of  five  millions  for  carrying  on  the  war 
(1742).    A  body  of  16,000  men,  under  the  veteran  earl  of  Stair, 
was  despatched  to  co-operate  with  the  Dutch,  and  was  reinforced 
by  6000  Hessians,  and  subsequently  by  16,000  Hanoverians,  in 
British  pay.    Great  indignation  was  expressed  that  Hanover,  though 
more  interested  in  the  war  than  England,  had  contributed  nothing 
to  its  expenses ;    and    Pitt  declared  that    this    great    kingdom 
had  become  a  mere  province  of  that  despicable  electorate.    The 
king,  however,  afterwards  furnished  6000  Hanoverians,  paid  by 
his  electoral  dominions.      Maria  Theresa,  at  the  instigation  of 
George  II.,  propitiated  the  king  of  Prussia  by  ceding  Silesia  (July, 
1742).     By  this  arrangement  Frederick  was  induced  to  remain 
neutral ;    and,  in   November  following,  a  treaty  was  concluded 
between  Great  Britain,  Holland,  and  Prussia,  to  oppose  the  French 
and  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  now  emperor  by  the  style  of  Charles  VII. 
In  the  following  year  (1743)  the  British  army  under  lord  Stair, 
amounting,  with  Hanoverians  and  Hessians,  to  nearly  40,000  men, 
advanced  into  Germany,  and  took  up  a  position  at  Hochst,  between 
Mentz  and  Frankfort.     Stair,  who  had  never  been  a  great  general, 
had  ascended  the  right  bank  of  the  Main,  with  the  view  of  commu- 
nicating with  the  Austrians,  when  he  was  cut  off  from  his  antici- 
pated supplies  in  Franconia,  and  from  Iiis  own  magazines  at  Hanau, 
by  marshal  Noailles.     George  11.,  who  had  as  usual  gone  over  to 
Hanover  in  the  spring,  atteniied  by  his  son  the  duke  of  Cumber- 
land and  by  lord  Carteret,  joined  Stair  on  the  19th  of  June,  and 
found  his  army   in   the  most  critical  position,  cooped  up  in  a 
narrow  valley  between  Mount  Spcssart  and  the  Main,  extending 
from  Aschafifenburg,  on  that  river,  to  the  village  of  Dettingen.     As 
forage  was  beginning  to  fail,  it  was  resolved  to  march  back  the  army 
to  their  magazines  and  rcinforccments^ — a  hazardous  operation  in  the 
face  of  a  superior  enemy.     On  June  27,  the  English  withdrew  from 
Aschafifenburg  in  two  colunms,  the  king  bringing  up  the  rear,  a 
post  of  no  little  danger.     Meanwhile,  unknown  to  the  English,  the 
French  had  occupi».d  in  force  a  strong  position  at  Dettingen,  covered 
by  a  morass  and  ravine.     As  soon  as  Aschaffenburg  was  evacuated, 
it  was  occupied  by  12,000  French;  and,  as  their  batteries  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Main  began  to   play  on  the  flank  of  the 
British,  it  became  necessary  to  force  a  way  through  Dettingen  at 
all   risks.    Fortunately  Noailles  had  intrusted  the  force  at  this 
place  to  his  nephew,  the  duke  de  Grammont,  who,  burning  to  dis- 
tinguish himself,  and  thinking  that  he  had  btfore  him  only  part  of 

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AJ).  1748-1744.      THE  YOUNG  PRETENDER.  687 

the  allied  army,  abandoned  his  vantage  ground,  and  advanced 
through  the  defiles  to  give  battle  on  the  open  plain.  By  this  move- 
ment the  French  batteries  were  compelled  to  suspend  their  fire, 
for  fear  of  damaging  their  friends.  Placing  himself  at  the  head  of 
a  dense  mass  of  British  and  Hanoverian  infantry,  the  king  charged 
the  enemy,  and  put  them  completely  to  the  n>ut.  The  French  lost 
about  6000  men ;  the  British  lost  only  half  that  number,  and,  resum- 
ing their  march,  they  arrived  safely  at  Hanau.  This  was  the  last 
battle  in  which  a  king  of  England  was  personally  engaged.  In 
consequence  of  this  victory,  and  of  the  advance  of  prince  Charles  of 
Lorraine,  the  French  were  compelled  to  evacuate  Germany. 

§  7.  On  the  death  of  Compton,  lord  Wilmington  (July  2, 1743), 
the  king  named  Henry  Pelham,  brother  of  the  duke  of  Newcastle, 
first  lord  of  the  treasury.  From  the  time  of  Walpole,  who  held  that 
office  so  long  with  absolute  power,  the  head  of  the  treasury  began 
to  be  regarded  as  prime  minister.  Formerly  the  chief  authority 
had  been  enjoyed  by  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state.  Pelham's 
abilities  were  moderate,  but  he  was  superior  to  his  brother,  the  duke 
of  Newcastle. 

The  king  lost  the  popularity  his  victory  was  calculated  to  pro- 
cure, by  the  partiality  which  he  displayed  for  Hanoverians.  Lord 
Stair  resigned,  and  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  many  other 
English  officers  threw  up  their  commissions.  Even  in  loyal  com- 
panies the  toast  of  "  No  Hanoverian  king  "  was  not  unfrequent,  and 
the  name  of  Hanover  became  a  reproach.  Yet  it  was  necessary  to 
keep  a  large  force  on  foot.  The  French  were  determined  to  act  no 
longer  as  mere  auxiliaries,  but  to  declare  war  both  against  England 
and  Austria,  and  to  take  the  field  with  a  large  army.  Cardinal 
Tencin,  who  had  succeeded  the  pacific  Fleury,  was  a  warm  friend 
of  the  house  of  Stiiart,  to  whom  he  owed  many  obligations ;  and  the 
discontents  in  Fiugland  inspired  the  hope  of  effecting  a  successful 
Jacobite  invasion.  Prince  Charles  Edward,  bom  in  1720,  grandson  of 
James  IL,  was  to  be  the  hero  of  this  enterprise,  for  age  had  deprived 
his  father  James  even  of  the  little  spirit  he  once  possessed.  He  signed 
at  Rome  a  commission  declaring  his  son,  Charles,  regent  in  his 
absence,  and  a  proclamation  to  be  published  on  landing. 

Prince  Charles,  commonly  called  the  Young  Pretender, set  out  fix)m 
Rome  (January  9,  1744),  and  proceeded  to  Gravelines  under  the 
assumed  name  of  the  Chevalier  Douglas.  At  Dunkirk  15,000 
French  veterans  had  been  collected  under  the  command  of  marshal 
Sa.xe,  as  Charles's  lieutenant;  transports  had  been  prepared  for 
them,  and  18  sail  of  the  line  were  appointed  for  their  convoy.  They 
put  to  sea  in  February,  and  neared  the  English  fleet  under  admiral 
Korris,  off  Dungenwi.    But,  as  it  was  growing  dark*  "*Iorrii  put 


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588 


QEOROE   n. 


Chap.  xzx. 


off  an  engagement  till  the  following  day.  A  dreadful  storm  arose, 
committing  frightful  havoc  on  the  French  fleet.  Some  of  the  lai^esft 
transports  foundered  with  all  on  board ;  others  were  wrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Flanders ;  the  remainder  of  the  armament  reached  Dunkirk 
in  a  crippled  state.  In  consequence  of  this  misfortune  the  French 
ministry  relinquished  the  expedition,  and  ]>rince  Charles  returned 
to  Paris.    (Supplement,  Note  All.) 

§  8.  The  British  resident  in  that  capital  loudly  complained  of 
the  encouragement  thus  given  to  the  Pretender.  But  the  French 
replied  by  a  declaration  of  war,  couched  in  the  most  offensive  terms 
(March  20),  and  in  May  Louis  XV.  entered  Flanders  in  person, 
with  80,000  men  commanded  by  marshal  Saxe.  In  open  violation 
of  his  treaties  with  Maiia  Theresa,  Frederick  of  Prussia  broke  into 
Bohemia  and  Moravia ;  but  before  the  winter,  Maria  Theresa,  with 
the  help  of  the  Hungarians,  drove  the  Prussians  out  of  Bohemia. 

In  November  of  this  year  Carteret,  now  become  earl  Granville* 
by  the  death  of  his  mother,  resigned  his  post  of  secretary  of  state, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  earl  of  Harrington.  Lord  Winchelsea 
and  other  persons  of  inferior  note  also  retired,  Pelham  opened 
negociations  with  Pitt ;  but  he  would  accept  no  office  except  that 
of  secretary  at  war,  and  the  ministry  were  not  yet  prepared  to  part 
with  sir  William  Yonge.  The  king  h^d  a  strong  aversion  to  both 
Pitt  and  Chesterfield,  who  became  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  as  the 
king  would  not  allow  him  to  be  made  a  secretary  of  state.  Pitt 
promised  Pelham  his  support,  and  the  administration  now  became 
strong.  It  fell,  however,  into  the  same  courtly  or  Hanoverian 
policy  for  which  Granville  hnd  been  denounced.  In  January,  1745, 
a  quadruple  alliance  was  formed  by  England,  Holland,  Austria,  and 
Saxony ;  and  the  subsidy  to  the  queen  of  Hungary  was  increased 
to  half  a  million.  In  this  Pitt  and  Chesterfield  acquiesced.  About 
the  same  time  the  emperor  Charles  VII.  died  at  Munich,  and  thus  one 
obstacle  to  a  peace  was  removed.  In  the  following  September 
the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa  was  elected  emperor  with  the  title  of 
Francis  I.,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  lineof  Hapsburg-Lorraine. 

The  most  memorable  event  in  the  campaign  of  this  year  was  the 
battle  of  Fontenoy  (April  30,  1745).  The  French  army  of  76,000 
men,  under  marshal  Saxe,  occupied  a  strong  position  near  that  place ; 
the  allied  array  numbered  only  about  60,000,  of  whom  28,000  were 
English  and  Hanoverians.  Nevertheless  the  French  lines  would 
have  been  carried  by  the  British  and  Hanoverians,  under  the  duke 
of  Cumberland  and  lord  Ligonier,  his  military  tutor,  but  for  the 


•  Thla  title  became  exUnct  in  1776. 
The  present  earl  Oninvllle,  Granville 
Ltvwon-Gower,  is  the  son  of  the  youngest 


son  of  the  first  marquess  of  Stafford,  wbo 
was  created  viscount  OraaviUe  in  1816, 
and  earl  Granville  in  1833. 


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AJ>.  1746.     THE  YOUNG  PBETENBER  IN  SCOTLAND.       589 

shameful  flight  of  the  Dutch.  The  British  retreated  in  good  order 
to  Athy  and  the  French  then  took  Toumay,  Ghent,  Bruges,  Oude- 
narde,  Dendermond,  and  Ostend.  The  British  arms  were  more 
successful  in  America,  where  Louisbourg,  the  capital  of  Cape 
Breton,  was  taken  from  the  French  after  a  49  days'  siege  (June  15). 

§  9.  The  defeat  of  the  British  at  Fontenoy  appeared  to  prince 
Charles  to  afford  a  favourable  opportunity  for  renewing  his  attempt 
at  invasion.  He  had  been  informed  by  his  friends  in  Scotland  that 
nothing  could  be  done  unless  he  brought  at  least  6000  men  and 
10,000  stand  of  arms ;  and  these  it  was  impossible  to  obtain,  for  the 
French  had  abandoned  their  efforts  in  his  cause.  Yet  Charles 
determined  to  persevere,  without  the  knowledge  and  sanction  either 
of  his  father  or  of  the  French  court.  By  pawning  his  jewels  and 
borrowing  from  his  friends,  he  raised  between  7000^.  and  800W. 
With  this  money  he  purchased  arms  and  ammunition ;  and  he  even 
contrived,  by  means  of  some  English  merchants  settled  at  Nantes,  to 
procure  the  service  of  two  French  men-of-war.  On  board  of  one  of 
these,  the  Elizabeth^  of  67  guns,  he  shipped  his  arms,  and  he  himself, 
disguised  as  a  student  of  the  Scotch  college  at  Paris,  embarked  in  the 
other,  the  Doutelle,  a  fast-sailing  brig  of  18  guns  (July  2,  1746). 
Four  days  after  leaving  Belleisle  they  fell  in  with  the  Lion,  a 
British  man-of-war  of  58  guns,  when  an  engagement  ensued,  in 
which  the  Elizabeth  was  so  crippled  that  she  was  obliged  to  put 
back.  The  DouteUe,  which  had  taken  no  part  in  the  action,  pur- 
sued her  voyage ;  and,  though  chased  by  another  man-of-war, 
Charles  arrived  safely  in  the  Western  Isles  of  Scotland,  and  landed 
at  Moidart,  in  Inverness-shire  (July  25).  Several  of  the  Highland 
chieftains  remonstrated  against  his  enterprise  as  unwise  and  im- 
practicable :  for  his  arms  had  been  lost,  and  the  only  adherents  who 
landed  with  him  were,  his  tutor,  sir  Thomas  Sheridan ;  the  marquess 
of  Tullibardine ;  sir  John  Macdonald,  an  officer  in  the  Spanish 
service;  Kelly,  a  nonjuring  clergyman;  Francis  Strickland,  an 
English  gentleman;  iEneas  Macdonald,  a  banker  in  Paris;  and 
Buchanan,  who  had  been  sent  as  messenger  to  Rome  by  cardinal 
Tencin.    These  were  afterwards  called  "  the  seven  men  of  Moidart." 

Charles,  son  of  James,  the  chevalier  of  St.  George,  and  called  the 
Young  Chevalier,  relied  for  success  on  his  captivating  manners.  In 
person  he  was  tall,  well  formed,  and  active;  his  face  eminently 
handsome ;  his  complexion  fair ;  his  eyes  blue ;  his  hair  fell  in 
natural  ringlets  on  his  neck.  His  address,  at  once  dignified  and 
affable,  was  calculated  to  win  attachment ;  yet  his  misfortunes  had 
rendered  him  somewhat  jealous  of  his  dignity.  He  yjossessed 
courage  and  a  romantic  sense  of  honour ;  he  was  decisive  and 
resolute,  but  without  much  ability  as  a  leader.  His  letters  breathe 
27 


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590  QEORGE  n.  OttAP.  XXX. 

both  energy  and  afifection,  but  they  are  ill-spelt  and  written  in  the 
scrawling  hand  of  a  schoolboy ;  for  Ms  education  had  been  shame- 
fully n^ected.  In  politics  and  religion  he  retained  the  prejudices 
of  his  house.  He  had  many  of  the  qualities  suited  to  a  hero  of 
romance;  attractions  which,  combined  with  a  feeling  of  ancient 
loyalty,  proved  irresistible  to  many ,  especially  as  he  had  adopted 
the  Highland  dress  and  learnt  a  few  words  of  Gaelic  Cameron  of 
Lochiel  was  gained  over  to  Ms  cause,  though  he  plainly  saw  the 
diflBculties  of  the  attempt.    Other  chieftains  followed  his  example. 

Charles  now  began  his  march  towards  the  desolate  and  seques- 
tered vale  of  Glenfinnan,  about  20  miles  from  Fort  William,  which 
had  been  selected  for  the  meeting  of  the  clans  and  the  raising  of 
the  royal  standard.  He  arrived  early  in  the  morning,  accompanied 
by  some  of  the  Macdonalds,  but  found  the  glen  in  its  native 
solitude.  At  length  Lochiel  and  the  Camerons  appeared,  about 
600  in  number.  They  were  badly  armed,  but  they  brought  with 
them  a  company  or  two  of  English  soldiers,  whom  they  had 
captured  on  their  road.  This  omen  of  success  gave  animation  to 
the  elevation  of  the  standard,  wMch  was  erected  on  a  little  knoll 
in  the  midst  of  the  vale,  the  Highlanders  shouting  and  tossing 
up  their  bonnets.  Other  parties  subsequently  arrived,  and  when 
Charles  began  his  march  next  day  (August  20),  his  little  army 
amounted  to  about  1600  men. 

On  the  same  day  Sir  John  Cope,  the  commander-in-cMef  in 
Scotland,  marched  from  Stirling  with  1500  foot,  rather  more  than 
half  of  his  whole  disposable  force :  for  the  government  was  ill- 
prepared,  and  wholly  uninformed  of  the  Pretender's  movements. 
Cope  directed  his  march  northwards,  intending  to  join  the  well- 
affected  clans.  But  on  reaching  Dalnacar  loch,  being  disappointed 
in  his  hopes,  he  turned  aside  to  Inverness.  Charles  descended 
into  the  lowlands,  and  at  Blair  Athol,  where  he  remained  two  days, 
was  joined  by  several  gentlemen  of  note.  Lord  Lovat,  to  whom 
he  had  despatched  Ms  patent  as  duke  of  Fraser,  wiUi  pressing 
solicitations  to  join  biro,  sent  only  his  prayers.  On  September  4, 
Charles  made  Ms  public  entry  into  Perth  amid  loud  aodamations 
Here  he  was  joined  by  Drummond,  titular  duke  of  Perth,  and  lord 
George  Murray.  The  town  presented  Mm  with  500?.,  a  welcome  gift, 
as  Ms  last  louis-d'or  was  spent.  His  march  was  now  directed  towards 
Edinburgh.  At  the  dawn  of  day  one  of  the  gates  was  surprised 
by  the  Camerons ;  and  on  September  17  Charles  took  possesion 
of  Holy  rood  House,  where  a  splendid  ball  was  given  in  the  evening. 
The  heralds  were  compelled  to  proclaim  king  Jam*  s  VIIL,  and  to 
road  the  royal  declaration  and  commission  of  regency.  But  th» 
castle  was  still  held  by  the  troops  of  the  government. 


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AJ>.  1745.  BATTLE  OF  PRESTON  PANS.  691 

10  Charles  remained  three  days  at  Edinburgh,  and  haying 
obtained  an  accession  of  force,  as  well  as  a  supply  of  1000  muskets 
and  other  stores,  he  marched  out  to  give  battle  to  Cope,  who  had 
landed  his  forces  at  Dunbar,  and  was  adyancing  towards  the 
capitaL  Charles  had  now  about  2500  men,  but  only  50  horse,  and 
a  single  iron  gun,  of  no  use  except  for  signals.  Cope  had  about 
2200  men,  and  six  pieci-s  of  artillery.  The  two  armies  met  near 
Preston  Pans.  The  first  day  both  remained  inactive,  being  sepa- 
rated by  a  morass;  but  a  path  haying  been  discoyend,  Charles 
approached  the  enemy  during  the  night,  and  early  in  the  morning 
(September  21)  the  Highlanders,  in  separate  clans,  attacked  them, 
with  terrific  yells.  In  the  space  of  a  few  minutes  Cope's  artillery 
was  captured,  his  dragoons  routed,  and  the  line  of  his  iuflEtntiy 
broken.  Of  the  foot  only  about  170  escaped,  the  rest  being  either 
slain  or  made  prisoners.  The  loss  on  the  side  of  the  insurgents 
was  about  100  killed  and  wounded.  Cope  and  the  horse  fled  in 
the  greatest  disorder  to  Berwick,  where  he  was  met  by  lord  Mark 
Kerr  with  the  sarcastic  remark,  that  he  was  the  first  general  who 
had  eyer  brought  the  news  of  his  own  defeat  1 

After  this  yictory  Charles  was  desirous  of  pushing  on  to  London, 
where  it  is  possible  he  might  haye  succeeded  in  the  state  of  feeling 
th(n  preyailing  in  England.  The  nation  was  lukewarm  in  the 
Hanoyerian  cause.  They  did  not  indeed  take  part  in  the  rebellion, 
but  they  did  not  seem  much  disposed  to  repress  it ;  and  Henry 
Fox,  one  of  the  ministers,  obseryes  in  a  letter  of  this  period,  that 
if  5000  French  had  landed  in  any  part  of  the  island,  the  conquest 
would  not  haye  cost  them  a  battle.  But  the  court  of  France  lost 
the  only  fayourable  opportunity  that  eyer  occurred  of  restoring 
the  Stuarts.  They  were  not  hearty  in  the  cause ;  and  on  the  news 
of  Charles's  success  they  contented  themselyes  with  sending  him 
small  supplies  of  arms  and  money.  G^rge  IL,  who  had  returned 
in  alarm  from  Hanoyer,  sent  a  requisition  to  the  Dutch  for  6000 
auxiliaries. 

After  the  yictory  at  Preston  Pans,  many  of  the  Highlanders  had 
returned  home  with  their  booty ;  and,  as  Charles  could  now  muster 
only  about  1500  men,  he  was  adyised  to  wait  and  recruit  his  army. 
He  therefore  returned  to  Holyrood  House.  He  might  now  be  con- 
sidered master  of  all  Scotland,  except  some  of  the  country  beyond 
Inyemess,  the  Highland  forts,  and  the  castles  of  Edinburgh  and 
Stirling.  His  father  was  proclaimed  as  James  VIII.  in  most  of  the 
towns ;  and  in  Glasgow,  the  least  disposed  to  the  Jacobite  cause,  an 
extraordinary  leyy  of  5000/.  was  made.  In  a  few  weeks  Charles's 
army  was  raised  to  nearly  6000  men ;  and  some  French  ships  brought 
him,  besides  money,  5000  stand  of  arms,  six  field-pieces,  and  seyeral 


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592  GEORGE  n.  Chap.  xxx. 

French  and  Irish  officers.  Lord  Lovat  still  hesitated,  and  at  last 
adopted  the  dastardly  expedient  of  sending  his  son,  with  700  or 
800  of  the  clan,  protesring,  at  the  same  time,  that  it  was  contrary 
to  his  will  and  orders. 

Charles  now  determined  to  march  into  England,  much  against 
the  will  of  most  of  his  foUowors,  who  were  of  opinion  that  he 
should  content  himself  with  the  conquest  of  Scotland ;  but  Charles 
wisely  thought  that  he  should  not  be  able  to  hold  the  one  without 
the  other.  The  English  government,  however,  was  now  better 
prepared.  The  commons  had  voted  loyal  addresses  and  liberal 
supplies ;  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  was  suspended ;  the  militia  ^vas 
raised;  marshal  Wade  had  an  army  of  nearly  10,000  men  at 
Newcastle,  and  another  under  the  duke  of  Cumberland  was  as- 
sembling in  the  midland  counties. 

Charles  began  his  march  on  October  31.  It  was  resolved  to 
proceed  through  Cumberland,  where  the  mountainous  country  is 
better  suited  to  the  Highland  mode  of  fighting.  Carlisle  was 
entered  on  the  17th,  after  a  slight  show  of  resistance,  the  garrison 
being  allowed  to  withdraw  on  delivering  up  their  arms  and  horses. 
On  the  20th  the  insurgents  proceeded  in  two  separate  columns, 
which  united  at  Preston ;  and  the  next  day  they  crossed  the  Eibble. 
In  these  difficult  marches  in  bad  weather  the  chevalier  resigned  his 
carriage  to  the  aged  and  infirm  lord  Pitsligo,  and  marched  on  foot, 
in  Highland  dress,  at  the  head  of  the  clans.  At  Manchester  he 
was  received  with  enthusiasm ;  and  200  English  volunteers  who 
had  joined  him  here  were  called  the  Manchester  regiment.  But  his 
prospects  were  not  encouraging.  Wade  was  advancing  against  him 
through  Yorkshire ;  the  duke  of  Cumberland  lay  at  Lichfield  with 
8000  men :  a  third  army  was  forming  at  Finchley ;  admiral  Vernon 
was  cruising  in  the  Channel  to  prevent  any  assistance  firom  France ; 
and  admiral  Byng  was  blockading  the  east  coast  of  Scotland.  Many 
of  Charles's  officers  advised  a  retreat,  but  lord  George  Murray  per- 
suaded them  to  advance  as  far  as  Derby,  promising  that,  if  tiiey 
were  not  then  joined  by  a  considerable  force,  he  would  consent  to 
their  wishes.  They  reached  Derby  in  safety  (December  5).  The 
Chevalier  was  in  high  spirits.  He  had  sli[»ped  away  from  both 
the  English  armies,  and  nothing  obstructed  his  march  on  the 
capital.  London  was  in  a  panic  ;  all  business  was  suspended,  and 
the  shops  were  shut.  The  day  was  long  remembered  as  Bkick 
Friday.  Even  the  king  had  ordered  his  yacht  to  the  Tower 
stairs,  and  embarked  hi  a  most  precious  efiects.  But  the  alarm  soon 
came  to  an  end.  The  day  alter  their  arrival,  Murray  and  the  other 
generals  insisted  on  a  retreai,  on  the  ground  that  there  had  been 
neither  an  English  rising  nor  a  French  invasion ;   and  Charles, 


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AJ).  1745-1746.         BATTLE  OP  CtTLLOBEN.  698 

after  ezhaTisting  arguments,  threats,  and  entreaties,  was  forced  to 
comply. 

§  11.  Horsing  1000  of  his  infantry,  the  duke  of  Cumberland 
overtook  the  retreating  Scots  at  Penrith,  and  a  skirmish  took  place 
at  night  on  Clifton  Moor  (December  10).  The  English  were  re- 
pulsed with  considerable  loss,  and  the  retreat  was  not  again  molested. 
On  December  20,  the  prince's  birthday,  the  Scots  passed  the  Esk, 
and  entered  Glasgow  on  the  24  th,  having  marched  600  miles  in  56 
days. 

The  Chevalier  arrived  at  Stirling  (January  3,  1746),  and  having 
received  large  reinforcements,  as  well  as  some  artillery  from  France, 
he  resolved  to  besiege  the  castle.  General  Hawley,  to  whom  the 
duke  of  Cumberland  had  delegated  the  command,  attempted  to 
raise  the  siege,  but  was  defeated  with  great  loss  at  Falkirk  Muir, 
and  made  a  precipitate  and  disgraceful  flight  to  Edinburgh  (January 
17).  But  the  siege  was  badly  conducted  by  a  French  engineer 
named  Mirabelle ;  his  batteries  were  silenced ;  and  the  Chevalier's 
chief  officers  insisted  on  going  home  for  the  remainder  of  the 
winter,  promising  to  return  in  the  spring  with  10,000  men.  The 
heavy  guns  were  spiked,  and  the  retreat  began  towards  Inver- 
ness (February  1).  The  duke  of  Cumberland,  who  had  resumed 
the  command,  and  who  had  been  reinforced  with  5C00  Hessians, 
pursued  the  Scots,  but  could  not  overtake  them. 

On  April  8  the  duke,  with  8000  foot  and  900  horse,  marched 
from  Aberdeen  to  attack  Inverness.  Charles,  though  his  troops 
had  dwindled  to  5000  men,  resolved  to  surprise  the  duke  at  Nairn 
by  a  night  march  of  12  miles.  Lord  George  Murray  led  the 
first  colmnn,  Charles  himself  the  second  ;  but  the  marshy  nature 
of  the  ground  delayed  their  progress  so  much  that  all  hopes  of  a 
surprise  were  abandoned,  and  they  took  up  a  position  on  CuUoden 
Moor.  The  duke  of  Cumberland  drew  up  his  army  with  great 
skill  in  three  lines,  with  cavalry  on  each  flank,  an«l  two  \  ieces  of 
cannon  between  every  two  regiments  of  the  first  line.  His  artillery 
did  great  execution,  whilst  that  of  the  Scot*  was  ill- directed. 
Murray  therefore  requested  permission  to  attack,  and  made  a  furious 
charge  with  the  right  wing  and  centre.  He  broke  the  first  line  of 
the  English ;  but  the  second,  three  deep,  the  first  rank  kneeling,  and 
the  next  stooping,  received  the  Scots  with  a  murderous  fire,  which 
threw  them  into  disorder.  The  English  then  charged,  and  drove 
the  clans  before  them  in  one  confused  mass.  The  left  wing  was 
not  engaged.  About  1000  of  the  Scots  fell;  of  the  English,  hardly 
a  third  of  that  number  (April  10).  This  defeat  put  an  end  to  all 
Charles's  hopes.  He  rode  from  the  field  to  the  residence  of  lord 
Lovat,  whom  he  now  met  for  the  first  and  the  last  time.    Lovat 


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594  GEORGE  n.  Chap.  zxx. 

hardly  behaved  with  common  civility,  and  thiey  parted  in  mutual 
displeasure.  Some  attempt  was  made  to  rally  the  army  at  Ru^ven, 
but  Charles  sent  a  message  thanking  the  leaders,  and  bidding  them 
consult  their  own  safety.  They  dispersed  accordingly,  and  the 
rebellion  was  extinguished.  The  duke  of  Cumberland  fixed  his 
head-quarters  near  Fort  Augustus,  and  permitted  every  sort  of 
outrage  and  cruelty,  in  which  he  was  well  seconded  by  general 
Hawley,  sumamed  for  this  brutality  the  Butcher,  When  the 
duke  returned  to  London  in  July,  he  was  hailed  as  the  deliverer  of 
his  country ;  a  pension  of  25,000?.  per  annum  was  settled  on  him 
and  his  heirs,  and  he  was  presented  with  the  freedom  of  numerous 
companies. 

Murray  and  several  other  leaders  escaped  abroad.  The  govern- 
ment succeeded  in  capturing  the  earl  of  Kilmarnock,  lord  Balmerino, 
secretary  Murray,  and  lord  Lovat    The  last  was  diBCOvered  in  a 


Medal  of  the  yomig  Pretender. 
Ot^r. :  CAS0LU8  wallls  pbincbps.  Bast  to  right.  Below,  1745.  Rev. :  avok  r 
Britannia  standing  on  the  sea-shore :  two  ships  arriving.    Below,  BBrrAKXiA. 

little  island  in  a  lake  in  Inverness-shire,  wrapped  up  in  a  blanket, 
and  concealed  in  a  hollow  tree.  Charles  wandered  about  the 
country  till  September,  undergoing  during  these  five  months  a 
variety  of  hardships  and  dangers ;  yet,  though  his  secret  was  in- 
trusted to  several  hundreds  of  persons,  he  was  not  betrayed,  not- 
withstanding a  reward  of  30,000?.  had  been  offered  for  his  capture. 
Among  all  these  acts  of  loyalty  the  heroic  devotion  of  Flora 
Macdonald  was  conspicuous.  At  last,  on  September  20,  Charles 
got  safely  on  board  a  French  vessel  in  Lochnanuagh,  and  on  the 
29th  he  landed  in  France,  near  Morlaix. 

A  great  number  of  prisoners  were  brought  to  trial  for  this  rebel- 
lion, of  whom  80  were  executed,  and  the  rest  were  transported. 


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iuD.  17i6-174a  GHANQE  OF  MINISTBT.  596 

The  ancient  and  barbarous  ceremony  of  disembowelling  and  burning 
the  heart  and  intestines  was  not  omitted  on  this  occasion,  and  was 
received  with  the  shouts  of  the  populace.  The  earl  of  Kilmarnock 
and  lords  Halmerino  and  Lovat  were  executed  on  Tower  Hill,  the 
last  of  whom  met  hia  f&te  with  a  strange  compound  of  levity  and 
courage.  The  suppression  of  the  rebellion  was  followed  by  the 
total  pacification  of  the  Scottish  highlands ;  and  various  measures 
were  adopted  for  their  permanent  improvement. 

§  12.  Lord  Harrington  having  resigned  the  seals  of  secretary  of 
state  (October  29,  1746),  they  were  transferred  to  Philip  Dormer 
Stanhope,  earl  of  Chesterfield,  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  in 
which  office  he  was  succeeded  by  lord  Harrington.  Chesterfield, 
who  IB  commonly  regarded  as  a  fine  gentleman,  had  also  a  large 
fund  of  wit  and  wisdom,  and  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
orators  of  his  day.  Conversant  with  foreign  languages  as  well  as 
history,  he  had  distinguished  himself  as  a  diplomatist,  and  had 
discharged  with  reputation  two  embassies  to  Holland.  His  govern- 
ment of  Ireland  had  been  wise  and  firm,  and  at  the  same  time 
liberal.  His  defects  were  a  want  of  generosity,  a  proneness  to 
dissimulation,  a  passion  for  gambling,  and  a  laxity  of  religious 
principle. 

During  the  years  1746  and  1747  the  French  were  successful  in 
arms ;  but  in  the  latter  year  the  English  gained  two  naval  victories, 
one  by  Anson  near  Cape  Finisterre  (May  3),  the  other  by  admiral 
Hawke  off  Belleisle  (October  14).  The  French,  as  well  as  a  large 
party  in  England,  were  desirous  of  peace ;  but  Maria  Theresa  and 
the  prince  of  Orange  were  not  satisfied  with  the  results  obtained* 
and  their  views  were  adopted  by  George  11.  and  the  duke  of  Cum- 
berland. Chesterfield,  a  warm  advocate  for  peace,  finding  his 
counsels  disregarded  and  himself  treated  with  coldness  by  the  king, 
resigned  the  seals  (February  6, 1748),  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
duke  of  Bedford.  Chesterfidd  never  afterwards  took  office ;  but  he 
did  not  altogether  withdraw  from  public  life,  and  in  1751  he  intro- 
duced a  most  useful  measure,  the  reformation  of  the  calendar. 
The  Julian  year,  or  Old  Style  as  it  is  called,  had  been  corrected 
by  pope  Gregory  XIIL  in  1582,  and  the  Gregorian  calendar,  or 
New  Styhf  had  been  adopted  by  every  country  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  except  Sweden  and  Russia.  The  error  of  the  Old  Style 
had  now  grown  to  11  days.  In  preparing  the  bill  for  the  reformation 
of  the  calendar,  Chesterfield  was  assisted  by  the  earl  of  Macclesfield 
and  Mr.  Bradley,  two  of  the  ablest  mathematicians  in  Europe.  By 
this  bill  the  year  was  to  commence  on  January  1,  instead  of 
March  25,  and  11  days  in  September,  1752,  were  to  be  nomi- 
nally suppressed^  in  order  to  bring  the  calendar  into  unison  with  the 


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696  QEORQE  n.  Ohaf.  m. 

actual  state  of  the  Bolar  year.  The  great  body  of  the  people,  how- 
ever, regarded  the  reform  as  an  impious  and  popsh  measure,  and 
numbers  were  of  opinion  that  they  had  been  robbed  of  11  days. 
Sweden  followed  the  example  of  England  in  1753 ;  but  Russia  and 
those  countries  which  belong  to  the  Gh*eek  church  still  follow  the 
Old  Style,  which  is  now  12  days  behind  the  New  Style. 

The  continued  success  of  the  French,  who  had  invested  Maestricht 
in  the  spnng  of  1748,  increased  the  desire  for  peace ;  and  even  the 
Dutch,  who  now  saw  an  invasion  imminent,  signified  their  willing- 
ness to  treat.  In  October  a  definitive  treaty  was  signed  by  all  the 
belligerents  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  which  ended  the  war  of  the  Austrian 
succession.  The  only  gainer  was  the  king  of  Prussia,  by  the 
cession  of  Silesia.  The  article  for  the  mutual  restitution  of  all 
conquests  was  very  unpopular  in  England,  and  the  more  so  as 
France  demanded  and  obtained  two  hostages  for  the  delivery  of 
Gape  Breton.  The  earl  of  Sussex  and  lord  Gathcart  were  sent  to 
Paris  in  that  capacity. 

§  13.  By  one  of  the  articles  of  this  treaty  the  French  court  under- 
took to  expel  the  Pretender  from  France,  and  they  offered  him  an 
establishment  at  Friburg  in  Switzerland,  with  a  guard  and  the  Utle 
of  prinoe  of  Wales ;  but  Gharles,  regarding  such  a  course  as  a  mean 
compliance  with  orders  from  Hanover,  obstinately  refused  to  quit 
Paris.  At  length  it  became  necessary  to  use  force.  He  was  seized 
in  his  coach  while  going  to  the  opera,  bound  hand  and  foot,  and 
carried  to  the  dungeon  of  Vincennes.  After  a  few  days'  confine- 
ment, he  was  conveyed  to  Pont  de  Beanvois  on  the  frontiers  of 
Savoy,  and  abandoned  to  his  lonely  wanderings.  He  now  appears 
to  have  visited  Venice  and  Grermany,  to  have  resided  some  time 
secretly  in  Paris,  and  even  to  ha^'e  paid  two  visits  to  England. 
After  the  death  of  his  father,  James,  in  1765,  he  returned  to  Rome, 
and  in  his  later  years  fell  into  habits  of  intemperance.  In  1772,  at 
the  age  of  52,  he  married  the  princess  Louisa  of  Stolberg,  a  young 
lad.v  of  20.  They  subsequently  lived  at  Florence  under  the  title 
of  the  count  and  countess  cf  Albany.  But  the  union  was  unhappy. 
He  was  harsh,  and  she  faithless;  and  in  1780  she  eloped  with 
Alfieri,  the  dramatic  poet.  Charles  died  at  Rome  (January  30, 1788). 
His  younger  brother,  Henry  Benedict,  commonly  called  from  his 
ecclesiastical  dignity,  "  Cardinal  York,"  lived  at  Rome  till  1807, 
having  for  many  years  received  a  pension  from  Greorge  III. 

One  of  the  results  of  the  late  war  was  the  founding  of  Halififtz  in 
Nova  Scotia,  named  after  the  earl  of  Halifax,  president  of  the  Board 
of  Trade.  To  relieve  the  great  number  of  discharged  soldiers  and 
sailors,  they  were  encouraged  to  emigrate  by  a  grant  of  60  acres  to 
each,  a  free  passage,  and  immunity  from  taxes  for  a  period  of  10 


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A.D.  1756.  HOSTILITIES  WITH  FRANCE.  697 

years.  At  this  time  also  Pelham  seized  the  opportunity  of  reducing 
the  national  debt,  by  lowering  the  rate  of  interest. 

On  March  20,  1751,  died  Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  little 
regretted.  His  eldest  son,  George  William  Frederick,  was  now  made 
prince  of  Wales ;  and  as  he  was  only  1 1  years  of  age,  while  the  king 
was  67,  it  became  necessary  to  appoint  a  regency,  in  the  event  of  a 
demise  of  the  crown  before  the  prince  attained  his  majority.  After 
considerable  debate,  a  bill  was  passed  appointing  his  mother,  the 
dowager  princess  of  Wales,  guardian  of  his  persoti  and  regent  of  the 
•  kingdom ;  but  subject,  in  the  latter  capacity,  to  the  control  of  a 
council  composed  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland  and  nine  of  the  prin- 
cipal officers  of  state  at  the  time  of  the  king's  decease.  The  influence 
of  John  Stuart,  earl  of  Bute,  now  became  predominant  at  Leicester 
House,  the  residence  of  the  princess  dowager  of  Wales.  Bute  pos- 
sessed many  accomplishments,  but  had  no  great  abilities.  He  had 
a  fine  person,  and  his  political  enemies  were  not  slow  in  niisrepre- 
senting  the  favour  he  enjoyed,  and  its  motives. 

§  14.  On  the  death  of  Henry  Pelham  (March  6, 1764),  the  duke 
of  Newcastle  resolved  to  be  first  lord  of  the  treasury  himself,  and 
to  make  Henry  Legge,  son  of  the  earl  of  Dartmouth,  his  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer.  For  the  leadership  of  the  House  of  Ck>nimons 
his  choice  wavered  between  William  Pitt,  Henry  Fox,  and  Murray. 
But  the  ambition  of  the  last  was  directed  to  the  bench.  He  was 
the  fourth  son  of  lord  Stomiont,  in  the  Scottish  peerage,  and  had 
distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  both  at  the  bar  and  in  the 
House  of  CJommons.  Pitt,  besides  being  personally  disliked  by  the 
king,  was  laid  up  at  Bath  with  the  gout.  The  seals  were  therefore 
offered  to  Henry  Fox,  younger  son  of  sir  Stephen  Fox,  and  brother 
of  the  first  earl  of  Ilchester.  Fox  had  already  some  experience  in 
business  as  secretary  at  war.  He  possessed  wit  and  discernment, 
and,  without  much  eloquence,  was  a  ready  debater ;  but  he  had  not 
the  disinterestedness  of  Pitt.  The  negociation  was  broken  off  by  a 
disagreement  respecting  the  disposal  of  the  secret-service  money, 
and  the  seals  were  at  last  given  to  sir  Thomas  Kobinson,  a  man  of 
no  ability,  but  entirely  at  Newcastle's  command.  That  such  a 
man  should  be  set  up  to  lead  the  House  of  Commons  excited  the 
indignation  both  of  Pitt  and  Fox,  and  they  united  to  attack  and 
ridicule  him.    (Supplement,  Note  XIIL) 

Quarrels  had  long  prevailed,  both  in  the  East  Indies  and  in 
North  America,  between  the  French  and  English  settlers,  which 
threatened  to  produce  hostilities  between  the  mother  countries.  A 
large  French  armament,  equipped  at  Brest,  was  watched  by  a<lmiral 
Boscawen,  who  had  orders  to  attack  them  in  case  their  destination 
■hould  be  for  the  bay  of  St.  Lawrence.  At  a  signal  from  the  admiral, 
27' 


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598  OBOBGE  IL  Gbap.  jxk. 

two  English  yeasels  had  captured  two  French  ships  off  Newfound- 
land (June  8, 1755) ;  and  some  skinnishing  had  also  occurred  en 
the  Ohio  and  near  Lake  (George.  The  king  had  as  usual  gone  to 
Hanover,  and  these  events  threw  the  regency  into  great  perplexity. 
The  duke  of  Cumherland  was  anxious  to  declare  war  immediately ; 
others  desired  to  wait:  the  prime  minister,  as  usual,  vacillated 
between  both  opinions.  At  length  sir  Edward  Hawke,  who  was  in 
command  of  a  powerful  fleet,  received  orders  to  take  and  destroy 
every  French  ship  that  he  oould  find  be  ween  Cape  Ortegal  and 
Gape  Clear — an  act  which,  as  no  declaration  of  war  had  been  made, 
was  justly  censured  as  piratical.    (Supplement,  Note  XTV.) 

This  state  of  things  caused  George  II.  great  alarm  for  bis  elec- 
toral dominions,  which  he  suspected  would  be  seized  by  his  nephew, 
Frederick  of  Prussia,  whenever  a  war  broke  out.  He  therefore 
concluded  with  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  subsequently  with  the 
empress  of  Russia,  subsidiary  treaties  of  the  same  sort  as  had 
already  created  so  much  disgust  in  England.  Newcastle's  ministry 
began  to  totter.  In  order  to  support  it  he  applied  to  Pitt ;  hat 
that  statesman  disdained  the  seals  at  the  price  of  subserviency  to 
Hanoverian  policy.  Fox  was  not  so  delicate ;  he  engaged  to  sup- 
port the  treaties :  Robinson  was  dismissed  with  a  pension,  and  Fox 
became  secretary  of  state. 

The  French  meanwhile  were  making  vast  naval  preparations ;  they 
threatened  a  descent  upon  England,  but  their  real  object  wasMincMtm, 
which  had  been  secured  to  the  English  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht. 
The  duke  of  Newcastle  could  not  be  persuaded  that  the  French 
harboured  any  such  designs.  He  neglected  all  necessary  precautions 
till  it  was  too  late ;  and  then  he  sent  out  10  ships  badly  equipped, 
under  admiral  Byng,  fourth  son  of  George,  viscount  Tonington.  On 
April  13,  1756,  a  French  fleet  of  12  ships  of  the  line,  and  a  large 
number  of  transports,  having  16,000  troops  on  board,  appeared 
off  Minorca,  and  threatened  Mahon.  The  castle  of  St  Philip, 
which  commands  the  town  and  harbour,  was  a  strong  fortress ;  but 
the  garrison  had  been  reduced  to  3000  men,  and  lord  Tyrawley,  the 
govt  mor,  was  absent  The  defence  of  the  place  therefore  fell  upon 
general  Blakeney,  a  brave  but  old  and  invalid  officer. 

When  Byng  hove  in  sight  of  St.  Philip's,  on  May  19,  the  British 
flag  was  still  flying  there.  On  the  following  day  the  French  admiral, 
De  la  Galissoni^re,  bore  down  with  his  whole  force.  Byng  ranged 
his  ships  in  line  of  battle  ;  and  admiral  West,  the  second  in  com- 
mand, engaged  with  his  division  and  dispersed  the  ships  opposed  to 
him ;  but  Byn<;  kept  aloof.  On  the  foUowins:  morning  the  French 
were  out  of  sight.  Byng  then  called  a  council  of  war,  expressed  his 
determination  to  retreat,  as  his  force  was  inferior  to  that  of  the 


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AJ).  1760-1757.  mr  PRIME  MINISTEH.  69& 

enemy ;  and,  sailing  to  CKbraltar,  he  left  Minorca  to  its  &te.  Never- 
theless St.  Philip's  held  out  till  June  29,  when,  some  of  the  out- 
works hnving  been  carried,  the  garrison  was  obliged  to  capitulate, 

§  15.  The  popular  indignation  at  this  loss  was  uncontrollable. 
The  cry  was  loud  against  the  ministry,  but  louder  still  against 
Byng.  Either  treachery  or  cowardice  was  universally  imputed  to 
him,  and  he  was  burnt  in  eflfigy  in  all  the  great  towns  of  the 
kingdom.  The  duke  of  Newcastle,  willing  to  make  a  scapegoat 
of  Byng,  appmnted  admiral  sir  Edward  Hawke  to  supersede  him, 
and  to  send  him  and  West  home  as  prisoners.  West  was  imme- 
diately liberated,  but  a  court-martial  was  held  on  Byng  in  the 
following  December,  at  Portsmouth.  He  was  acquitted  of  cowardice 
and  of  treachery,  bat  condemned,  by  the  12th  article  of  war, 
for  not  having  done  all  in  his  power  to  relieve  St.  Philip's  and 
attack  the  French.  At  the  same  time  he  was  unanimously  recom- 
mended to  mercy.  But  the  popular  clamour  was  too  great  to  allow 
this  recommendation  to  prevail  He  was  shot  on  the  quarter-deck 
of  the  Monarque  (March  14, 1757),  and  met  his  fate  with  courage.* 

In  dread  of  the  impending  storm,  Newcastle  resigned  (November 
11, 1756).  Fox  followed  him  a  few  days  after.  Murray,  on  the  death 
of  sir  Dudley  Ryder,  was  made  lord  chief  justice,  and  obtained  a 
peerage  with  the  title  of  lord  Mans6eld  (October  25).  The  king  was 
now  reluctantly  compelled  to  have  recourse  to  Pitt  (December  4) ; 
but  he  had  held  the  seals  as  secretary  of  state  only  for  a  few  months, 
when  the  duke  of  Cumberland  persuaded  the  king  to  dismiss  him  and 
recal  Newcastle  (March  29, 1757).  As  Newcastle  found  it  impos- 
nble  to  form  a  ministry  without  Rtt's  assistance,  for  Pitt  was  popular 
with  the  nation  for  opposing  the  Hanoverian  partialities  of  George  II., 
the  king,  after  various  attempts,  was  obliged  to  submit  to  Pitt's 
terms.  Newcastle  returned  to  the  treasiuy,  but  without  one  of  his 
own  party  at  the  board.  Legge  was  made  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer ;  Pitt  became  secretary  of  state ;  his  brother-in-law,  earl 
Temple,t  privy  seal ;  and  Fox  condescended  to  accept  the  lucrative 


*  Byng  WM  aooompanled  by  a  clergy- 
maa  and  two  of  hia  relatives.  He  was 
droned  in  a  light  grey  coat,  white  waist- 
coat, and  white  stockings,  and  wore  a  large 
white  wig,  and  held  in  each  band  a  white 
handkerchief.  Passing  from  the  great 
cabin  to  the  larboard  side  of  the  quarter- 
deck, he  dropped  his  hat,  Iroeeled  on  a 
coshion,  tied  one  handkerchief  over  his 
ayes,  and  let  the  other  faU  as  a  signal  for 
the  marines  to  fire. 

t  Eari  Temple  (Richard  GrenTiUe), 
bom  ini,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Mr.  Qren- 
ffUe  and  countess  Temple,  to  whose  title 


he  succeeded  upon  her  death  in  1752.  He 
died  without  issue  in  1779.  His  only 
sister,  Hester,  was  married,  in  1764,  to 
William  Pitt,  afterwards  earl  of  Chatham, 
by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  the 
younger  Pitt. 

George  Grenville,  second  brother  of 
earl  Temple,  was  prime  minister  in  the 
reign  of  George  III.,  upon  the  resignation 
of  lord  Bute  in  1763.  (See  p.  610.)  He  was 
bom  1713,  and  died  1770.  He  bad  three 
distinguished  sons:  1.  George,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle  as  earl  Temple,  and 
became  nkarquess   of  Buckingham;  bis 


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600  0E0RO£  n.  Cbap.  XXX. 

office  of  paymaster  of  the  forces,  without  a  seat  m  the  cahinet 
(June  29).  This  was  the  first  ministry  of  Pitt,  who  was  now  48 
years  old. 

§  16.  It  was  too  late  in  the  season  to  attempt  any  enterprise  of 
importance,  and  an  expedition  despatched  against  Rochefort,  con- 
sisting of  10  t<hip8  of  the  line,  with  Mgates  and  transports,  com- 
manded hy  sir  Edward  Hawke,  and  having  on  board  10  regiments 
of  foot  under  general  sir  John  Mordaunt,  proved  abortive,  through 
the  irresolution  of  the  latter.  But  England  had  now  another  war  on 
hand.  In  the  previous  year  France  and  Austria  had  leagued  them- 
selves for  the  partition  of  Prussia  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles  (May  1, 
1756),  to  which  Russia,  Saxony,  and  Sweden  afterwards  acceded. 
Apprised  of  this  confederacy  through  the  treachery  of  a  clerk  in  the 
Saxon  service,  Frederick  of  Prussia  was  the  first  to  strike  a  vigorous 
blow  by  seizing  Dresden.  Thus  b^an  the  Seven  Yeabs'  Was 
(1766-1763). 

Frederick  now  drew  closer  his  alliance  with  England;  and  in 
April,  1757,  the  duke  of  Cumberland  proceeded  to  the  continent  to 
fight  in  his  cause,  and  to  defend  the  electorate.  The  French, 
advancing  with  a  large  army,  compelled  the  duke  to  retreat,  and 
overran  all  Hanover.  Supported  by  four  British  men-of-war  in  the 
Elbe,  the  duke  took  refuge  under  the  guns  of  Stade.  In  this 
critical  position  he  appealed  to  the  mediation  of  the  king  of  Den- 
mark, and  was  compelled  to  enter  into  the  convention  of  Klost^ 
Seven,  by  which  ho  agreed  to  dismiss  his  auxiliaries,  withdraw 
his  troops  over  the  Elbe,  and  disperse  them  in  cantonments,  leaving 
only  a  garrison  in  Stade  (September  8).  Thus  Hanover  was  lost 
George  II.  was  as  indignant  at  this  fieulure  as  Frederick  himself, 
and  received  his  son  on  his  return  with  the  greatest  coldness. 
Offended  by  this  treatment,  the  victor  of  Culloden  threw  up  his 
employments,  and  lived  in  comparative  obscurity  till  1765,  when  he 
died  in  his  45th  year.  Frederick,  reduced  to  the  last  extremity, 
retrieved  his  affairs  by  the  victories  of  Rossbach  and  Leuthen. 
This  success  made  him  popular  in  England.  He  was  regarded  as 
the  protestant  hero ;  and  when,  early  in  1758,  Pitt  proposed  a  new 
convention  with  Prussia,  with  a  subsidy  of  670,0001.,  it  was  carried 
almost  unanimously. 

§  17.  In  1758  the  war  raged  in  all  quarters  of  the  world.    The 

brilliant  achievements  of  Clive,  which  decided  whether  the  empire 

of  India  should  fall  to  England  or  to  France,  are  related  in  the  next 

■on  became  duke  of  BuckiDgfaam;  2. 
Thonus,  who  held  neveral  high  offices 
In    the    staU>,    and   bequeathed    to   the 


country  hi8  splendid  library,  now  In  the 
British  Muaeum ;  3.  William  Wjndham, 


the  IHend  and  colleague  of  the  younger 
Pitt,  who  was  made  lord  OrenvUle  in  1790, 
and  who  became  prime  minister  in  180S. 
He  died  in  1834  without  l«oe. 


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AJ).  1756-1759.  THE  SEVEN  YEABS'  WAB.  601 

chapter  (§  4).  In  Africa,  the  island  of  Goree  was  wrested  from  the 
French.  In  America,  Pitt  projected  the  conquest  of  Cape  Breton  and 
St.  John's ;  and  a  fleet  and  army  were  despatched  under  admiral 
Boscawen  and  general  (afterwards  lord)  Amherst  At  the  same  time 
Wolfe,  who  had  attracted  Pitt's  notice  during  the  Bochefort  expe^ 
dition,  was  sent  out  as  second  in  command^  with  the  title  of  briga- 
dier-generaL  In  these  appointments,  Pitt,  disr^arding  seniority,  as 
well  as  aristocratic  and  parliamentary  interest,  was  guided  by  merit 
alone.  The  armament  was  composed  of  150  ships  and  12,000 
soldiers.  Louisburg  capitulated  after  a  siege  of  two  months  (July 
26),  in  which  Wolfe  distinguished  himself.  After  the  fall  of  the 
capital,  the  whole  of  Cape  Breton  submitted ;  and  soon  after  the 
island  of  St  John  did  the  same.  The  name  of  the  latter  was 
changed  to  Prince  Edward's  Island,  in  honour  of  the  next  brother 
of  the  prince  of  Wales. 

A  secret  expedition  against  Cherbourg  was  planned  by  Pitt, 
under  commodore  Howe  and  lord  Anson,  with  20,000  soldiers  and 
marines,  commanded  by  Charles,  second  duke  of  Marlborough,  and 
lord  Greorge  Sackville.  The  attempt  partially  failed,  but  was 
renewed  with  more  success  in  August,  under  general  Bligh,  accom- 
panied by  prince  Edward.  When  the  troops  landed,  the  town  was 
found  to  be  deserted.  The  forts  and  basin  were  destroyed,  together 
with  170  pieces  of  iron  cannon,  and  22  brass  guns  were  carried  off. 
The  troops  were  then  landed  near  St.  Malo;  but  the  duke  d'Aiguillon 
Cuming  up  with  superior  forces,  the  English  re-embarked  in  preci- 
pitation, and  1000  men  of  the  rear-guard  were  either  killed  or  made 
prisoners. 

By  these  exploits,  the  attention  of  the  French  was  diverted  from 
the  campaign  in  Ctermany.  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  not 
only  drove  them  out  of  Hanover,  but  even  over  the  Bhine,  whither 
he  followed  them,  and  gained  on  the  left  bank  a  victory  at  Crefeld ; 
but  the  advance  of  the  prince  de  Soubise  obliged  him  to  fall  back  on 
Miinster.  Frederick  had  achieved  brilliant  successes,  chequered  by 
a  disastrous  defeat  inflicted  on  him  at  Hochkirchen  by  the  Austrian 
generals  Daun  and  Laudon  (October  14). 

§  18.  In  1759  the  arms  of  England  were  successful  by  sea  and 
land.  The  French,  though  scarcely  able  to  defend  their  own  coasts, 
threatened  an  invasion,  and  made  preparations  in  Havre,  Toulon, 
and  other  ports ;  but  in  July  admiral  Bodney  bombarded  Havre, 
and  did  great  damage  to  the  town,  destroying  many  of  their  flat- 
bottomed  boats ;  whilst  the  Toulon  fleet  was  dispersed  with  loss 
by  admiral  Boscawen,  off  Lagos  in  Algarve.  Another  fleet  imder 
sir  Edward  Hawke  blockaded  Brest,  and  a  squadron  of  observation 
hovered  near  Dunkirk.    Hawke  gained  a  signal  victory  (November 


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602  QEORQE  IL  Chap. 

20)  near  Quiberoo,  oyer  a  French  fleet  under  Do  Ck>nflan8,  con- 
sisting of  21  sail  of  the  line  and  four  frigates.  Hawke's  fleet,  whidi 
was  rather  stronger,  sunk  or  burnt  three  of  the  Frenchmen  and 
captured  two;  the  others,  more  or  less  damaged,  succeeded  in 
getting  into  the  river  Vilaine. 

Frederick  sustained  a  terrible  dt-feat  this  year  at  Kunersdorf,  near 
Fraukfort-ou-the-Oder;  but  from  want  of  cordiality  between  the 
Anstrians  and  Russians,  its  consequences  did  not  prove  very  dis- 
astrous. On  the  other  hand,  prince  Ferdinand,  who  bad  in  his  army 
10,000  or  12,000  English  troops  under  lord  George  Sackville,  was 
more  fortunate.  He  failed  indeed  in  an  attack  on  the  French 
position  at  Bergen  ;  but  he  more  than  retrieved  this  reverse  by  Uie 
brilliant  victory  of  Minden  (August  1),  which  would  have  been  still 
more  complete  had  SackviUe,  who  commanded  the  cavalry,  obeyed 
the  orders  to  charge  the  routed  enemy.  Loud  clamours  were 
raised  against  him,  both  in  England  and  (Germany,  and  Pitt  dis- 
missed Sackville  from  all  his  employments. 

But  the  chief  success  this  year  was  achieved  in  Canada.  The 
French  had  colonized  that  province  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  but 
it  was  not  till  the  following  century  that  the  cities  of  Quebec  and 
Montreal  rose  to  importance.  Pitt  proposed  a  plan  of  invasion  by 
three  separate  divisions,  which  were  to  unite  at  Quebec.  One  of 
those,  composed  of  colonists  and  Indians  under  general  Prideaux  and 
sir  William  Johnson,  was  to  advance  by  way  of  Niagara  and  Lake 
Ontario  towards  Montreal ;  another,  of  8000  men,  under  the  com- 
mand of  general  Wolfe,  was  to  proceed  up  the  St  Lawrence,  and  lay 
siege  to  Quebec ;  whilst  in  the  centre  the  main  army  under  general 
Amherst  was  to  attack  Ticonderoga,  secure  the  navigation  of  Lake 
Ghamplain,  and,  proceeding  by  the  river  RicheUeu,  form  a  junction 
with  Wolfe. 

The  first  and  last  of  these  expeditions  succeeded  as  fiir  as  they 
went.  Niagara  and  Ticonderoga  were  captured,  but  it  was  too  late 
in  the  season  to  form  a  junction  with  Wolfe.  The  fleet  of  admiral 
Saunders  carried  Wolfe  safely  to  the  Isle  of  Orleans,  opposite 
Quebec,  where  the  army  disembarked  on  June  27, 1759.  Wolfe 
formed  a  lodgment  on  the  westernmost  point  of  the  island,  where 
Quebec  rose  to  his  view,  strong  in  its  natural  position,  but  without 
artificial  defences.  It  is  washed  on  two  sides  by  the  rivers  St. 
Charles  and  St.  Lawrence,  whose  banks  are  almost  inaccessible, 
while  a  little  below  the  town  the  Montmorency  falls  into  the  St. 
Lawrence.  The  entrance  of  the  harbour  is  defended  by  a  sand- 
bank ;  the  castle  of  St.  Louis  commands  the  approaches ;  and 
above  the  city  rise  from  the  St.  Lawrence  the  rugged  Heights  of 
Abraham.    Quebec  at  that  time  contained  a  population  of  about 


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▲.D.  1760.  ms  DtlATfi.  60d 

7000 ;  but  it  had  a  cathedral,  a  bishop's  palace,  and  otLer  publio 
buildings.  The  marquis  de  Montcalm,  tiie  French  governor  of 
Canada,  a  distinguished  officer,  lay  with  an  army  of  10,000  men> 
chiefly  Canadian  colonists  or  native  Indians,  outside  the  city,  on 
the  line  called  Beauport,  between  the  rivers  St.  Charles  and  Mont- 
morency. The  ground  was  steep;  in  his  front  lay  the  Mont- 
morency ;  his  rear  was  protected  by  dense  woods,  and  every  opeq 
space  had  been  fortified.  As  Wolfe's  attempts  to  draw  Montcalm 
from  this  position  failed,  it  only  remained  to  attack  him  in  his 
entrenchments.  Repulsed  in  an  assault  on  July  31,  Wolfe  deter- 
mined  on  the  hazardous  exploit  of  proceeding  up  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  scaling  the  Heights  of  Abraham,  though,  through  deaths, 
sickness,  and  the  necessary  detachments  for  securing  important 
points,  he  could  muster  no  more  than  4500  men.  Early  in  the 
morning  of  September  13,  the  troops  were  silently  conveyed  by 
the  tide  in  boats  to  a  small  cove,  now  called  Wolfe's  Cove,  over- 
hung by  lofty  rocks.  As  they  rowed  along  to  this  place,  Wolfe 
repeated  in  a  low  voice  to  the  officers  in  the  boat  with  him  Gray's 
beautiful  "Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard,"  adding  at  the  end, 
*'  Now,  gentlemen,  I  would  rather  be  the  author  of  that  poem  than 
take  Quebec."  Wolfe  himself  was  one  of  the  first  to  leap  ashore. 
The  precipitous  path  was  climbed ;  an  outpost  of  the  enemy  fled  in 
alarm ;  and  at  daybreak  the  British  army  stood  arrayed  upon  the 
heights,  but  without  cavalry,  and  having  no  more  than  a  single 
gun.  Montcalm  was  now  obliged  to  abandon  his  position  and 
advance  to  give  battle.  The  English,  by  Wolfe's  direction,  reserved 
their  fire  till  the  enemy  were  within  40  yards,  and  then  delivered 
a  well-directed  and  destructive  volley.  Many  fell,  the  rest  wavered ; 
Wolfe,  though  wounded  in  the  wrist,  seized  the  favourable  moment, 
and  springing  forwards  ordered  his  grenadiers  to  charge.  At  this 
instant  he  was  struck  by  another  ball  in  the  groin,  and  shortly 
after  by  a  third  in  the  breast,  which  caused  him  to  fall,  and  he  was 
conveyed  to  the  rear.  Before  he  breathed  his  last,  an  officer  who 
was  standing  by  exclaimed,  "See,  they  r\m  I "  "Who  run?" 
eagerly  cried  Wolfe.  "  The  enemy,"  cried  the  officer.  "  Then  God 
be  praised!"  said  Wolfe,  "I  shall  die  happy;"  and  immediately 
expired.  Thus  fell  this  gallant  officer  at  the  early  age  of  33. 
Montcalm,  the  French  commander,  was  also  mortally  wounded. 
Quebec  capitulated  on  September  17;  the  French  garrison  was 
conveyed  by  agreement  to  the  nearest  French  port;  and  in  the 
following  year  the  conquest  of  all  Canada  was  achieved. 

This  event  threw  a  lustre  over  the  close  of  the  reign  of  George  II., 
v/hich  in  other  respects  had  not  been  inglorious.  He  died  suddenly 
cii  October  25,  1760,  at  the  age  of  77,  from  the  bursting  of  the 
right  ventricle  of  the  heart. 


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Medal  oommemonting  Battle  of  Flaaqr. 
Oby. :  TXOTORT  .  at  .  plassy    cuvk  .  coJCMANDKE.    Vlctorj  withont  wlnge.  bearinc 
trophy  and  palm,  seated  on  elephant,  to  left.     Below,  "^^^  p^  ^  'J* 

Rev. :  IMIVRIB8  .  ATTONKD  .  I'RIVILBGK  .  AVOMBMTED  .  TBRRITORT  .  A0QT1RBD.       GUve, 

In  Roman  costume,  giving  a  eceptre  to  an  Indian.  Below,  *  ^^'^^^j^^JP  ksoai 

MIXX7L*  in. 

(in  Imitation  of  the  rbx  pabthis  datds,  and  the  like,  of  the  Roman  imperial  coinage). 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 
Gbobob  m.,  h.  1738 ;  r.  1760-1820. 

FROM  THE   KINQ'b  ACCESSION    TO    THE    RECOGNITION    OF    ilMERICAN 
INDEPENDENCE,  AND  THE  PEACE  OP  VERSAILLES,  A.D.  1760-1783. 

§  1.  Accession  of  George  III.,  and  settlement  of  the  goyernment.  King's 
marriage  and  coronation.  §  2.  State  of  the  campaign.  Negociations. 
Pitt  resigns.  §  3.  War  with  Spain.  Lord  Bute's  administration. 
Peace  of  Kontainebleau.  §  4.  Rise  and  progress  of  the  Indian  empire. 
§  5.  Unpopularity  of  lord  Bute.  Wiilies  and  the  North  Briton,  No.  XLV. 
General  warrants.  §  6.  Grenville's  American  Stamp  Act.  §  7.  Lord 
Rockingham  prime  minister.  Succeeded  by  lord  Chatham.  Lord 
North's  American  taxes.  §  8.  Proceedings  against  Wilkes.  Disturb- 
ances in  America.  Ix)rd  North  prime  minister.  Royal  Marriage  Act. 
§  9.  Effect  of  the  tea  duties  in  America.  Commencement  of  the  re- 
bellion. Skirmish  at  Lexington.  Battle  of  Bunker's  HiU.  §  10. 
Attempts  at  conciliation.  American  iudependence.  Progress  of  the 
war.  §  11.  La  Fayette.  Philadelphia  taken.  Capitulation  of  Saratoga. 
Treaty  between  France  and  the  Americans.  §  12.  Death  of  Chatham. 
§  13.  The  French  fleet  in  America.  Actions  in  the  ChanneL  Spain 
joins  the  French  and  Americans.  Paul  Jones.  §  14.  Lord  George 
Gordon's  riots.  §  15.  Rodney's  victory  at  Cape  St.  Vincent.  The 
^'Armei  Neutrality."  American  campaign.  Battles  of  Camden  and 
Eutau  Springs.  Capitulation  of  York  Town.  §  16.  Nayal  engagementa. 
Losses  and  disasters.  Lord  Rockingham's  second  ministry.  Inde- 
pendence of  the  Irish  parliament.  Parliamentary  reform.  §  17. 
Rodney's   victory  in    the  West    Indies.      Lord  Shelbame's   ministrjc 


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AJ>.  1760-1761.      MARRIAGE  OF  GEORGE  UI.  605 

Foundering  of  the  Boyai  O^orgt,  Siege  of  Gibraltar.  §  18.  Treaty 
with  America,  and  recognition  of  American  independence.  Peace  of 
YersaiUet. 

§  1.  The  youDg  prince  who  now  ascended  the  throne  of  his  grand- 
£either,  with  the  title  of  G^rge  III.,  was  22  years  of  age.  His 
person  was  tall  and  strongly  built,  his  countenance  open  and 
engaging.  In  his  first  address  to  the  parliament  he  inserted,  with 
his  own  hand,  the  words  *'  Bom  and  educated  in  this  country,  I 
glory  in  the  name  of  Briton  " — an  expression  which  could  not  but 
awaken  a  cordial  echo  in  a  nation  governed  by  foreigners  during 
the  greater  part  of  a  century.  His  conduct  answered  to  his  pro- 
fessions. The  party  distinctions  which  had  prevailed  during  the 
reign  of  his  grandfather  seemed  to  be  forgotten;  the  Jacobites,  who 
had  absented  themselves,  returned  to  court,  and  some  of  the  principal 
of  them  obtained  places  in  the  royal  household.  The  old  ministers 
were  retained ;  but  it  was  soon  evident  that  the  earl  of  Bute  would 
be  the  king's  principal  adviser,  and  both  he  and  prince  Edward, 
the  king's  next  brother,  were  made  privy  councillors.  After  the 
dissolution  of  parliament  (December  23),  the  seals  of  secretary 
of  state  were  transferred  from  lord  Holderness  to  lord  Bute — a  step 
in  which  Pitt  acquiesced,  though  he  had  not  been  consulted.  At 
the  same  time  Legge  vacated  the  chancellorship  of  the  exchequer, 
and  was  succeeded  by  lord  Barrington ;  and  lord  Henley,  who  after 
the  resignation  of  lord  Hardwicke  had  been  made  lord  keeper  only, 
now  became  lord  chancellor. 

Next  year  the  king  contracted  a  marriage  with  Charlotte,  second 
sister  of  the  duke  of  Mecklenburg  Strelitz,  then  only  17  years  of 
age.  In  person  she  was  short,  thin,  and  pale ;  but  she  was  sensible, 
cheerful,  and  good-tempered.  The  king  is  said  to  have  been  capti- 
vated by  a  spirited  letter  which  she  wrote  to  Frederic  of  Prussia, 
beseeching  him  to  spare  her  country.  She  arrived  at  St.  .lames's 
September  8,  1761,  and  the  marriage  was  celebrated  on  the  same 
day.    The  coronation  followed  (September  22). 

§  2.  During  the  last  two  or  three  years  the  campaign  in  Germany 
had  proceedai  with  varied  success;  and  on  the  whole  the  con- 
tending parties  stood  much  in  the  same  position.  The  British  con- 
tingents, under  the  marquess  of  Granby  and  general  Conway,  had 
made  some  atonement  for  the  disgrace  of  lord  Sackville  at  Minden. 
The  losses  sustained  by  France  had  made  that  country  sincerely 
desirous  of  peace.  Its  afiairs  were  now  conducted  by  the  duke  de 
Choiseul,  always,  however,  under  the  control  of  Madame  de  Pompa- 
dour, the  mistress  of  Louis  XV.  A  conference  at  Augsburg  was 
agreed  to  by  all  the  belligerents ;  but  between  France  and  England 
Choiseul  preferred  a  separate  negociation ;  and  with  this  view  M.  de 


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606  GEORGE  in.  Chap,  xxx 

Buflsy  was  accredited  to  London^  and  Mr.  Hans  Stanley  to  Paris.  To 
strengthen  his  negociations,  Pitt  sent  an  expedition  under  commo- 
dore Eeppel,  with  9000  troops  under  general  Hodgson,  against 
Belleisle,  a  barren  island,  strongly  fortified,  on  the  coast  of  Brittany. 
Belleisle  was  taken  (June  7)  ;  and  it  was  considered  that  it  might 
be  set  off  against  Minorca,  not  for  its  importance,  but  as  a  point  of 
honour  in  the  sight  of  France.  Gtx)d  news  also  arrived  from  other 
quarters.  The  island  of  Dominica  had  been  reduced  by  lord  Rolls ; 
and  in  the  east  Pondicherry  had  been  captured,  the  last  of  the 
French  strongholds  in  India. 

Ghoiseul  might  probably  have  yielded  all  the  points  demanded 
by  Pitt,  had  not  the  court  of  France  been  supported  by  that  of 
Madrid.  Ferdinand  VI.  had  died  in  1759 ;  and  his  brother  Charles, 
formerly  king  of  Naples,  now  ruled  Sjiain  and  the  Indies  with  the 
title  of  Charles  III.  He  had  been  obliged  to  relinquish  Naples  to 
his  third  son  Ferdinand,  as  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna  the  crowns  of 
Spain  and  Naples  could  not  be  united  on  the  same  head.  Charles 
naturally  regarded  the  French  Bourbons  as  the  head  of  his  house. 
He  was  desirous  of  acting  with  them,  and  he  had  besides  several 
causes  of  complaint  against  England.  He  now  proposed  that  the 
contemplated  peace  between  Englnnd  and  France  should  be 
guaranteed  by  Spain,  and  that  at  the  same  time  certain  claims  of 
Spain  on  England  should  be  adjusted.  Pitt  at  once  refused,  and 
the  court  of  Spain  was  informed  that  no  n^ociations  could  be 
opened  with  it  through  the  medium  of  France.  In  consequence 
of  this  refusal  the  Family  Compact,  as  it  was  called,  was  concluded 
(August  15, 1761).  France  and  Spain  mutually  agreed  to  regard 
for  the  future  the  enemy  of  either  as  the  enemy  of  both,  and  to 
guarantee  their  respective  dominions.  The  king  of  Naples  too,  as 
a  Bourbon,  also  acceded  to  this  alliance.  A  secret  convention  was 
also  entered  into,  that  in  case  England  and  France  should  be  still 
at  war  on  May  1, 1762,  Spain  should  declare  war  against  England, 
in  consideration  of  which  France  should  restore  Minorca  to  Spain. 

As  soon  as  Pitt  obtained  certain  intelligence  of  this  agreement, 
he  strongly  advised  that  the  Spanish  declaration  should  be  antici- 
pated. He  urged  the  importance  of  striking  the  first  blow  against 
Spain,  and  he  showed  that  expense  would  be  saved  by  taking  the 
Spaniards  unawares,  and  seizing  their  mercbantn^en  and  treasure- 
ships  ;  but  in  this  daring  counsel  he  could  ftnd  none  to  second  hira» 
except  his  relative  Temple.  They  consequently  tendered  their 
resignations,  which  were  received  by  the  king  with  many  gracious 
expressions  towards  Pitt  (October  5,  1761).  Thus  fell  an  adminis- 
tration which  had  raised  England  to  a  great  pitch  of  military  glory. 
Pitt  was  offered  the  governorship  of  Canada,  without  residexice,  and 


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A.D.  1761-17ei.  WAB  WITH  SPAIN.  607 

5000^.  a  year;  or  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  with  about  the  same 
emolument.  These  offers  he  rather  haughtily  refused,  but  he 
accepted  the  title  of  baroness  Chatham  for  his  wife,  lady  Hester 
Pitt,  and  a  pension  of  3000/.  per  annum  for  three  lives — ^his  own, 
lady  Chatham's,  and  their  eldest  son's.  Pitt's  retirement  paved  the 
way  for  lord  Bute. 

§  3.  Pitt's  anticipations  were  fulfilled.  No  sooner  were  the 
Spanish  West  Indiamen  safe  in  harbour,  than  the  Spaniards  began 
to  alter  their  tone ;  and  before  the  close  of  the  year  the  ambassadors 
on  both  sides  were  dismissed  from  London  and  Madrid.  Before  his 
departure,  the  Spanish  minister  inveighed  against  Pitt  by  name, 
in  an  angry  memorial  which  he  presented  to  lord  £gremont,  the 
new  secretary.  War  was  declared  against  Spain  (January  4, 1762). 
Shortly  afterwards  France  and  Spain  made  a  joint  demand  on 
Portugal  to  renoimce  her  neutrality,  and  large  bodies  of  Spanish 
troops  were  collected  on  the  Portuguese  frontiers  to  enforce  it.  The 
king  of  Portugal  gave  a  spirited  refusal,  and  applied  to  England  for 
assistance,  which  Bute,  in  spite  of  his  pacific  policy,  could  not  refuse. 

The  duke  of  Newcastle  still  continued  at  the  head  of  the  treasury, 
though  the  chief  share  of  power  fell  to  Bute.  But  as  Bute  had 
refused  to  support  the  king  of  Prussia  and  had  withdrawn  the 
subsidy,  Newcastle  tendered  his  resignation,  and  was  surprised  to 
find  it  accepted  (May  14, 1762).  Bute  was  advanced  to  be  first  lord 
of  the  treasury ;  George  GrenviUe  became  secretary  of  state  in  his 
stead,  and  sir  Francis  Dashwood  was  made  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer. Bute's  rapid  promotion  procured  him  many  enemies.  A 
strong  whig  phalanx,  headed  by  Pitt,  was  arrayed  against  him. 
Wilkes,  who  was  now  beginning  to  emerge  into  notice,  directed 
popular  indignation  against  him  in  the  North  Briton,  and  was 
assisted  by  his  friend  and  fellow-satirist,  the  poet  Churchill. 

The  thoughts  of  Bute  were  constantly  directed  towards  peace, 
though  the  arms  of  Great  Britain  and  her  allies  had  been  successful 
on  every  side.  In  Germany,  Frederick  and  prince  Ferdinand  had 
been  victorious.  In  Portugal,  the  British  troops  imder  Burgoyne 
had  arrested  the  progress  of  the  Spaniards.  In  the  West  Inches, 
an  armament  under  admiral  Rodney  and  general  Monckton  had 
taken  Martinique  in  January.  Grenada,  St.  Lucia,  and  St.  Yiuoent, 
subsequently  surrendered;  Guadaloupe  had  been  taken  in  1759, 
and  thus  the  whole  of  the  Caribbees  were  now  in  the  power  of  Eng- 
land. The  Havannah  also  capitulated  after  a  desperate  siege,  where 
the  booty,  in  treasure  and  merchandise,  was  computed  at  three 
millions  (August  12).  About  the  same  time,  in  the  eastern 
hemisphere,  Manilla,  the  capital  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  was 
taken ;  and  several  rich  Spanish  prizes  were  captured  at  sea. 


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608  GEORGE  m.  0h4P.  xxxl 

In  spite  of  tneee  brllUant  suocesseg,  overtures  for  a  peace,  made 
through  the  neutral  court  of  Sardinia,  were  readily  cau^^t  at. 
Bute  seems  to  have  been  alarmed  at  the  great  increase  of  the  national 
debt,  which  had  doubled  during  the  WHr,  and  now  amounted  to 
132,600,000^  A  treaty,  concluded  at  Paris  (February  10,  1763), 
put  an  end  to  the  Seven  Years'  War.  By  the  peace  of  Paris 
Minorca  was  exchanged  for  Belleisle ;  the  provinces  of  Nova  Scotia, 
Cape  Breton,  and  Canada  were  ceded  to  England ;  the  isUnds  of 
Guadaloupe,  Martinique,  and  St.  Lucia  were  restored ;  but  Tobago, 
Dominica,  St.  Vincent,  and  Grenada  were  retained.  These  were 
the  principal  provisions  with  regard  to  the  interests  of  England. 
By  a  clause  in  the  treaty,  all  conquests  made  in  any  part  of  the 
world  during  the  negociations  were  to  be  given  up.  This  involved 
the  cession  of  the  Havannah  and  Manilla,  the  conquest  of  which 
was  not  yet  known.  Bute  seemed  inclined  to  yield  them  without 
an  equivalent ;  and  it  was  only  at  the  pressing  instance  of  George 
Grenville  and  lord  Egremont  that  Florida  or  Porto  Rico  was 
demanded  in  return.    The  former  was  readily  conceded. 

§  4.  Amon^  the  places  restored  to  the  fS^nch  was  also  Pondi- 
cherry  in  the  East  Indies ;  but  they  could  never  recover  their  lost  in- 
fluence in  that  country,  and  soon  after  this  their  East  India  Company 
was  dissolved.  The  genius  and  courage  of  Clive  had  now  converted 
an  association  of  traders  into  the  rulers  of  a  large  and  magnificent 
empire.  Though  established  in  the  latter  part  of  Elizabeth's  reign, 
it  was  not  till  the  time  of  Charles  II.  that  the  East  India  Company 
made  any  considerable  advances  in  wealth  and  power,  ('harles 
granted  them  a  new  charter,  conveying  many  exclusive  rights  and 
privileges,  and  also  ceded  to  them  the  settlement  of  Bombay,  which 
he  had  received  as  a  marriage  portion  with  Catherine  of  Braganza. 
Fort  St.  George  and  the  town  of  Madras  had  already  been  founded 
in  the  Camatic.  The  jfirst  English  factories  were  settled  at  Bantam 
and  Surat,  but  were  subsequently  abandoned.  At  the  period  of  the 
Revolution  a  new  company  was  instituted,  the  rivalship  of  which 
produced  much  mischief,  till  the  two  were  amalgamated  in  1702.  In 
1698,  a  grant  of  land  on  rent  having  been  obtained  from  Aurungzebe, 
the  Mogul  emperor,  at  Chuttemuttee,  on  the  river  Hooghly,  Fort 
William  was  erected,  under  shelter  of  which  the  town  of  Calcutta, 
ultimately  expanded  into  the  magnificent  capital  of  modem  India. 
Thus,  before  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  the  three 
presidencies  of  Madras  (Fort  St.  George),  Calcutta  (Fort  William), 
and  Bombay,  had  already  been  erected ;  but  no  central  government 
yet  existed.  These  settlements  had  but  little  territory  attached  to 
them,  and  often  trembled  for  their  own  safety. 

The  French,  who  had  established  an  East  India  Company  in  the 


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A.D.  1755-1757.  KISE  OF  CLIVE.  609 

reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  were  otir  only  formidable  rivals  in  India.  The 
Portnguese  were  our  allies,  and  their  power  was  but  small ;  the 
Dutch  confined  their  attention  chiefly  to  Java  and  the  neighbouring 
islands.  The  French  had  two  important  settlements:  Chander- 
nagore  on  the  Hooghly,  higher  up  than  Fort  William ;  and  Pondi- 
cherry  on  the  coast  of  the  Camatic,  about  80  miles  south  of 
Madras.  They  also  possessed  two  fertile  islands  in  the  Indian 
Ocean :  the  Isle  of  Bourbon^  and  Mauritius  or  the  Isle  of  France. 
The  wars  of  the  mother  coimtries  extended  to  these  colonies. 
In  1746  the  French  under  La  Bourdunnais  took  Madras;  and 
Dupleix,  governor  of  Pondicherry,  in  violation  of  the  terms  of  the 
capitulation,  carried  the  principal  inhabitants  to  that  town,  and 
paraded  them  through  the  stieets  in  triumph.  Madras  was  restored 
at  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Ghapelle.  During  the  peace,  Diipleix,  by 
intrigues  with  the  native  princes,  endeavoured  to  extend  the  French 
empire  in  India  at  the  expense  of  the  English ;  but  he  was  en- 
countered by  the  superior  genius  and  valour  of  Clive,  a  writer  or 
clerk,  who  had  been  among  the  captives  of  Madras.  The  taking 
of  Arcot,  the  victory  over  Rajah  Sahib  at  Amee,  the  capture  of 
the  Great  Pagoda,  were  some  of  the  wonderful  exploits  of  that 
merchant-soldier.  After  a  two  years'  visit  to  England  for  the  sake 
of  his  health,  Olive  returned  to  India  in  1755,  with  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel  in  the  king^s  service,  and  his  appointment  from 
the  company  as  governor  of  Fort  St  David. 

His  abilities  were  soon  called  into  action.  Surajah  Dowlah, 
viceroy  of  Bengal,  had  taken  Calcutta,  and  thrust  the  English  in- 
habitants, to  the  number  of  146,  into  a  small  and  loathsome 
dungeon  known  as  the  Black  Hole,  where  in  one  night  123  of  them 
were  stifled  (June  20,  1756).  But  a  signal  vengeance  followed. 
In  January,  1757,  Olive,  with  an  army  of  900  Europeans  and 
1500  sepoys,  retook  Oalcutta;  kept  at  bay  the  Surajah's  a' my  of 
40,000  men,  and  compelled  him  to  make  peace.  Shortly  after 
Olive  took  Chandemagore,  as  before  related.  His  next  exploit  was 
to  defeat  the  Surajah  Dowlah  at  Plasst  (1757).  The  nabob  bad 
50,000  men  and  40  pieces  of  cannon,  Olive  only  1000  Europeans 
and  2000  sepoys,  with  eight  field-pieces  aud  two  howitzers ;  yet 
the  rout  was  complete,  aud  the  Surajah  lost  all  his  artillery  and 
baggage.  This  victory  decided  the  fatu  of  India,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  our  empire.  Meer  Jaffier,  a  rebellious  vassal  of  the 
Surajah's,  was  installed  in  the  capital  of  Moorshedabad  as  nabob  of 
Ben^l,  Orissa,  and  Bahar ;  his  predecessor  was  put  to  death,  and 
the  new  nabob  ceded  to  the  English  all  the  land  within  the 
Mahratta  ditch  or  fortification  round  Oalcutta,  and  all  the  country 
from  Oalcutta  to  the  sea.    Olive  was  now  made  governor  of  Bengal 


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610  q£oeqb:  m.  Obap. 

by  the  East  India  Company.  In  return  for  dive's  assistance 
against  the  emperor  of  Delhi,  Meer  Jaffier  presented  him  with  a 
domain  worth  27,00(M.  a  year.  In  1760  Clive  returned  to  England, 
haying  previously  defeated  an  attempt  of  the  Dutch  upon  Calcutta. 
He  received  an  Irish  peerage  as  lord  Clive  and  baron  Plassy,  and 
obtained  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  hostilities  between  the  French  and  English  in  India,  after 
the  declaration  of  war  in  1758,  have  already  been  related,  to  which 
it  may  be  added  that  the  defeat  of  Lally  Tollendal  by  sir  Eyre 
Coote,  at  Wandewash,  and  the  surrender  of  Pondicherry  (January 
17,  1761),  secured  the  Camatia  The  further  history  of  India  will 
be  resimied  hereafter. 

§  5.  As  Grenville  was  deficient  in  those  qualities  which  are 
required  for  the  leadership  of  the  House  of  Commons,  he  was  pre- 
vailed upon  with  great  reluctance  to  make  way  for  Fox,  and  to 
exchange  the  post  of  secretary  of  state  for  that  of  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty.  The  seals  were  conferred  upon  the  earl  of  Halifax, 
Fox  still  remaining  paymaster  of  the  forces,  with  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet.  Out  of  doors  the  peace  was  very  unpopular.  Bute  was 
hissed  and  pelted.  But,  in  spite  of  a  bitter  invective  against  it  by 
Pitt,  the  address  was  carried  by  a  large  majority  in  the  commons. 
Another  cause  of  lord  Bute's  unpopularity  was  his  Scotch  descent 
Wilkes  branded  him  with  the  epithet  oi favourite.  In  some  of  the 
rural  districts  he  was  burnt  imder  the  effigy  of  a  jack-booty  a  rustic 
allusion  to  his  name  (Bute) ;  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  when 
he  walked  the  streets^  he  was  accused  of  being  surrounded  by 
prize-fighters.  These  symptoms  of  popular  dislike  drove  him  to 
resign  (April  8, 1763),  to  the  surprise  of  all.  Fox  was  at  the  same 
time  raised  to  the  upper  house  with  the  title  of  lord  Holland,  still, 
however,  retaining  his  office.  Bute  was  succeeded  by  George 
Grenville,  who  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chajicellor  of 
the  exchequer*  (April  16).  The  two  secretaries  of  state  were 
lords  Egremont  and  Halifeo. 

Parliament  was  prorogued  by  a  speech  from  the  throve,  in  which 
the  king  adverted  to  the  late  peace  as  honourable  to  the  crown  and 
beneficial  to  the  people  (April  18).  This  was  immediately  attacked 
in  the  North  Briton  (April  23),  in  the  celebrated  No.  4<5. 
Ghrenville  was  impolitic  enough  to  order  the  prosecution  hoth  of 
author  and  publisher ;  and  to  this  circumstance  the  article  owed  its 
notoriety,  for  it  did  not  equal,  either  in  ability  or  virulence,  many 
of  the  preceding  numbers.     On  Apnl  30,  Wilkes  was  arrested  in 

*  «*Lord  Bote.**  uiA  Warburton,  hte  I  FInt,  be  is  a  Sootchman;  secondly,  be  li 
political  opponent,  "is  a  verj  unfit  the  king's  friend «  and  thirdly,  be  Is  an 
man  to  bo  prime  minLster  of  England.  '  honest  man." 


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AJ).  1768-1764.    WILKES  AND  THE  NORTH  BRITON.        611 

bis  own  house  by  virtue  of  what  was  called  "  a  general  wanant," 
that  is,  a  warrant  not  specifying  any  particular  person,  but  directed 
against  "the  authors,  printers,  and  publishers"  of  the  obnoxious 
paper.  Ris  papers  were  seized  at  the  same  time,  and  he  was 
committed  to  the  Tower.  On  May  6  he  was  brought  before  chief 
justice  Pratt,  who,  without  pronouncing  any  opinion  on  general 
warrants,  discharged  him  on  the  ground  that  his  offence  did  not 
destroy  his  privilege  as  a  member  of  i)arliament. 

In  the  next  session,  which  opened  November  15,  Wilkes  took  hia 
seat  as  usual.  Warm  debates  ensued  in  the  commons.  It  was 
voted  that  No.  45  was  a  false,  scandalous,  and  malicious  libel,  and 
it  was  ordered  to  be  burnt  by  the  hangman  (December  3).  The 
attempt  to  execute  this  sentence  in  the  Royal  Exchange  produced  a 
serious  riot.  A  jack-boot  and  a  petticoat,  the  latter  denoting  the 
princess  of  Wales,  were  thrown  into  the  fire  prepared  for  the  paper, 
the  mob  shouting  "  Wilkes  and  liberty  for  ever ! "  A  few  days 
after,  he  recovered  lOOOZ.  damages  against  Mr.  Wood,  the  under- 
secretary of  state,  for  seizing  his  papers  (December  6).  Some 
delay  was  occasioned  in  the  measures  against  Wilkes  from  his 
having  been  wounded  in  a  duel  by  Mr.  Martin,  who  challenged  him 
on  account  of  a  libel  in  some  former  numbers  of  the  North  Briton, 
Wilkes  fled  to  Paris,  and  at  length  was  expelled  from  the  house 
by  a  unanimous  vote  (January  19,  1764).  On  February  21,  a 
verdict  was  obtained  against  him,  both  for  No.  45,  and  for  an 
obscene  and  scurrilous  pamphlet,  called  an  "  Essay  on  Woman,"  a 
parody  of  Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man,"  containing  reflections  on  lord 
Sand  wich,  secretary  of  state,  bishop  Warburton ,  and  others.  Wilkes 
remaining  still  abroad,  and  not  appearing  to  receive  judgment,  was 
outlawed.  Wilkes's  case  derives  its  chief  importance  from  the 
question  which  it  raised  respecting  the  legality  of  general  warrants. 
Chief  justice  Pratt  and  the  most  eminent  lawyers  of  the  day 
declared  them  illegal  from  their  form,  their  tenor  being  to  appre- 
hend all  persons  guilty  of  a  certain  crime,  thus  assuming  a  guilt 
which  remained  to  be  proved.  For  the  present,  however,  the 
government  had  influence  enough  to  postpone  a  resolution  to  that 
effect  being  carried  in  the  commons. 

§  6.  Another  impolitic  step  of  Grenville's,  but  attended  with  far 
more  momentous  consequences,  was  that  of  extending  the  Stamp 
Act  to  the  North  American  colonies.  The  late  war  had  been  very 
expensive ;  and,  as  it  had  been  partly  undertaken  for  the  defence 
of  those  colonies,  it  occurred  to  Grenville  that  they  might  not 
unjustly  be  called  upon  to  bear  a  part  of  the  burthen.  He  consulted 
the  agents  of  the  several  North  American  colonies  in  London  upon 
bis  project,  inquired  whether  any  other  tax  would  be  more  agree- 


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612  QEORQE  III.  Chap,  xxxl 

able  to  them^  and  gave  a  year's  notice  of  his  plan  bj  a  resolation 
entered  on  the  Journals  of  the  Commons  in  March,  1764. 

The  American  colonies  had  been  continually  increasing  in  strength 
and  prosperity,  and  at  this  time  they  consisted  of  13  states,  with  a 
population  of  about  two  millions  of  whites,  and  half  a  million  of 
coloured  people.  They  were — 1-4.  The  New  England  colonies, 
settled  by  the  puritans,  consisting  of  the  four  states  of  Massachu- 
setts, New  Hampshire,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island;  5.  New 
York ;  6.  New  Jersey ;  7.  Pennsylvania ;  8.  Delaware ;  9.  Maryland; 
10.  Virginia;  11, 12.  The  two  states  of  North  and  South  Carolina; 
and  13.  Georgia.  Each  of  these  colonies  was  governed  on  the 
English  model,  and  had  a  House  of  Assembly  elected  by  the 
people.  There  was  also  a  governor  appointed  by  the  crown,  and 
a  council.    In  Connecticut  the  governor  was  elective. 

Hitherto  the  mother  country  and  her  colonies  had  lived  in 
tolerable  harmony ;  but  at  this  time  the  Americans  were  in  a  dis- 
tressed and  irritable  condition.  They  were  suffering  from  the 
effects  of  a  terrible  border  war  with  the  Indians ;  they  considered 
themselves  aggrieved  by  new  duties  imposed  on  their  foreign  trade, 
as  well  as  by  the  stringent  regulations  by  which  their  illicit  traffic 
with  the  Spanish  colonies  was  repressed.  All  were  opposed  to  a 
stamp  act,  which  from  its  nature  was  far  more  obnoxious  than 
any  custom-house  dutie?.  The  latter  might  be  regarded  as  imperial, 
the  former  was  a  sort  of  local  excise.  They  refused  to  suggest  any 
substitute,  but  ba^  their  opposition  on  the  broad  principle,  that 
there  should  be  no  taxation  ^vithol1t  representation,  and  that  they 
were  not  represented  in  the  House  of  Commons.  They  intimated 
however  a  wish  that,  as  in  former  instances,  a  letter  from  the 
secretary  of  state,  in  the  king's  name,  requiring  contributions  (kj/t 
his  service,  shouM  be  laid  before  the  different  Houses  of  Assembly. 
It  is  possible  that  such  a  project  might  have  succeeded,  partially  at 
least,  for  a  short  time  longer,  and  have  produced  100,00W.  a  year, 
as  much  as  was  expected  from  the  Stamp  Act. 

In  February,  1765,  the  measure  passed  through  parliament.  It 
attracts  1  little  or  no  notice.  Pitt  was  absent;  Barr^  alone  raised 
his  voice  against  it,  and  was  languidly  supported  by  three  or  four 
more.  Nobody  suspected  that  this  little  spark  would  burst  out 
into  a  vast  and  inextin<;;uishable  flame.  Even  Dr.  Franklin,  the 
agent  for  Pennsylvania,  one  of  the  chief  and  ablest  representatives 
of  the  views  of  the  colonists,  expected  little  else  than  acquiescence 
from  his  countrymen.    (Supplement,  Note  XV.) 

Far  different  was  the  spirit  which  the  act  excited  in  some  parts  of 
America.  It  was  reprinted  with  a  death's  head  at  top  in  place  of 
the  king's  arms,  and  was  hawked  about  under  the  title  of  "Tb:? 


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A.D.  1764-1765.       THE  AMERICAN  STAMP  ACT.  613 

Folly  of  England  and  Ruin  of  America."  The  vessels  in  Boston 
harbour  hoisted  their  colours  half-mast  high,  and  the  muffled  bells 
of  the  churches  tolled  out  a  death-knelL  The  Virginian  House  of 
Assembly,  roused  by  the  eloquence  of  Patrick  Henry,  to<>k  the  lead 
in  opposition,  and  drew  up  a  series  of  resolutions,  accompanied  by 
a  petition  to  the  king,  denying  the  right  of  the  mother  country  to 
tax  the  colonists  without  their  consent.  Most  of  the  other  asitem- 
blies  followed  this  example,  and  a  general  congress  was  appointed 
to  meet  at  New  York  in  October,  when  resolutions  and  petitions, 
much  the  same  as  those  of  Virginia,  were  adopted.  In  some  parts 
associations  were  formed  against  the  im{)ortation  or  use  of  British 
manufactures;  and  presently  a  small  party  began  to  appear,  who 
promulgated  their  views  of  a  federal  republic.  When  the  ships 
arrived  with  the  stamps,  it  became  n(  cessary  to  stow  them  away 
in  some  place  of  safety.  Nobody  would  use  them,  and  the  persons 
who  had  been  appointed  distributors  resigned  their  posts. 

§  7.  While  these  things  were  going  on,  the  author  of  the  mis- 
chief had  been  compelled  to  resign  his  office.  On  the  12th  of 
January,  1765,  George  III.  was  attacked  with  a  severe  illness, 
accompanied  with  symptoms  of  that  dreadful  malady  which 
darkened  his  later  years.  On  his  recovery,  in  April,  he  was  the 
first  to  propose  a  regency.  The  ministers  wished  to  leave  out  his 
mother's  name,  and  the  king  had  been  surprit^ed  into  giving  his 
consent,  on  the  assurance  that,  if  it  were  inserted  in  the  bill,  it 
would  be  struck  out  by  the  House  of  Commons.  It  was  unani- 
mously restored  by  the  house.  But  the  king's  mind  was  alienated 
from  Grenville  in  consequence  of  his  behaviour  on  this  occasion, 
and  shortly  after  he  entered  into  negociations  with  Pitt  and 
Temple.  On  their  refusal,  the  king  applied  to  the  marquess  of 
Rockingham.  This  nobleman,  who  was  descended  from  a  sister  of 
the  famous  earl  of  Strafford,  and  thus  inherited  his  great  estates, 
now  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  (July  13, 1765).  Rockingham 
was  one  of  the  greatest  landholders  in  England.  Without  possessing 
any  shining  talents,  his  judgment  was  sound  and  his  character 
honourable.  His  chief  passion  was  horse-racing.  Under  him  the 
duke  of  Grafton  and  general  Conway  became  secretaries  of  state;  Mr. 
William  Dowdeswell,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  and  the  veteran 
duke  of  Newcastle  was  propitiated  with  the  privy  seal.  Pitt  was 
conciliated  by  the  raising  of  his  confiUntial  friend,  chief  justice 
Pratt,  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  lord  Camden. 

The  state  of  America  was  very  embarrassing  for  the  new  ministry. 

To  withdraw  the  Stamp  Act  was  regarded  as  an  evil  precedent  and 

a  confession  of  weakness :  to  press  it  would  be  painful,  and  might 

lead  to  dangerous  consequences.    The  vigour  with  which  Pitt  d»- 

28 


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614  QEOROE  in.  Chap,  xxxl 

nounced  Grenville  and  attacked  his  measure,  in  the  session  of  1766, 
decided  the  cabinet  They  brought  in  two  bills :  one  to  repeal  the 
Stamp  Act,  the  other  declaring  the  power  of  parliament  over  the 
colonies  to  be  supreme.  Both  measures  were  carried.  The  majority 
of  the  colonists  were  still  loyal,  and  the  news  of  the  repeal  of  the 
obnoxious  act  was  received  with  great  satisfaction  in  America.  It 
was  not,  however,  in  human  nature  but  that  some  soreness  should 
be  left  behind,  as  well  as  a  still  more  dangerous  feeling  of  secret 
triumph  at  this  recognition  of  their  strength.    (Sup.  N.  XVL) 

Rockingham  adopted  other  measures  of  a  popular  nature.  A  silk 
bill,  introduced  by  the  late  ministry,  had  occasioned  serious  riots 
in  the  preceding  year  amon^  the  Spitalfields  weavers;  si^e  had 
been  laid  to  the  duke  of  Bedford*s  house  in  Bloomsbury-square,  and 
it  became  necessary  to  disperse  the  rioters  by  means  of  the  military. 
Rockingham  now  restrained  the  importation  of  foreign  silks.  He 
also  repealed  the  unpopular  cider-tax,  obtained  a  resolution  of  ihe 
House  of  Commons  declaring  general  warrants  illegal,  and  another 
condemning  the  seizure  of  papers  in  cases  of  libel.  The  ministry, 
however,  was  tottering  through  internal  weakness ;  lord  Northing- 
ton,  the  chancellor,  told  the  king  at  the  end  of  the  session  that  they 
could  not  go  on,  and  advised  him  to  send  for  Mr.  Pitt.  This  time 
Pitt  accepted  office,  and  succeeded  in  forming  a  ministry ;  but,  to 
the  surprise  of  all,  he  reserved  for  himself  the  office  of  privy  seal, 
with  a  peerage  as  earl  of  Chatham  (July  80,  1766).  Pitt  named 
the  duke  of  Grafton  as  head  of  the  treasury ;  Charles  Townshend 
became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  general  Conway  continued 
secretary  of  state  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons,  with  the 
earl  of  Shelbume  *  as  his  colleague ;  and  lord  Camden  was  made 
chancellor. 

The  prospect  of  Pitt's  support  in  the  House  of  Commons  had 
been  the  chief  inducement  with  most  of  the  ministers  to  take  office, 
and  they  were  naturally  much  disappointed  to  find  themselves 
deprived  of  it  by  his  elevation  to  the  peerage.  "  This  fatal  title," 
writes  Walpole,  "  blasted  all  the  a£fection  which  his  country  had 
borne  to  him."  To  increase  his  mortification,  his  ministry  was 
assailed  by  the  most  scurrilous  lampooners,  hounded  on  by  the 
ceaseless  malignancy  of  Temple.  Disappointment  at  his  proceed- 
ings did  not  end  here.  He  appeared  but  seldom  even  in  the  lords ; 
and  in  the  spring  of  1767  he  was  so  prostrated  by  the  gout  or  some 
mysterious  malady,  that  he  would  neither  see  any  one  of  his 
colleagues  on  the  most  urgent  business,  nor  attend  to  business. 

*  WilliAm  Petty,  2nd  earl  of  Sbelbarne,  i  mlDister  in  lYsa  (see  p.  SSI),  and  wm 
In  the  Irish  peerage,  and  2nd  Baron  I  created  marqneM  of  LanadowiM  la  1784. 
Wycombe,  in   England,   became  prime  I 


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AJK  1766-176a      PROOEEDINQS  AGAINST  WILKESL 


616 


Edmund  Btirke,  who  was  now  rifling  into  eminence,  adverted  to  him 
in  one  of  his  speeches  as  a  great  invisible  power — a  being  so  im- 
measurably high  that  not  even  his  own  cabinet  could  get  access  to 
him.*  In  his  absence  the  opposition  carried  a  motion  to  reduce  the 
land-tax,  by  which  the  revenue  was  deprived  of  half  a  million.  To 
repair  this  loss,  Charles  Townshend  resolved  to  raise  a  revenue  in 
America  by  small  taxes  on  tea,  glass,  paper,  and  painters'  colours, 
the  whole  amount  of  which  would  not  exceed  40,000^.  a  year.  He 
died  in  the  following  September,  in  the  41st  year  of  his  age,  and 
lord  North  accepted  the  vacant  office  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
(December  1).  Changes  soon  after  occurred  in  the  ministry,  and 
the  new  office  of  colonial  secretary  was  established,  in  which  the 
earl  of  Hillsborough  f  was  installed  (January,  1768). 

§  8.  In  the  elections  of  1768  for  a  new  parliament,  the  second  of 
this  reign,  Wilkes,  who  was  still  under  a  sentence  of  outlawry,  being 
rejected  by  the  city  of  London,  contrived  to  obtain  his  return  as 
member  for  Middlesex  (April  20).  He  was  committed  to  prisoiL 
On  the  road  a  vast  mob  removed  the  horses  from  his  coach  and 
drew  it  to  a  tavern  on  Comhill.  But  Wilkes  effected  his  escape, 
and  delivered  himself  up  at  the  King's  Bench  prison.  Parliament 
met  on  May  10,  when  a  vast  concourse  assembled  in  St.  George's 
Fields,  expecting  to  see  Wilkes  emerge  from  confinement  on  his 
way  to  the  House  of  Commons;  but  being  disappointed  in  their 
hopes,  they  became  ungovernable,  and  were  fired  on  by  the  soldiers. 
To  add  to  the  disorders,  the  sailors  and  coal-heavers  had  risen  in  a 
body,  filling  the  whole  city  with  consternation.  On  June  18 
Wilkes's  sentence  of  outlawry  was  reversed  by  lord  Mansfield ;  but 
the  original  verdicts  were  confirmed,  and  Wilkes  was  sentenced  to 
two  years'  imprisonment,  computed  from  the  day  of  his  arrest,  and 
to  pay  two  fines  of  600?.  each  for  No.  45  and  the  "Essay  on 
Woman."  Wilkes  appealed  to  the  House  of  Commons,  but  it  pro- 
nounced him  guilty  of  an  insolent  libel,  for  publishing  a  letter  of 
lord  Weymouth's,  now  secretary  of  state,  to  the  magistrates  of 
Surrey,  accompanied  with  some  caustic  remarks.  .  Od  the  motion 
of  lord  Barrington  he  was  expelled  the  house  for  the  second  time 
(February  3,  1769).  His  popularity  was  undiminished.  In  the 
city  he  had  been  elected  alderman  of  Farringdon  Without;  and 


•  In  a  letter  written  to  a  private  firiend 
t)ie  year  before,  Barke  says  of  btm :  **  A 
few  days  will  fthow  whether  he  will  take 
this  part,  or  that  of  oontiouing  on  his 
liack  at  Hayes,  talking  fashion,  excluded 
from  ail  ministerial  and  incapable  of  all 
parliamentary  service;  for  his  gout  is 
worse  than  ever,  but  his  pride  may  dis- 


able him  worse  than  his  gout."— *' Corre- 
spondence," i.  341.  Whether  it  was  gout 
or  mortified  pride  which  determined 
Chattiam's  strange  conduct  on  this  oc- 
casion, it  is  not  easy  to  decide. 

t  Wills  HUl,  first  earl  of  Hillsborough, 
created  marqneM  of  Downshire  in  Ireland 
inl789 ;  ancestor  of  the  present  marquesA 


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616  GEOBQK  in.  Ghap.  xzxl 

when  the  election  for  Middlesex  came  on,  he  was  again  iinanimoualj 
returned  (February  16).  The  House  insisted  on  his  exclusion 
(February  17).  A  third  time  be  was  returned  (March  16),  and  a 
third  time  the  House  of  Commons  declared  him  ineligible  (March 
17),  and  ordered  a  new  writ  to  be  issued.  Their  tactics  wore  now 
changed.  Wilkes  was  opposed  by  colonel  Luttrell  (April  13) ;  and 
the  house  pronounced  Luttrell  duly  elected,  though  Wilkes  had  a 
great  majority  (April  16).  So  ended  '*  the  fifth  act  of  this  tragi- 
comedy," as  Burke  called  it.  But  though  the  ministers  carried  their 
point,  they  had  rendered  Wilkes  the  idol  of  the  nation.  In  the 
autumn  he  brought  an  action  agidnst  lord  Halifax  for  having  seized 
his  papers,  and  obtained  400(V.  damages  (Noyember  10). 

Meanwhile  Townshend*s  ill-advised  taxes  had  revived  in  tiie 
North  American  colonies  all  the  animosity  occasioned  by  the  Stamp 
Act.  In  this  oppodtion  the  state  of  Massachusetts  took  the  lead. 
A  violent  altercation  arose  between  the  House  of  Assembly  and 
Bernard  the  governor,  who  finally,  by  lord  Hillsborough's  instruc- 
tions, dissolved  the  Assembly  (July  1, 1768).  Riots  of  the  most 
serious  description  ensued  at  Boston.  The  other  American  states, 
though  not  80  violent,  displayed  a  sort  of  passive  resistance.  Asso- 
ciations were  formed  calling  themselves  "Sons  of  Liberty,"  and  even 
**  Daughters  of  Liberty,"  to  enter  into  non-importation  agreements, 
and  forbear  the  use  of  tea.  Subeequently  it  became  customary  to 
strip  tliose  who  refused  to  enter  into  these  agreements,  and  to  cover 
them  with  tar  and  feathers.    (Supplement,  Note  XVlL) 

The  cabinet  now  deemed  it  prudent  to  propose  a  repeal  of  the 
obnoxious  taxes ;  but  lord  North,  at  the  suggestion  of  lord  Hills- 
borough, supported  the  tea-duties,  merely  as  a  question  of  right 
Lord  Hillsborough  communicated  the  determination  of  the  ministry 
in  a  circular  to  the  governors  of  the  North  American  colonies, 
but  in  terms  so  ungracious,  as  only  served  to  increase  the  irritation. 
Chatham,  who  had  held  aloof  from  the  administration,  resigned 
(October  15,  1768),  and  the  duke  of  Graflon,  first  lord  of  the 
Treasury,  became  the  recognized  premier.  In  July,  1769,  Chatham 
was  able  to  attend  the  king's  levee,  and  when  parliament  opened 
in  January,  1770,  he  appeared  in  his  place  and  denounced  in  severe 
terms  both  the  foreign  and  the  American  policy  of  the  ministers, 
all  of  whom  had  been  his  own  chosen  colleagues  in  office  a  few 
weeks  before.  Shortly  after  Grafron  resigned,  and  North  accepted 
the  place  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  in  addition  to  that  of  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  and  thus  became  prime  minister. 

As  two  of  the  king's  brothers,  the  dukes  of  Cumberland  and 
Gloucester,  had  contracted  marriages,  the  former  with  Mrs.  Horton, 
sister  of  colonel  Luttrell,  the  latter  with  an  illegitimate  daughtei 


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A.D.  1773-1774     THE  AMEaUCAN  TEA-DUTY.  617 

of  sir  Edward  Walpole,  the  king  caused  the  Royal  Marriage  Bill  to 
be  introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords.  By  this  act  every  prince 
or  princess,  the  descendant  of  Oeorge  II.,  except  only  the  issue  of 
princesses  married  abroad,  is  prohibited  from  marrying  without  the 
king's  consent  before  attaining  the  age  of  25.  After  that  age  they 
may  be  relieved  from  the  king's  veto  if,  after  formal  notice  to  the 
privy  council,  parliament  expresses  no  disapprobation  of  the  pro- 
posed marriage  within  12  months  (1772).  This  statute  still  remains 
in  force. 

§  9.  With  the  exception  of  some  disturbances  in  Massachusetts, 
no  great  disafifection  appeared  in  America.  The  colonists  apparently 
acquiesced  in  the  tea-duty,  which  was  only  'dd,  per  pound.    But 
in  1773  an  act  was  committed  which,  though  far  from  being  so 
intended,  finally  estranged  the  American  colonies.    The  East  India 
Company  had  contracted  a  large  debt.     An  enormous  stock  of  tea 
was  accumulated  in  their  warehouses,  for  which  they  could  find  no 
sale.    In  order  to  relieve  them  by  prociuing  a  market  for  their 
stock,  lord  North  now  proposed  that  the  tea  exported  to  America, 
which  had  a  drawback  of  only  three-fifths  of  the  duty  paid  in 
England,  should  have  a  drawback  of  the  whole  duty,  thus  leaving 
it  subject  only  to  the  3<^.  duty  in  America.    This  appeared  to  be  a 
boon,  not  only  to  the  East  India  Company,  but  also  to  the  American 
colonists,  as  it  would  enable  them  to  purchase  their  tea  at  a  cheaper 
rate  than  they  could  obtain  it  even  before  the  Sd  duty  was  im- 
posed.    Accordingly  the  East  India  Company  freighted  several 
ships  with  tea,  and  appointed  consignees  in  America  for  its  sale. 
Meanwhile  events  had  occurred  which  embittered  the  feeling  of  the 
colonists  against  England.  Mr.  Thomas  Whately,  Grenville's  private 
secretary,  and  under-secretary  of  slate  to  lord  Suffolk,  had  been 
engaged  in  a  private  correspondence  with  Hutchinson,  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  Oliver,  the  lieutenant-governor,  and  other  officers  of 
the  crown  in  that  province.    After  Whately  died,  these  letters  were 
purloined,  and  were  confidentially  communicated  to  Dr.  Franklin. 
At  Kranklin's  earnest  solicitations,   and  on  his   solemn  vow  of 
secrecy,  they  were  forwarded    to  Boston,  to  be  shown,  as  he 
promised,  only  to  a  few  influential  friends,  and  no  others.   No  copies 
were  to  be  taken.    The  promise  was  not  observed.    The  letters 
were  formally  laid  before  the  House  of  Assembly  of  Massachusetts ; 
they  were  voted  subversive  of  the  constitution,  and  printed,  and 
a  petition  was  drawn  up  for  the  removal  of  Hutchinson  and  Oliver. 
The  matter  was  subsequently  referred  to  the  privy  council,  where 
Wedderbum,  the  solicitor-general,  attacked  Franklin  for  his  breach 
of  confidence  in  a  most  biting  and  sarcastic  speech  (January  29, 
1774).    The  privy  council  decided  that  the  petition  was  founded 


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618  QEORQS  m.  Chaf.  xxxl 

OA  false  and  erroneoos  allegations,  and  that  it  was  groandle88,Tex^ 
atious,  and  scandalous.  Two  days  after,  Franklin  was  deprived  of 
his  post  as  deputy  postmaster-general  in  America.  (Sup.N.XVUL) 

Public  feeling  in  America  was  in  a  great  state  of  excitement, 
when  the  first  tea-ships  made  their  ap[)earance.  It  was  given  out 
that  they  were  only  the  forerunners  of  further  taxation ;  that  the 
ships  were  ladt-n,  not  with  tea,  but  with  fetters.  The  consignees 
were  threatened,  and  obliged  to  fling  up  their  engagements.  At 
Charleston  the  teas  were  allowed  to  be  landed,  but  not  to  be  sold, 
and  were  stowed  in  cellars,  where  they  perished  from  damp.  The 
Boston  people  went  further.  On  December  18,  1773,  a  body  of 
men  di^ised  as  Mohawk  Indians  boarded  the  tea-ships  and 
scattered  their  cargoes  in  the  water,  to  the  value,  it  is  computed, 
of  18,000/. 

To  punish  this  outrage,  lord  North  carried  through  parliament 
certain  acts  for  transferriug  the  Boston  custom-houses  to  Salem, 
another  port  of  Massachusetts,  and  he  made  important  alterations 
in  the  charter  granted  to  that  state  by  William  III.  (March  14, 
1774).  This  last  step  excited  the  jealousy  and  alarm  of  the  other 
states.  They  were  encouraged  to  resist  by  finding  that  they  were 
supported  by  a  powerful  party  in  the  British  parliament,  which 
numbered  in  its  ranks  Chatham,  Burke^  Charles  James  Fox,  third 
son  of  lord  Holland,  and  other  eminent  men.  The  royalist  colony 
of  Virginia,  where  the  popular  feeling  was  directed  by  Patrick  Heniy 
and  Thomas  Jefferson,  was  one  of  the  first  to  give  in  its  adhesion  to 
the  puritan  Massachusetts.  In  imitation  of  the  puritan  opposition 
in  Charles  I.'s  time,  they  set  on  foot  a  "  Solenm  League  and  Cove- 
nant." Committees  of  correspondence  were  established,  and  a 
congress  was  summoned  at  Philadelphia.  Delegates  from  12 
colonies  met  in  September,  and  debated  with  closed  doors.  The 
assembly  drew  up  a  Declaration  of  Rights,  claiming  all  the  liberties 
of  Englishmen,  and  adopted  resolutions  to  suspend  all  trade  be- 
tween England  and  America  tUl  their  grievances  were  redressed. 
Addresses  were  prepared  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  to  the  people 
of  Canada,  aud  to  the  king.  After  appointing  another  congress 
for  May  10,  1775,  the  meeting  quietly  dispersed.    (SUp.  N.  XIX.) 

When  the  parliament  met  in  January,  1775,  Burke  brought 
forward  his  propositions  for  conciliation,  and  denounced  the  attempts 
which  were  making  to  coerce  the  Americans,  as  pregnant  with  the 
most  fatal  consequences.  They  were  negatived  by  a  large  majority. 
Meanwhile  a  militia  had  been  raised  in  Massachusetts,  called 
minute  fnen,  because  they  were  to  be  ready  at  a  minute's  notice ; 
arms  also  and  other  stores  were  provided,  and  depouted  in  an 
arsenal  at  Concord,  a  town  about  18  mUes  from  Boston.    Qenond 


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1.1).  1775.  THE  AMEBICAK  REBELLION.  619 

Gage,  who  commanded  at  Boston,  secretly  despatched  a  few 
hundred  light  troops  on  the  night  of  April  18,  to  destroy  these 
stores.  The  design,  however,  had  oozed  out;  and  the  van,  on 
reaching  Lexington,  a  place  about  six  miles  from  Concord,  found 
about  70  militiamen,  part  of  their  main  army,  drawn  up  on  the 
parade.*  A  collision  took  place,  and  several  Americans  were 
killed  and  wounded.  The  troops  then  proceeded  to  Concord,  spiked 
three  guns,  and  destroyed  some  stores.  But  the  whole  country, 
already  prepared  for  this  event,  was  roused ;  the  British,  on  their 
return,  were  surrounded  and  galled  on  every  side  by  an  incessant 
fire,  poured  upon  them  by  marksmen  posted  behind  walls  and 
hedges.  Their  loss  was  273  killed  and  174  wounded,  while  the 
Americans,  sheltered  by  their  mode  of  fighting,  did  not  lose  a  third 
of  that  number.  The  ardour  of  the  Americans  was  excited.  A 
force  of  20,000  men  was  raised  in  the  New  England  provinces,  and 
blockaded  general  Oage  in  Boston ;  whilst  a  party  of  Connecticut 
men  marched  to  Lake  Champlain,  and  surprised  and  captured  the 
forts  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point 

On  the  appointed  day  the  congress  met  at  Philadelphia.  They 
prohibited  the  export  of  provisions  to  any  British  colony,  the  supply 
of  necessaries  to  the  British  army  and  navy,  and  the  negociation 
of  bills  drawn  by  British  officers.  They  took  measures  for  pro- 
viding supplies  of  men  and  money.  They  appointed,  as  com- 
mander-in-chief, George  Washington,  who  had  distinguished 
himself  in  the  wars  with  the  French.  On  June  21  Washington 
set  out  to  take  the  command  of  the  army  blockading  Boston. 
The  English  had  then  been  reinforced  by  divisions  under  general 
Burgojrne,  general  William  Howe,  brother  of  lord  Howe,  and 
genersd  Clinton.  Their  whole  force  amounted  to  about  10,000 
men.  A  considerable  body  of  Americans,  having  been  sent  to 
occupy  Bunker's  Hill,  proceeded  by  mistake  to  Breed's  Hill,  which 
also  forms  part  of  the  peninsula  on  which  Charlestown  stands ; 
and  as  that  frontier  overlooks  Boston,  from  which  it  is  separated 
only  by  an  arm  of  the  sea  about  as  broad  as  the  Thames  at  London, 
it  became  necessary  to  dislodge  them.  This  was  not  effected  till 
after  three  assaults,  and  with  the  loss  of  1000  men,  while  the 
Americans  did  not  lose  half  that  number.  This  is  known  as  the 
battle  of  Bunker's  Hill  (June  17).    (Supplement,  Note  XX.) 

§  10.  A  civil  war  was  now  fairly  kindled.  Yet  the  Americans 
were  still  reluctant  to  break  off  from  the  mother  country,  and  in 
June  congress  signed  a  petition  to  the  king,  expressing  their 
loyalty  and  their  desire  for  reconciliation.    They  called  this  petition 

•  As  the  colonists  were  still  nnder  the  crown,  tbese  were  acto  of  rebellion  which  tht 
ciitborities  were  boand  in  duty  to  suppress. 


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620  GEORGE  UL  Chap,  xxxl 

the  **  Olive  Branch,^  and  sent  it  to  England  by  Richard  Peon.  In 
September  it  was  submitted  to  the  cabinet,  by  whom  it  was  re- 
solved that  no  answer  should  be  given,  as  they  could  not  recog- 
nize the  congress,  which  was  a  self-constituted  body  and  guilty 
of  reliellion.  In  his  opening  speech  to  parliament  (October  26), 
the  king  stated  that  the  rebellion  had  become  general,  showing 
a  purpose  of  establishing  an  independent  empire ;  but  as  he  would 
never  consent  to  surrender  the  colonies,  he  was  resolved  to  put  an 
end  to  these  disorders  by  decisive  exertions.  Loyal  addresses 
poured  in  from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  expressive  of  satis&ction 
at  the  attitude  assumed  by  the  king  and  his  ministers.  Several 
changes  took  place  in  the  ministry.  The  colonial  secretaryship 
was  transferred  to  lord  George  Ghermaine,  formerly  lord  George 
Sackville,  a  man  of  some  ability,  but  of  a  violent  temper. 

On  November  23,  lord  North  obtained  a  repeal  of  the  acta  re- 
specting the  port  of  Boston  and  the  Massachusetts  charter ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  all  commerce  with  the  insurgent  colonies  was 
strictly  forbidden,  so  long  as  they  remained  in  a  state  of  rebellion, 
and  the  capture  of  American  goods  and  vessels  was  authorized. 
The  burning  of  the  town  of  Falmouth,  and  soon  after  of  Norfolk 
on  the  Chesapeake,  further  incensed  the  Americans.  They  had 
this  year  invaded  Canada,  and  laid  siege  to  Quebec,  which  Uiey 
blockaded  during  the  winter ;  but  they  were  foiled  in  their  purpose 
by  general  Guy  Carleton,  and  decamped  in  the  following  summer. 

As  Boston  did  not  afford  a  good  point  for  entering  the  country, 
and  they  were  surrounded  by  a  superior  force,  the  British,  under  the 
command  of  sir  William  Howe,  evacuated  the  place  in  March,  1776, 
by  a  sort  of  tacit  convention  with  the  "  Select  Men,"  that,  if  their 
embarkation  was  not  molested,  the  town  should  not  be  injured. 
They  proceeded  by  sea  to  Hali&x  and  thence  to  Staten  Island,  and 
Boston  was  immediately  occupied  by  Washington's  troops  The 
recovery  of  this  place  was  regarded  as  a  triumph  by  the  Americans. 
The  inhabitants  of  Staten  Island  were  loyaily  disposed,  and  ad- 
mitted the  British  without  resistance.    (Supplement,  Note  XXI.) 

At  this  time  the  determination  to  assert  their  independence  was 
more  fully  entertained  by  the  Americans.  Their  views  had  expanded 
with  the  progress  of  the  rebellion.  At  first  they  had  merely  con- 
templated redress  of  grievances ;  now,  a  large  party  was  inclined 
to  separation.  These  sentiments  were  kept  alive  by  a  host  of 
writers,  especially  by  Thomas  Paine,  an  Englishman  settled  in 
America.  A  committee  of  five  was  appointed  to  draw  up  a 
Declaration  of  Independence,  which  was  composed  by  Jefferson, 
corrected  by  Adams  and  Franklin,  and  subsequently  amended  by 
the  congress.    It  was  a  long  time,  however,  before  the  13  colonii>4 


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A.D.  177«.  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE.  621 

could  be  induced  to  concur  in  it.  South  Carolina,  PennsylYania, 
New  York,  and  Delaware,  held  back.  Maryland  acceded  reluctantly. 
At  length  unanimity  prevailed ;  and,  on  July  4,  1776,  the  United 
Colonies  declared  themselves  Free  and  Independent  States.  On 
July  12,  eight  days  after  the  proclamation  of  Independence,  lord 
Howe  arrived  off  Sandy  Hook,  furnished  with  full  powers  to  treat. 
He  sent  a  letter  with  a  flag  of  truce  to  Washington  (July  14) ;  but 
as  it  was  addressed  to  Q.  Washington,  Esq.,  instead  of  Oenerai 
Washington,  it  was  not  received.  Howe  then  addressed  himself 
to  Prauklin,  but  was  met  with  discourtesy.    (Sup.  N.  XXII.) 

The  British  government  had  collected  a  body  of  about  13,000 
German  troops,  for  which  they  paid  large  subsidies  to  the  land- 
grave of  Hesse,  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  and  other  petty  German 
sovereigns.  On  receiving  these  reinforcements^  general  Howe  sent 
over  in  August  a  detachment  of  8000  men  to  Brooklyn,  where  the 
Americans  were  defeated  and  compelled  to  evacuate  the  town.  In 
this  affair  the  American  general  Sullivan  had  been  captured, 
through  whom  lord  Howe  induced  congress  to  send  three  members 
to  Staten  Island,  to  discuss  an  accommodation,  in  the  character  of 
private  gentlemen.  The  congress  deputed  three  of  their  members 
known  to  be  most  inimical  to  the  British  connection :  namely.  Dr. 
Franklin,  John  Adams,  and  Edward  Rutledge  of  South  Carolina. 
As  this  deputation  at  once  declared  that  the  colonies  could  enter 
into  no  peace,  except  as  independent  states,  the  conference  proved 
abortive  (September  11).    (Supplement,  Note  XXm.) 

Four  days  after,  Howe  crossed  the  water  and  attacked  New  York, 
which  was  abandoned  on  his  approach.  In  the  autumn  the  Ameri- 
cans gradually  retired  before  the  British,  till  they  had  crossed  the 
Delaware  into  Pennsylvania.  Howe  was  loth  to  pursue  his  ad- 
vantages, and  he  ordered  lord  Comwallis,  who  had  overrun  New 
Jersey,  not  to  attempt  to  follow  the  enemy  over  the  Delaware,  but 
to  disperse  his  troops  in  winter  quarters.  Washington,  on  the  other 
hand,  recrossed  that  river,  and  by  his  skilful  manoeuvres  re- 
covered nearly  the  whole  of  the  Jerseys.  These  successes  produced 
a  great  moral  effect  on  the  Americans^  and  the  congress  which 
met  at  Baltimore  conferred  extraordinary  powers  upon  their  general. 

§  11.  Out  of  hatred  to  this  coimtry,  the  American  cause  was 
popular  in  France.  Franklin  and  Silas  Deane  had  been  sent  as 
envoys  to  Paris,  to  solicit  the  support  of  the  French ;  »and,  though 
the  latter  were  not  yet  prepared  to  declare  openly  in  favour  of  the 
Americans,  they  gave  them  secret  assistance.  Many  French  officers 
proceeded  to  America  to  offer  their  services,  among  whom  the  most 
distinguished  in  rank  and  fortune  was  the  young  marquis  de  la 
Fayette,  who  was  not  yet  20  years  of  age.  The  Americans  gave 
28* 


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622  OEOROE  m.  Obap. 

him  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  he  undertook  to  serve  without 
emolument.  In  England,  Chatham  appeared  in  the  House  d 
Lords  (May  30,  1777),  and  made  an  eloquent  appeal  for  con- 
ciliating America,  but  was  defeated  by  a  lu^e  majority.  Public 
opinion,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  turbulent  demagogues,  was 
against  any  surrender.  To  them  it  served  as  an  occasion  for  ex- 
citing sedition  and  disturbance.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Home,  better  known 
by  his  subsequent  name  of  Home  Tooke,  was  convicted  before  lord 
Mansfield  of  a  libel,  for  having,  in  advertising  for  subscriptions  for 
the  relief  of  the  Americans,  stigmatized  the  affiurs  at  Liexington 
and  Concord  as  inhuman  murders ;  and  he  was  sentenced  to  tWve 
months'  imprisonment. 

Abandoning  the  design  of  reaching  Philadelphia  through  the 
Jerseys,  Howe,  withdrawing  his  troops,  embarked  them  at  New 
York,  with  the  intention  of  proceeding  by  water.  Finding  the  banks 
of  the  Delaware  well  fortified,  he  proceeded  up  the  Chesapeake, 
and  landed  his  men  at  the  head  of  the  Elk.  Midway  between 
that  place  and  Philadelphia  runs  the  stream  called  the  Brandywine, 
where  the  Americans  occupied  a  strong  position.  They  were 
attacked  and  completely  routed  (September  II),  and  the  British 
vanguard  took  possession  of  Philadelphia  without  resistance.  In  an 
attempt  to  recover  it,  the  Americans  were  repulsed  at  Gkrmaii 
Town.  These  successes  were  more  than  counterbalanced  by  re- 
verses in  the  north,  in  which  quarter  Gtoeral  Burgoyne  was  directed 
to  operate  down  the  Hudson,  in  order  to  prevent  any  further 
attempts  on  Canada.  He  took  Ticonderoga,  but  two  advanced 
divisions,  consisting  chiefly  of  Germans,  which  he  had  thrown 
across  the  Hudson,  were  defeated  at  Bennington  by  general  Starke. 
After  collecting  provisions,  Burgoyne  again  crossed  that  river  and 
advanced  beyond  Saratoga.  He  defeated  the  Americans  at  Be- 
mis^s  Heights  (September  19),  but  gained  no  advantage  by.  the 
victory ;  ami  he  was  himself  shortly  afterwards  attacked  near  the 
same  spot  by  Arnold,  who  was  presently  superseded  by  the  abler 
general  Gates.  After  waiting  in  vain  for  the  expected  co-operation 
of  sir  Henry  Clinton,  and  having  failed  in  an  effort  to  force  his  way 
onwards,  Burgoyne  attempted  to  retrace  his  steps  towards  Canada. 
But  on  reaching  the  fords  of  the  Hudson,  near  Saratoga,  he  found 
himself  almost  surrounded  by  the  enemy;  and,  as  his  provisions 
were  nearly  exhausted,  he  had  no  course  left  but  to  enter  into  a 
convention  with  general  Gkites,  by  which  he  agreed  to  lay  down  his 
arms  (October  1*5.  His  fighting  men  had  been  reduced  to  8500, 
whilst  Gates  had  upwards  of  13,000  fit  for  duty.  This  capitula- 
tion was  the  turning-point  in  the  American  war.   (Sup.  N.  XXTV.) 

The  news  of  Burgoyne's  disaster  roused  a  patriotic  spirit  in  Eng- 


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A.i>.  177a  DEATH  OF  LORD  CHATHAM.  623 

land.  Voluntary  subscriptions  were  opened,  and  a  sum  was  raised 
sufficient  to  maintain  15,000  soldiers  without  the  aid  of  govern- 
ment. In  France  the  ne¥rB  had  a  decisive  effect  It  was  officially 
announced  to  the  American  envoys  that  Louis  XYL  was  prepared 
to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  America ;  and  two  treaties  of 
commerce  and  alliance  with  thai  country  were  signed  at  Paris 
(February  6, 1778). 

Now,  when  it  was  too  late,  lord  North  attempted  measures  of 
conciliation.  He  formally  renounced  the  right  ot  the  British  par- 
liament to  tax  America ;  he  appointed  five  commissioners  with  the 
most  ample  powers,  who  were  instructed  to  raise  no  difficulties 
respecting  the  rank  or  legal  position  of  those  who  might  be  ap- 
pointed to  treat  with  them ;  and  it  seemed  to  be  intimated  that 
any  terms  short  of  independence  would  be  conceded.  The  bills 
were  received  by  parliament  with  astonishment  and  dejection ;  but 
no  oppo^tion  was  made,  and  the  royal  assent  was  given  (March 
11,  1778).  Two  days  after,  the  marquis  de  Noailles,  the  French 
ambassador,  delivered  a  note,  couched  in  ironical  and  insulting 
terms,  announcing  the  treaties  concluded  between  France  and  the 
United  States.  At  this  juncture,  in  the  hour  of  danger,  lord  North 
deserted  his  post.  On  the  very  next  day  he  tendered  his  resigna- 
tion to  the  king,  and  advised  him  to  send  for  lord  Chatham  ;  but 
the  king's  mind  was  embittered  against  that  statesman  by  his 
previous  conduct  and  his  groundless  insinuations  of  Bute's  secret 
influence,  which  had  long  ceased  to  exist.  The  king  expressed  his 
determination  not  to  accept  the  services  of  that "  perfidious  man," 
except  in  a  subordinate  post. 

§  12.  But  the  days  of  Chatham  were  drawing  to  a  close.  Although 
suffering  severely  from  the  gout,  he  was  supported  into  the  house 
by  his  second  son,  William  Pitt,  and  his  son-in-law,  lord  Mahon 
(April  7).  He  had  resolved  to  oppose  a  motion  of  the  duke  of 
Richmond  for  an  address  to  the  king  recommending  peace  and 
the  recognition  of  American  independence ;  for,  though  Chatham 
had  always  been  the  warm  advocate  of  conciliation,  he  regarded 
such  a  step  with  the  utmost  abhorrence,  as  a  dismemberment  of 
the  empire,  and  especially  under  present  circumstances,  when  it 
would  seem  to  be  taken  at  the  dictation  of  France.  He  made  a 
speech  against  the  motion,  in  which,  though  traces  of  faltering 
were  sometimes  visible,  flashes  of  his  former  eloquence  seemed  to 
revive  as  if  for  some  grand  and  last  occasion.  He  was  answered 
by  the  duke  of  Richmond ;  and,  as  Chatham  rose  to  reply,  he 
staggered  and  fell  back  in  convulsions.  The  peers  crowded  round 
him  with  marks  of  the  deepest  sympathy.  He  was  carried  to  a 
neighbouring  house,  where,  with  the  aid  of  a  physician,  he  rallied 


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(i2^  QEORQE  III.  Chap,  xxxx 

in  some  degree,  and  was  conveyed  to  his  house  at  Hayes,  i^ere, 
after  lingering  a  few  weeks,  he  expired  (May  11),  in  the  70th  year 
of  his  age.  Parliament  voted  a  puhlic  funeral,  with  a  monument 
in  Westminster  Ahbey,  an  annuity  of  4000/.,  to  he  attached  for 
ever  to  the  earldom  of  Chatham,  and  a  sum  of  20,000/.  to  discharge 
his  dehts. 

The  king  had  prevailed  upon  lord  North  to  continue  in  office; 
and  the  ministry  was  strengthened  in  the  House  of  Lords  hy  con- 
ferring the  great  seal  upon  Thurlow. 

§  13.  The  Americans  haftl  heen  encouraged  hy  the  French  alli- 
ance, and  hy  the  retreat  of  sir  Henry  Clinton  from  Philadelphia  to 
New  York ;  and  congress  refusetl  to  hold  any  conference  with  lord 
North's  commissioners  unless  the  British  fleets  and  armies  were 
first  withdrawn  from  America,  or  unless  at  all  events  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  United  States  was  acknowledged — conditions  which 
were  of  course  inadmissible;  and  all  communications  were  conse- 
quently broken  off  (June  17).  In  July  a  French  fleet  of  12  ships 
of  the  line  and  six  frigates,  under  count  d'Estaing,  appeared  off  the 
coast  of  America.  This  summer,  Clinton  reduced  the  whole  pro- 
vince of  Georgia,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  for  the  most  part 
loyally  inclined.  By  orders  from  home,  5000  of  his  troops  had 
been  detached,  and  effected  the  conquest  of  St  Lucia,  St  Pierre, 
and  Miquelon ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  French  took  Dominica. 

Several  actions  were  fought  in  the  Channel,  where  admiral  Keppel 
commanded  the  English  fleet.  In  July  a  general  engagement  took 
place  off  Ushant  The  French  fleet,  under  d'OrviUiers,  was  much 
superior  in  force ;  but  the  action  was  indecisive,  and  the  respective 
fleets  retired  to  Brest  and  Plymouth.  Keppel  had  signalled  sir 
Hugh  Palliser,  his  second  in  command,  to  bear  up  with  his  squad- 
ron and  renew  the  combat ;  but,  Palliser's  ship  being  much  crippled, 
he  was  unable  to  comply.  Both  of  these  admirals  had  seats  in 
parliament,  and,  being  political  adversaries,  they  now  began  to 
incriminate  each  other.  Keppel  was  brought  to  a  court-martial  on 
charges  made  against  him  by  Palliser,  and  after  a  trial  of  32  days 
was  hoDourably  acquitted.  As  he  was  the  popular  favourite,  all 
Loudon  was  illuminated  on  his  acquittal,  whilst  Palliser  was  burnt 
in  efligy.  The  latter,  having  demanded  a  court-martial  on  himself, 
was  also  acquitted. 

In  the  next  summer  (1779),  Spain  joined  France  in  the  war  against 
England;  and  maniftt»toes  were  published,  both  at  Paris  and 
Madrid,  containing  long  statements  of  alleged  grievances.  In 
answer  to  the  former,  Gibbon  the  historian  drew  up  a  MSmoire 
JusUficatif,  which,  though  not  exactly  official,  was  circulated  in 
the  different  courts  of  Europe  as  a  htate  paper.     The  combined 


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▲.D.  1780.  LORD  OEOBOE  GORDON'S  RIOTS.  625 

Spanish  and  French  fleets  amounted  to  66  sail  of  the  line,  besides 
frigates  and  other  smaller  vessels.  The  French  began  to  threaten 
an  invasion,  and  50,000  men  were  spread  along  the  coast  of 
France,  from  Havre  to  St.  Malo.  The  threat,  as  usual,  created 
considerable  alarm  in  England,  which  was  perhaps  all  that  was 
contemplated.  Sir  Charles  Hardy,  who  now  commanded  the 
English  fleet,  had  only  38  ships,  and  was  therefore  obliged  to 
remain  on  the  defensive ;  but  dissensions  broke  out  between 
the  enemy's  admirals  about  the  mode  of  conducting  the  war,  and, 
the  Spanish  commander  having  retired  into  port,  it  became 
necessary  for  the  French  admiral  to  follow  his  example.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  Paul  Jones,  a  Scotchman  by  birth,  but  hold- 
ing a  commission  in  the  American  service,  appeared  off"  the  eastern 
coast  of  Scotland,  with  three  small  ships  of  war  and  one  armed 
brigantine.  He  attacked  our  Baltic  fleet,  captured  the  Serapis  and 
the  Scarborough  that  were  convoying  it  (September  23),  and  carried 
his  prizes  to  Holland.  He  then  appeared  in  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and 
filled  Edinburgh  with  alarm  and  humilistion,  till  a  steady  wes^ 
wind  blew  him  out  of  the  Firth.     (Supplement,  Note  XXV.) 

The  war  was  now  raging  in  various  quarters  of  the  globe.  The 
Spaniards  formed  the  siege  of  Gibraltar;  the  French  made  an 
attempt  upon  Jersey,  took  Senegal  in  Africa,  but  lost  Gk>ree.  In 
the  West  Indies,  D*Estaing,  in  the  absence  of  admiral  Byron,  reduced 
St.  Vincent  and  Grenada  (July  4,  1779) ;  but  an  attempt  which 
he  made,  in  conjunction  with  some  American  land  forces,  on 
Savannah,  the  capital  of  Georgia,  was  repulsed. 

§  14.  The  year  1780  is  memorable  for  the  "  No  popery  riots " 
excited  by  lord  George  Gk)rdon.  To  explain  their  origin  it  will  be 
necessary  to  remember  that,  in  1778,  sir  George  Savile  had  pro- 
cured the  repeal  of  a  very  severe  act  against  the  Roman  catholics, 
passed  in  1699  in  consequence  of  the  number  of  priests  that  came 
over  to  England  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick.  By  this  law  priests  or 
Jesuits  exercising  their  functions,  or  teaching,  were  liable  to  im- 
prisonment for  life ;  and  all  catholics  who  within  six  months  after 
attaining  the  age  of  18  refused  to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  and 
supremacy,  and  to  subscribe  the  declarations  against  transubstantia- 
tion  and  the  worship  of  saints,  were  declared  incapable  of  purchasing, 
inheriting,  or  holding  landed  property,  which  passed,  during  their 
lives,  to  their  next  of  kin  who  happened  to  be  protestants.  The 
very  severity  of  this  law  had  rendered  it  inoperative,  }et  its 
repeal  excited  among  the  more  bigoted  protestants.  especially 
in  Scotland,  and  among  the  English  populace,  the  most  violent 
animosity.  Protestant  associations  were  formed,  both  in  England 
and  Scotland  ;  and  lord  George  Gordon,  a  younger  son  of  the  duke 


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626  GEOROS  m.  Gbap.  ttTi. 

of  Gordon,  a  young  man  of  turbul^it  temper,  fond  of  notoriety, 
but  without  either  ability  or  principle,  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  movement.  He  made  many  dlly  and  violent  speediee 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  even  went  so  &r  as  to  insinuate 
that  the  king  himself  was  at  heart  a  Roman  catholic  On 
June  2  he  assembled  a  vast  mob  in  St.  (George's  Fields,  to 
accompany  him  to  the  House  with  a  petition  against  the  recent 
changes  in  the  penal  laws.  Many  of  the  members  of  both  Houses 
were  insulted  and  ill-treated ;  the  mob  broke  into  the  lobby  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  and,  knocking  violently  at  the  door,  shouted 
out  **  No  popery  1 "  while  lord  G^rge  appeared  at  the  top  of  the 
gallery  stairs  to  encourage  and  incite  them.  There  was  then  no 
organized  police ;  but  lord  North,  who  displayed  the  utmost  coiuage 
and  firmness,  privately  sent  for  a  detachment  of  the  Guards. 
Colonel  Murray,  a  kinsman  of  lord  George,  drew  his  sword  and 
threatened  to  run  him  through  the  body  if  any  one  of  the  mob 
entered  the  House.  The  Guards  arrived  and  cleared  the  lobby.  Lord 
George  Gordon's  proposal  for  immediate  deliberation  was  rejected  by 
a  majority  of  192  to  6,  and  the  rioters  dispersed,  but  not  before  they 
had  burnt  the  chapels  of  the  Sardinian  and  Bavarian  legations.  On 
the  following  day  (Saturday)  the  mob  was  tolerably  quiet ;  but  on 
Sunday  the  blue  cockades  reassembled  in  great  numbers,  and  burnt 
two  or  three  catholic  chapels.  On  Monday  more  chapels  wers 
burnt,  as  well  as  the  house  of  sir  George  SavUe  in  Leicester  Fields. 
On  Tuesday,  lord  (}eorge  having  appeared  in  the  House  with  a  blue 
cockade,  colonel  Herbert  desired  him  to  remove  it,  or  threatened  to 
remove  it  himself.  For  some  days  the  mob  were  in  possessioc  of 
London.  Fiercer  spirits  had  now  appeared — men  who  thirsted  for 
plunder  and  revolution.  On  Tuesday  evening  Newgate  was  broken 
open,  the  prisoners  to  the  number  of  300  were  released,  and  the 
building,  lately  rebuilt  at  a  cost  of  140,000^.,  was  reduced  to  a  heap 
of  smouldering  ruins.  Clerkenwell  was  also  entered,  and  the  houseis 
of  three  or  four  magistrates  were  destroyed.  Towards  midnight  the 
mob  preceded  to  the  residence  of  lord  Mansfield  in  Bloomsbury- 
square,  destroyed  all  hid  furniture,  and  his  valuable  library,  con- 
taining letters  which  he  had  been  collecting  nearly  50  years,  with 
the  view  of  writing  the  history  of  his  times.  Lord  and  lady  Mans- 
field had  barely  time  to  escape  by  the  back  door.  On  June  7  the 
riot  was  at  its  height  All  the  shops  were  shut,  the  mob  were  un- 
controlled masters,  and  most  of  the  prisons  were  forced  and  their 
inmates  released.  The  magistrates  seemed  paralyzed.  Eennett,  the 
lord  mayor,  displayed  a  great  dereliction  of  duty,  for  which  he  was 
afterwards  prosecuted  and  convicted ;  while  alderman  Wilkes,  on 
the  contrary,  was  active  in  suppressing  the  tumult.  The  king  hhsf 


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AJ>.178a  THE  ''ARMED  NEUTRALITY."  627 

self  showed  the  greatest  resolution  on  this  occasion.  Having 
assembled  a  council,  he  caused  a  proclamation  to  be  issued  wamiog 
the  people  to  keep  within  doors,  and  intimating  that  the  military 
had  instructions  to  act  without  waiting  for  orders  from  the  civil 
magistrates.  That  night  London  bore  the  aspect  of  a  place  taken 
by  storm.  In  various  quarters  parties  of  soldiers  fired  n{)on  the 
mob,  and  the  fire  was  sometimes  returned ;  people  might  be  seen 
removing  their  goods  in  haste  and  alarm  from  the  numerous  houses 
which  had  been  set  on  fire;  and  the  streets  resounded  with  the 
groans  and  yells  of  the  wounded  and  the  drunken.  Nearly  500 
persons  were  killed  or  wounded.  But  the  riot  was  at  an  end :  next 
day  London  was  tranquil.  Lord  G^rge  Gordon  was  apprehended 
on  the  9th,  and  committed  to  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  high 
treason,  of  which  he  was  acquitted ;  bnt  at  last  he  died,  mad,  in 
Newgate,  a  prisoner  on  another  charge  (1793).  Shortly  afterwards  59 
of  the  rioters  were  convicted,  of  whom  21  were  executed.  On  this 
occasion  Wedderbum,  the  solidtor-geoeral,  was  made  chief  justice 
of  the  common  pleas,  with  the  title  of  lord  Loughborough,  his 
predecessor,  sir  William  de  Grey,  having  resigned  in  alarm. 

§  15.  Admiral  sir  George  Rodney  gained  a  signal  victory  this 
year  (January  16)  over  the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  St.  Vincent. 
Eight  Spanish  ships  were  taken  or  destroyed,  and  only  four  of 
their  fleet  escaped  into  Cadiz.  He  had  previously  captured  a  rich 
Spanish  convoy  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  But  the  Spaniards  amply 
avenged  their  losses  by  intercepting,  off  the  Azores,  our  East  and 
West  India  fleets,  which  had  been  sent  to  sea  with  a  convoy  of 
only  two  men-of-war.  These  escaped,  but  nearly  60  sail  of 
merchantmen,  freighted  with  valuable  cargoes,  were  carried  into 
Cadiz.  Besides  her  declared  enemies,  England  had  now  to  contend 
with  the  neutral  powers,  who,  under  cover  of  their  flags,  supplied 
our  enemies  with  warlike  stores.  Our  first  quarrel  on  this  account 
was  with  the  Dutch ;  and  in  February  the  empress  Catharine  of 
Russia  issued  a  declaration  to  the  belligerent  courts,  in  which  it 
was  insisted  that  free  ships  make  free  goods;  that  no  goods  are 
contraband,  except  those  declared  such  by  treaty ;  and  that 
blockades  to  be  acknowledged  must  be  effective.  This  declaration 
became  the  basis  of  the  "  armed  neutrality  "  subsequently  estab- 
lished between  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  to  which  Holland 
and  Prassia,  and  eventually  Spain  and  France,  also  acceded.  Its 
object  was  to  support  the  claims  of  neutrals,  if  necessary,  by  force 
of  arms.  Thus  all  the  more  powerful  nations  of  Europe  seemed 
arrayed  against  England,  if  not  actively,  at  all  events  in  sullen 
and  indirect  hostility.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  the  Dutch  were 
added  to  the  number.    On  board  an  American  packet  that  had 


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628  GEORGE  III.  Chap,  xxzl 

been  captured,  there  was  found  among  the  papers  of  Mr.  Laurens, 
an  envoy  to  Holland,  the  plan  of  an  alliance  between  Holland  and 
America,  dated  as  far  back  as  September,  1778.  Remonstrances 
and  negociations  ensued;  and  on  December  20,  1780,  war  was 
declared  against  the  Dutch. 

During  this  year's  campaign  in  America,  sir  Henry  Clinton 
succeeded  in  taking  Charleston  after  a  protracted  si^e  (May  12). 
All  the  American  naval  foix%  at  that  place  was  destroyed  or 
seized  by  admiral  Arbuthnot,  and  400  guns  and  a  great  quantity 
of  stores  were  captured.  On  the  news  thai  a  French  fleet, 
with  a  considerable  number  of  troops  on  board,  hrd  sailed  for 
New  England,  Clinton  re-embarked  for  New  York  with  a  por- 
tion of  his  force,  leaving  lord  Comwallis,  with  about  4000  men, 
to  hold  Charleston  and  South  Carolina,  and.  if  possible,  to  subdue 
North  Carolina.  General  Gbites  was  now  approaching  with  a  con- 
siderable army;  and  on  August  16  an  engagement  ensued  at 
Camden,  in  which  the  Americans  were  completely  routed  and 
dispersed,  with  the  loss  of  all  their  baggage.  The  French  ex- 
pedition against  New  England  appeared  off  Rhode  Island  in  July ; 
but  admiral  Arbuthnot,  having  been  reinforced  by  admiral  Ghaves, 
blockaded  the  French  in  Newport  harbour  during  the  remainder  of 
the  year.  Clinton  had  now  arrived  at  a  just  appreciation  of  the  war. 
He  perceived  that  his  force  was  not  strong  enough,  by  some 
thousands,  effectually  to  reduce  the  revolted  provinces;  and  he  wrote 
home  to  that  effect,  at  the  same  time  tendering  his  resignation. 

The  campaign  in  America  ceased  in  the  next  year  (1781),  though 
the  war  was  not  absolutely  terminated.  The  last  action,  at  Ewtaw 
Springs,  about  60  miles  from  Charleston,  fought  on  September  8, 
was  one  of  the  sharpest  of  the  whole  war.  The  American  artillery 
was  taken  and  retaken  several  times,  and  several  hundreds  of  men 
were  slain.  Notwithstanding  their  great  inferiority  in  numbers,  the 
English,  who  were  commanded  by  colonel  Stewart,  remained 
masters  of  the  field ;  yet,  in  spite  of  their  victory,  they  were  obliged 
to  retreat  to  Charleston  Neck,  and  the  Americans  recovered  the 
greater  part  of  South  Carolina  and  G^rgia.  To  increase  the  dis- 
proportion between  the  two  combatants,  the  count  de  Grasse  now 
arrived  from  the  West  Indies  with  28  sail  of  the  line  and  about 
4000  troops.  Sir  Samuel  Hood  had  followed  him  with  only  14 
ships ;  but,  being  reinforced  by  admiral  Graves  with  five  ships,  he 
brought  the  French  to  an  action  off  the  coast  of  Virginia  (Sep- 
tember 5).  It  proved  indecisive,  and  both  fleets  retired — the  Eng- 
lish to  New  York,  the  French  to  the  Chesapeake,  where  De  Grasse 
landed  the  troops  intended  for  the  Americars.    (Sup.  N.  XXVL) 

Lord  Comwallis,  with  only  7000  men,  took  up  a  position  at  the 


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▲.D.  1782.  RESIGNATION  OF  LOBD  NOBTH.  629 

half-fortified  village  of  York  Town,  surrounded  by  an  army  of  18,000 
men,  with  50  or  60  pieces  of  artillery,  commanded  by  Washington, 
La  Fayette,  and  St  Simon.  The  bombardment  commenced  on 
October  9.  By  the  14th  two  redoubts  had  been  carried,  and  the 
town  more  closely  invested.  As  all  relief  or  escape  was  impossible, 
ComwalUs  was  now  obliged  to  capitulate,  and  he  obtained  certain 
honours  of  war  (October  19).  With  this  capitulation  the  American 
war  may  be  said  to  have  ceased. 

§  16.  In  other  quarters  the  British  were  more  successfuL  In 
the  West  Indies  admiral  Rodney  captured  the  Dutch  island  of 
St.  Eustatius,  with  an  immense  amount  of  property  and  ships 
(February  3, 1781).  The  Dutch  shipping  lying  at  Demerara  and 
Essequibo  was  also  captured  by  English  privateers,  and  these 
settlements  were  surrendered  to  the  govemot  of  Barbadoes.  On 
August  5,  admiral  Hyde  Parker,  convoying  a  fleet  from  the  Baltic, 
fell  in  with  a  Dutch  fleet  and  convoy  off  the  Dogger  Bank ;  but 
though  the  Dutch  admiral,  Zoutman,  was  beaten,  and  bore  away 
for  the  Texel,  Parker  was  in  no  condition  to  pursue  (November  27). 
General  Eliott  made  a  vigorous  sortie  from  Gibraltar,  and  succeeded 
in  destroying  the  immense  batteries  raised  by  the  Spaniards.  But 
these  successes  did  little  to  relieve  the  general  despondency.  Tobago 
was  taken  by  the  French,  and  the  island  of  St  Eustadus  was  re- 
captured by  the  marquis  de  Bouill^  (November  26).  Demerara 
and  Essequibo  were  lost,  together  with  St  Kitt's,  Nevis,  and 
Montserrat ;  so  that  of  all  the  Leeward  Islands  England  retained 
only  Barbadoes  and  Antigua.  These  misfortunes  were  crowned  by 
the  surrender  of  Minorca  (February  6, 1782),  after  an  heroic  defence, 
and  when,  chiefly  from  the  ravages  of  disease,  only  about  700  men 
were  left  fit  for  duty. 

Parliament  met  on  November  27, 1781.  On  February  27, 1782, 
general  Conway  carried  a  resolution  in  the  House  of  Gonmions 
against  any  further  attempts  to  reduce  the  insurgent  colonies ;  and 
subsequently  an  address  to  the  king,  that  whosoever  should  advise 
the  prosecution  of  the  war  should  be  regarded  as  enemies  of  the 
throne  and  the  nation.  On  March  15,  the  ministry  escaped  a  vote 
of  non-confidence,  proposed  by  sir  John  Rous,  only  by  a  majority  of 
nine,  and  lord  North  announced  his  resignation  four  days  after.  The 
marquess  of  Rockingham  now  became  prime  minister  a  second  time, 
with  lord  John  Cavendish  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  admiral 
viscount  Keppel  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  the  duke  of  Richmond 
master  of  the  ordnance,  the  earl  of  Shelburne  and  Mr.  Fox  secre- 
taries of  state,  and  general  Conway  commander-in-chief.  The  tory 
chancellor,  lord  Thurlow,  retained  the  seals  (March  27).  Burke 
was  not  admitted  into  the  cabinet,  but  was  made  paymaster  of  the 
forces ;  and  a  small  appointment  was  conferred  upon  his  son. 


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630  GEORGE  m.  Chap. 

In  the  preceding  year  two  young  men  of  distinguished  ability  had 
entered  on  their  political  career:  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan,  and 
William  Pitt,  the  second  son  of  lord  Chatham.  Sheridan's  maiden 
speech  was  a  failure.  Pitt's  first  address,  on  the  contrary,  was  that 
of  a  practised  orator,  and  was  received  with  applause  and  warm 
congratulations,  even  by  his  opponents.  Sheridan  accepted  the 
place  of  under-secretary  of  state  in  the  new  ministry.  A  choice 
of  some  of  the  smaller  posts  was  offered  to  Pitt,  but,  though  he  was 
only  23  years  of  age,  he  had  already  declared  in  the  House  of 
Commons  that  he  would  not  accept  any  subordinate  position. 

The  ministry  were  embarrassed  at  the  outset  by  the  state  of 
Ireland,  where  great  discontent  prevailed  on  account  of  comonercial 
restrictions.  The  catholic  question  had  not  yet  arisen,  but  the 
question  of  the  independence  of  the  Irish  parliament  was  agitated 
with  great  warmth.  Henry  Grattan,  the  eloquent  leader  of  the 
opposition,  was  a  protestant.  On  April  16, 1782,  he  carried  an  address 
to  the  crown,  declaratory  of  the  legislative  independence  of  the 
Irish  houses.  Such  an  independence  was  clearly  an  :  lomaly, 
which  might  lead  to  the  greatest  practical  inconvenience,  if,  for 
instaijce,  the  Irish  parliament  should  vote  for  peace  with  a  foreign 
country  against  which  England  had  declared  war.  The  Engli^ 
ministers  could  not  but  perceive  this  glaring  evil ;  but  the  present 
state  of  the  country  rendered  a  breach  with  Ireland  highly  inex- 
pedient, and  Fox  carried  a  motion  (May  17)  which,  by  repealing 
the  act  6  Geo.  I.,  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  Irish 
legislature.  The  gratitude  of  the  Irish  was  unbounded.  They 
immediately  passed  a  TOte  to  raise  20,000  seamen,  and  th^ 
prevailed  upon  Grattan  to  accept  60,0002.  for  himselfl 

'i  he  question  of  parliamentary  reform  had  now  begun  to  excite 
considerable  attention  in  England.  It  had  been  warmly  advocated 
by  lord  Chatham ;  and  Pitt,  who  took  up  his  father's  views  on  this 
subject,  moved  for  a  committee  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  tiie  re- 
presentation. Opinions  were  divided  in  the  cabinet,  but  the  motion 
was  negatived  in  the  commons  by  20  votes  (May  7).  Some 
measures  of  reform  were  introduced  by  the  ministry,  such  as  a  Inll 
to  prevent  revenue  officers  from  voting  at  elections,  and  another 
forbidding  contractors  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons,  Burke  car- 
ried a  bill  by  which  many  useless  offices  were  abolished,  the  pension- 
list  was  reduced,  and  the  amount  of  secret-servioe  money  limited. 

§  17.  On  April  12,  1782,  admiral  Rodney  succeeded  in  bringing 
to  an  engagement  the  French  fleet  under  De  Grasse,  which,  with  a 
large  body  of  troops  on  board,  had  sailed  from  Martinique  to  attack 
Jamaica.  Each  fleet  consisted  of  upwards  of  30  ships  of  the  line. 
The  action  lasted  nearly  11  hours,  and  was  desperately  contested 


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A^  1762.  LORD  SHELBUBNE's  MINISTRY.  631 

but  ended  in  tho  decisive  victory  of  the  English.  The  VUle  de 
Perns,  carrying  admiral  De  Grasse's  flag,  the  largest  ship  in  the 
French  navy,  was  taken,  together  with  four  more  first-rate  ve8selfl» 
and  another  was  sunk.  Admiral  Hood  captured  two  more  as  they 
were  retreating.  Owing  to  the  French  vessels  being  crowded  with 
troops,  they  are  said  to  have  lost  8000  killed  and  6000  wounded, 
whilst  the  loss  on  the  side  of  the  English  did  not  exceed  1100  men. 
In  the  ViUe  de  PaHs  were  36  chests  of  money  to  pay  the  soldiers, 
and  their  whole  train  of  artillery  was  on  board  the  other  captured 
ships.  The  remainder  of  the  French  fleet  were  scattered,  and  could 
not  contrive  to  reunite.  Thus  was  Jamaica  saved.  The  ministry 
had  just  before  sent  out  orders  recalling  Rodney,  with  every  mark 
of  coolness  and  almost  disgrace ;  but  they  now  found  themselves 
called  upon  to  reward  him  with  a  barony  and  a  pension.  An  Irish 
barony  was  bestowed  on  Hood. 

Negociations  for  a  peace  had  already  been  opened  at  Paris.  Dr. 
Franklin,  the  American  minister  there,  refused  to  treat  on  any  other 
terms  than  the  recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  United  States, 
to  which  also  he  at  first  added  a  demand  for  the  cession  of  Canada. 
In  the  midst  of  these  negociations  lord  Rockingham  died  (July  1). 
The  king  now  sent  for  the  earl  of  Shelburne,  who  accepted  the  oflice 
of  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  upon  which  many  of  the  ministry, 
including  Fox,  lord  John  Cavendish,  the  duke  of  Portland,  Burke, 
and  Sheridan,  resigned.  Under  lord  Shelburne,  Pitt  became  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  Thomas  Townshend  and  lord  Grantham 
secretaries  of  state. 

The  combined  French  and  Spanish  fleets  again  swept  the  Channel 
this  summer,  yet  lord  Howe,  with  a  far  inferior  force,  contrived  to 
screen  from  them  the  East  and  West  India  merchantmen  convoyed 
by  sir  Peter  Parker.  After  Howe's  return  to  Portsmouth,  the  Royai 
Oeorge,  of  108  guns,  reckoned  the  first  ship  in  the  British  navy, 
haying  been  laid  slightly  on  her  side  in  order  to  stop  a  leak,  was 
capsized  at  Spithead  by  a  squalL  As  all  her  ports  were  open,  she 
sank  immediately.  Most  of  the  crew  were  drowned,  with  many 
women  and  children  who  had  come  on  board,  as  well  as  admiral 
Kempenfeldt,  who  was  writing  in  his  cabin  (August  29) 
Rodney's  prizes  also,  including  the  VUle  de  Paris,  imfortunately 
foimdered  on  their  way  home  from  the  West  Indies. 

On  September  11,  lord  Howe  swled  with  34  ships  of  the  line 
to  relieve  Gibraltar,  which  had  now  endured  a  memorable  siege  of 
more  than  three  years.  It  was  defended  by  sir  George  Eliott,  with 
a  garrison  of  more  than  6000  men.  They  had  been  relieved  on 
different  occasions  by  admirals  Rodney  and  Darby,  but  were 
reduced  at  times  to  such  distress  as  to  feed  on  vegetables  and  even 


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632  GEORGE  nr.  Chap.  xxxi. 

weeds.  In  the  spring  of  1781  the  bombardment  was  terrible.  It 
is  computed  that  the  enemy  fired  56,000  balls  and  20,000  shdls 
from  the  middle  of  April  till  the  end  of  May,  yet  the  casemates 
afforded  so  effectual  a  protection  that  only  70  men  were  killed. 
The  bombardment  was  relaxed  during  the  summer,  but  was  renewed 
again  in  the  autumn.  On  the  night  of  November  26,  Eliott  made 
a  sortie  with  2000  men.  The  Spaniards  were  taken  by  surprise, 
and  fled  on  all  sides ;  their  works  were  destroyed,  their  guns  spiked, 
their  ammunition  blown  up.  It  was  long  before  the  bombardment 
was  renewed,  and  then  not  with  the  previous  vigour.  Karly  in 
1782  the  Spaniards  were  encouraged  by  the  arrival  of  De  Crillon, 
the  victor  of  Minorca,  who  assumed  the  chief  command.  The  total 
French  and  Spanish  force  now  collected  before  Gibraltar  amounted 
to  33,000  men,  with  170  pieces  of  heavy  artillery.  The  English 
had  likewise  been  reinforced,  and  had  a  garrison  of  7000  men,  with 
80  guns  of  large  calibre.  The  siege  now  attracted  the  eyes  of  all 
Europe.  The  comte  d'Artois  and  the  duke  of  Bourbon  came  from 
Paris  to  share  the  expected  glory  of  its  termination.  King  Cbarlea  of 
Spain  was  accustomed  to  ask  every  morning  on  waking,  "Is  it 
taken  ?  "  and  to  the  invariable  "  No,"  he  invariably  replied,  *'  It  will 
be  soon."  De  Crillon,  deeming  the  land  side  impregnable,  caused 
immense  floating  batteries  to  be  constructed,  mounted  with  142 
guns ;  and  on  the  morning  of  September  13  a  fire  was  opened  on 
the  English  works  at  a  distance  of  about  600  yards,  the  batteries 
on  the  land  side  playing  at  the  same  time.  All  day  this  terrific 
bombardment  continued,  but  towards  evening  the  red-hot  shot 
from  the  English  batteries  began  to  tell;  and  before  midnight 
one  of  the  largest  floating  batteries,  as  well  as  the  Spanish  flag-ship 
Pastora^  was  in  flames.  The  light  served  to  direct  the  aim  of  the 
besieged,  and  at  last  every  one  of  the  battering-ships  was  on  fire. 
The  enemy  lost  1600  men  on  this  occasion.  Soon  afterwards  Xor^ 
Howe  entered  the  bay,  and  the  combined  fleet  did  not  venture  to 
attack  him.  The  siege  was  continued  till  the  peace  in  1783,  but 
only  nominally.  General  Eliott,  on  his  return  to  England  in  1787, 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  lord  Heathfield  of  Gibraltar.* 

§  18.  As  France  and  Spain  seemed  desirous  of  continuing  the  war, 
lord  Shelbume  hastened  to  renew  the  negociations  for  a  separate 
treaty  with  America;  and  though  the  terms  of  the  American  alliance 
with  France,  which  had  been  carried  out  in  the  most  liberal  spirit 
by  the  latter  country,  strictly  precluded  a  separate  peace,  yet  as  it 
was  obvious  that  the  continuance  of  the  war  for  any  object  beyond 
the  recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  American  States  could 
serve  only  French  or  Spanish  interests.  Dr.  Franklin,  and  the  three 
•  The  UUe  became  extinct  on  the  death  of  the  second  lord  HeithfleU  tn  1813. 


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AJ).  1782-1783.  PEACE  OF   VERSAILLES.  633 

other  American  commissioners  in  Paris,  did  not  hesitate  to  respond 
to  the  advances  of  the  British  goyemment.  Articles  were  signed 
at  Paris  (Ncjvember  30, 1782),  the  chief  of  which  were  the  recogni- 
tion oi  die  independence  of  the  United  States,  an  advantageous 
arrangement  of  their  houndaries,  and  the  concession  of  the  right  of 
fishing  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland.  Ghreat  Britain  recognized 
and  satisfied  the  claims  of  the  American  loyalists,  to  the  extent  of 
nearly  ten  millions  sterling  for  losses  of  real  or  personal  property,  and 
of  120,000^.  per  annum  in  life  annuities  for  loss  of  income  in  trades 
or  profe6>ions — a  splendid  instance  of  good  faith  after  so  expensive 
a  war.  Many,  however,  withdrew  and  settled  in  Nova  Scotia  and 
Canada,  to  escape  the  hostility  of  their  countrymen.  It  was  not 
till  June,  1785,  that  Oeorge  III.  had  an  interview  with  Mr.  Adams, 
the  first  minister  from  the  United  States,  which  naturally  occasioned 
considerable  emotion  on  both  sides.  The  king  received  Mr.  Adams 
with  afiability  and  frankness.  He  remarked  that  he  wished  it  to  be 
understood  in  America,  that,  though  he  had  been  the  last  to  consent 
to  a  separation,  he  would  be  the  first  to  welcome  the  friendship  ot 
the  United  States  as  an  independent  power.    (Sup.  N.  XXVII.) 

During  the  Christmas  recess  the  ministers  exerted  themselves  to 
bring  to  a  close  the  negociations  with  France  and  Spain.  The  latter 
power  at  first  insisted  on  the  restoration  of  Gibraltar,  and  lord  Shel- 
bume  seemed  not  unwilling  to  exchange  it  against  l^orto  Rico,  whilst 
his  colleagues  required  the  addition  of  Trinidad.  But  since  its  gal- 
lant defence,  the  heart  of  the  nation  was  fixed  on  that  barren  rock : 
and  lord  Shelbume,  perceiving  that  to  cede  it  would  bring  great 
unpopularity  upon  the  ministry,  informed  the  Spaniards  that  no 
terms  would  tempt  him  to  its  surrender.  The  Spanish  court  were 
indignant ;  but,  finding  they  were  not  backed  by  France,  they 
sullenly  acquiesced,  and  the  preliminaries  of  a  peace  between  the 
three  countries  were  signed  at  Versailles  (January  20,  1783). 
England  restored  St.  Lucia  and  ceded  Tobago  to  France,  receiving 
in  return  Grenada,  St.  Vincent,  Dominica,  Nevis,  and  Montserrat. 
In  Africa  England  yielded  Senegal  and  Goree,  retaining  Fort  James 
and  the  river  Gambia.  In  India  the  French  recovered  Chandema- 
gore,  Pondicherry,  Mah^,  and  the  Comptoir  of  Surat.  French  pride 
was  gratified  by  the  abrogation  of  the  articles  in  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  relative  to  the  demolition  of  Dimkirk — a  place  which  no 
outlay  could  have  been  rendered  capable  of  receiving  ships  of  the  line. 

To  Spain  were  ceded  Minorca  and  both  the  Floridas,  while  king 
Charles  guaranteed  to  England  the  right  of  cutting  logwood  within 
certain  boundaries  to  be  hereafter  determined,  and  agreed  to  restore 
the  Bahamas.  Some  months  after,  a  treaty  was  also  concluded 
with  the  Dutch  on  the  basis  of  mutual  restitution  of  conquests. 


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Medftl  in  oommemoratlon  of  Lord  Howe's  Tiotory  over  the  French  fleet,  Jane  1,1TM. 

ObT. :   EARL    HOWK    ADM  l     OK    TUB    WHITK    K:  O:     BlUt    tO    light.      BelOW,    ■»*■.•• 
V  t  WTO* .  r  I     Rev.  :    PBKNCH    FLEET  DEFEATED  OFF  DSHABT     Til  8AQ.   OF  THB  LZKI 

CAPiURH)  I  JUNE  HDCcxGiv.    NeptQDe,  dntwii  by  two  tea-bonet,  to  right. 


CHAPTER  XXXTT. 

GEOBOE  UI. — OONTINUED.      FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  YSBBAILLBB  TO  THB 
PEACE  OP  AMIENB.      A.D.  1783-1802. 

1.  Coalition  ministry.  Fox's  India  Bill.  Pitt  prime  minister.  His  India 
Bill.  Financial  Measures  and  Treaty  of  Commerce  with  France. 
§  2.  Impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings.  Affairs  of  India  till  hb 
governor-generalship.  Vote  of  censure  on  lord  Clive.  His  suicide.  §  8. 
Administration  of  Warren  Hastings.  §  4.  His  extortions  in  Oude. 
Charges  against  him.  Result  of  his  impeachment.  §  5.  The  king*a 
illness.  Outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution.  §  6.  Riots  at  Birming- 
ham. Attitude  of  Europe.  State  of  feeling  in  England.  The  French 
declare  war.  §7  Campaign  in  Flanders.  Insurrection  of  Toulon,  aii4 
siege  of  that  city.  §  8.  Campaign  of  1794.  Holland  overrun  by  the 
French.  §  9.  Naval  successes.  Lord  Howe's  victory.  §  10.  Sedition 
in  England.  Expedition  to  Quiberon.  Dutch  colonies  taken.  §  11. 
Alliance  between  France  and  Spain.  Lord  Malmesbury's  negodations. 
Attempted  invasions  of  England.  Bank  Restriction  Act.  §  12.  Battle 
of  Cape  St.  Vincent.  Duncan's  victory  off  Camperdown.  §  13. 
Mutinies  at  Portsmouth  and  the  Nore.  Threatened  inyasion.  §  14. 
Eziiedition  to  Ostend.  The  French  in  Egypt.  Battle  of  the  Nile. 
Its  consequences.  §  15.  English  and  Russian  expedition  to  Holland. 
The  Helder  taken.  The  duke  of  York  capitulates.  Siege  of  Acre  and 
flight  of  Bonaparte  from  Egypt.  §  16.  Disturbances  in  Ireland.  Irish 
Union.  §  17.  Pitt's  opinions  on  Parliamentary  Reform  and  Catholic 
Emancipation.  Warlike  operations.  The  armed  neutrality.  §  18. 
Pitt  resigns.  Addington  prime  minister.  Expedition  against  Copen- 
hage'^.  Dissolution  of  the  armed  neutrality.  $  19.  Threatened 
invasion,  and  attack  on  Boulogne.  The  French  in  Egypt.  Battle  of 
Alexandria,  and  death  of  Abercromby.  §  20.  The  French  expell«l 
from  Egypt.     Peace  of  Amiens. 

f  1.  The  war  had  ndded  upwards  of  100  millions  to  the  naHonal 
debt,  and  the  country  was  so  exhausted  that  it  would  have  \ttec 


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kJK  178S-1784.  PITT  PRIME  MINISTER.  685 

dlTocult  to  send  3000  men  od  any  foreign  expedition.  These  par- 
ilcularSy  however,  were  not  generally  known ;  and  when  the  condi- 
tions of  the  peace  were  commnnicated  to  the  parliament,  they  were 
received  hy  the  opposition  with  a  storm  of  disapprobation.  The 
cession  of  Ghandemagore  and  Pondicherry  was  especially  the  object 
of  animadversion.  The  ministers  having  been  twice  left  in 
minorities  in  the  commons,  lord  Shelbume  resigned.  1'be  state  of 
parties  rendered  it  difficult  to  form  a  new  administration.  Mr.  Pitt 
declined  the  task,  and  for  some  weeks  a  sort  of  interregnum 
ensued.  At  length  a  coalition  ministry  was  formed  (April  5, 
1783).  The  duke  of  Portland,  a  man  of  small  abilities,  became 
first  lord  <tf  the  treasury.  The  virtual  ministers  were  lord  North 
and  Fox,  the  secretaries  of  state ;  yet  only  a  little  previously  Fox 
had  publicly  declared  that,  if  ever  he  could  be  persuaded  to  act 
with  lord  North,  he  should  consider  himself  worthy  of  eternal 
infamy  I  Their  power,  however,  was  of  no  long  duration.  In 
November  Fox  brought  in  a  bill  to  reform  the  government  of 
India,  which  passed  the  commons,  but  was  rejected  by  the  lords. 
The  ministers,  having  a  large  majority  in  the  former  house,  did  not 
think  it  necessary  to  resign ;  but  the  king,  who  had  always  viewed 
the  coalition  wiih  disgust,  sent  messages  to  lord  North  and  Fox 
requiring  them  to  deliver  up  the  seals  (December  18).  Pitt,  in 
his  26th  year,  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer, now  became  the  head  of  a  ministry,  of  which  the  principal 
members  were  lord  Thurlow,  lord  chancellor ;  earl  Gk>wer,  president 
of  the  council ;  the  duke  of  Rutland,  privy  seal ;  lord  Carmarthen 
and  lord  Sydney,  secretaries  of  state ;  and  lord  Howe,  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty. 

Pitt,  like  his  predecessors,  was  defeated  in  the  commons,  on  a  bill 
which  he  introduced  to  regulate  the  government  of  India ;  but  he 
resorted  to  a  dissolution,  and  the  elections,  which  took  place  in  April, 
1784,  secured  a  large  majority  for  the  ministry.  In  August  he  suc- 
ceeded in  carrying  his  India  bill,  the  main  feature  of  which  was  the 
creation  of  the  Board  of  Control,  consisting  of  six  privy  councillors 
nominated  by  the  king,  who,  with  the  principal  secretaries  of  state 
and  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  were  to  be  commissioners  for 
India,  with  supreme  control  over  the  civil  and  military  government 
and  the  affairs  of  the  company.  This  double  government  lasted  till 
1858.  Pitt  also  adopted  important  measures  for  remedying  the 
disordered  state  of  the  finances.  He  lowered  the  customs  duties 
and  imposed  various  new  taxes,  amounting  to  nearly  a  million  per 
annum.  His  financial  reform  was  completed,  in  1786,  by  the 
simplification  of  the  indirect  taxes,  namely,  the  customs,  excise,  and 
stamps.    At  the  aame  time,  he  negociated  a  treaty  of  commerce 


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636  aEOROE  m.  Ohap.  zxxn. 

with  France,  which  had  aclj  been  in  operaticm  long  enough  to  indi- 
cate the  benefits  it  would  have  conferred  on  both  nations,  when  its 
first-fruits  were  blighted  by  the  eyents  of  1789,  and  the  realization  of 
Pitt's  policy  was  postponed  till  1860.  He  was  likewise  before  his 
age  in  proposing  (1785)  a  bill  for  a  reform  of  parliament,  which 
was  supported  by  some  of  his  opponents,  and  opposed  by  some  of  his 
supporters,  but  was  finally  lost  by  a  majority  of  74. 

George  prince  of  Wales,  the  king's  eldest  son,  had  attained  his 
majority  in  1783,  when  he  had  a  separate  establishment  assigned 
him,  with  Carlton  House  as  a  residence.  Like  other  heirs- 
apparent  of  this  house,  he  had  thrown  himself  into  the  ranks  of  the 
opposition,  from  which  his  friends  were  chiefly  selected,  as  iord 
North,  Fox,  Burke,  Sheridan,  Windham,  Erskine,  and  others.  By 
improving  his  residence,  by  losses  at  the  gamiog-table  and  on  the 
turf,  as  well  as  by  the  expenses  incident  to  his  station,  and  to  a 
youthful  prince  of  gay  and  voluptuous  habits,  he  had  contracted 
a  large  debt ;  and  such  was  his  distress  that,  in  1786,  an  execution 
was  put  into  his  house  for  the  sum  of  600^.  The  king,  whose 
regular  and  moral  habits  led  him  to  view  the  prince's  course  of  life 
vdth  high  disapprobation,  refused  to  assist  him,  especially  as  it 
was  believed  that,  in  violation  of  the  Royal  Marriage  Act,  he  had 
contracted  a  private  marriage  with  Mrs.  Fitzherbert,  a  Roman  catholic 
lady  of  great  personal  charms,  correct  conduct,  and  elegant  manners. 
The  prince  was  obliged  to  reduce  his  establishment,  sell  his  horses, 
and  suspend  the  works  at  Carlton  House.  At  length  the  prince's 
embarrassments  were  forced  upon  the  notice  of  Mr.  Pitt  by  the 
opposition ;  and,  to  avoid  a  threatened  motion  upon  the  subject,  the 
king  instructed  the  minister  to  iMX)pose,  on  the  understanding  that 
the  prince  would  reform  his  expenditure,  an  increase  of  10,000^  per 
annum  to  his  income,  together  with  the  sum  of  161,000^.  for  the 
discharge  of  his  debts,  and  20,0002.  for  the  works  at  Carlton  House. 

§  2.  In  1786  Burke  brought  forward  his  celebrated  impeachment 
of  Warren  Hastings.  To  understand  this  subject  it  will  be  neces- 
sary briefly  to  resume  the  history  of  India  from  an  earlier  period,* 
Great  disorder  had  prevailed  during  the  absence  of  Clive,  The 
government  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Yansittart,  who  was 
by  no  means  competent  to  conduct  it.  The  native  princes  could  no 
longer  be  kept  in  subjection ;  the  servants  of  the  company  were 
amassing  great  wealth  by  bribery  and  extortion,  whilst  the  com- 
pany itself  was  on  the  verge  of  bankruptcy.  In  May,  1765,  lord 
Clive  again  landed  at  Calcutta,  having,  after  an  arduous  struggle, 
obtained  the  appointment  of  governor  and  commander-in-chief  in 
Bengal.  As  yet  there  was  no  central  government ;  and  the  three 
*  Sm  p.  sio. 


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AJ).  1766-1786.  AFFAIBS  IN   INDIA.  637 

presideiicies  of  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  were  in  a  state  of 
rivalry,  dive  first  applied  himself  to  remedy  the  abuses  in  the 
company's  service.  He  made  the  civil  officers  bind  themselves  in 
writing  to  accept  no  more  presents  from  the  native  princes ;  and 
he  ordered  the  military  to  relinquish  the  double  batta,  or  additional 
allowances,  granted  to  them  by  Meer  Jaffier  after  the  battle  of 
Plassy.  This  order  produced  a  mutiny.  Nearly  200  officers,  and 
among  them  sir  Robert  Fletcher,  the  second  in  command,  conspired 
to  throw  up  their  commissions  on  the  same  day.  Olive  immediately 
repaired  to  the  camp  at  Monghir;  and,  having  assembled  the  officers, 
pointed  out  to  them  the  guilt  of  their  conduct,  declared  his  resolu- 
tion to  suppress  the  mutiny,  and  to  supply  the  place  of  the  mutineers 
by  other  officers  from  Madras,  or  even  by  the  clerks  and  civil 
servants  of  the  company.  He  then  cashiered  sir  R.  Fletcher,  and 
caused  the  ringleaders  to  be  arrested  and  sent  to  Calcutta  for  trial. 
The  rest  now  entreated  to  be  allowed  to  recal  their  resignations — 
a  request  which  was  in  most  instances  granted,  but  only  as  an  act 
of  grace  and  favour,  whilst  the  vacancies  were  supplied  by  a  judicious 
promotion  of  subalterns.  Clive  also  placed  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
company  on  a  satisfactory  footing;  and  he  procured  from  Shah 
Alum,  emperor  of  Delhi,  a  deed  conferring  on  them  the  sole 
administration  of  the  provinces  of  Bengal,  Orissa,  and  Behar.  Clive 
returned  to  England  in  January,  1767. 

In  his  absence  affairs  again  went  wrong.  In  the  Madras  presi- 
dency, Hyder  Ali,  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Mysore,  the  most 
daring  and  skilful  enemy  the  English  had  ever  encountered  in  India, 
finding  his  advances  neglected  by  the  company  Joined  the  Mahratta 
chieftains,  threatened  the  capital  itself,  and  extorted  an  advantageous 
peace.  The  company's  trade  suffered  to  such  an  extent  that,  in  the 
-jpring  of  1769,  India  stock  fell  60  per  cent.  In  1770  Bengal  was 
<ftfflicted  by  a  famine,  which  is  computed  to  have  carried  off  one-third 
of  the  inhabkants.  The  disasters  and  misrule  in  India,  and  the 
declining  state  of  the  company's  affairs,  at  length  attracted  the 
attention  of  government,  and  committees  of  inquiry  were  appointed 
in  1772.  In  the  spring  of  the  following  year  lord  North,  by  the 
act  called  the  Regulating  Act,  made  several  reforms  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  company,  both  with  regard  to  the  court  at  home  and 
the  management  of  affairs  in  India.  The  most  remarkable  feature 
of  this  act  was,  that  the  governor  of  Bengal  was  invested  with 
authority  over  the  other  presidencies,  and  with  the  title  of  governor- 
general  of  India,  but  was  himself  subjected  to  the  control  of  his 
council.  Warren  Hastings,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Bengal  in  the  previous  year,  was  the  first  governor-general 
of  India. 


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638  OEOBOE  m.  CteAP  zzxn. 

In  the  sftme  year  general,  at  that  time  colonel,  Burgoyney  a  soldier 
who  had  seen  little  service,  moved  a  vote  of  censure  on  the  man  who 
had  established  our  empire  in  the  East  Olive's  wealth,  and  his 
magnificent  seat  at  Claremont,  had  attracted  envy ;  and  there  were 
questionable  circumstances  in  his  extraordinary  career.  He  had, 
in  his  public  capacity,  fought  deceit  with  its  own  weapons.  He 
had  sanctioned  the  forgery  of  admiral  Watson's  signature  in  order 
to  deceive  the  traitor  Omichund,  who  had  threatened  to  reveal 
the  conspiracy  to  dethrone  Surajah  Dowlah.  But  Olive  d^ved  no 
private  advantage  fix)m  the  act.  This  and  other  matters  vrmt 
objected  to  him,  whilst  all  his  eminent  services  were  forgotten 
or  overlooked.  Burgoyne  carried  the  first  part  of  his  resolutions, 
affirming  certain  matters  of  fact  that  had  been  proved  against 
Clive;  the  second  part,  censuring  him  for  having  abused  his 
powers,  was  negatived;  and,  on  the  motion  of  Wedderbum,  it 
was  unanimously  added  to  the  resolutions  carried,  "  that  Robert^ 
lord  Olive,  did  at  the  same  time  render  great  and  meritorious 
services  to  his  country."  But  the  taunts  to  which  he  had  been 
subjected  had  sunk  deep  into  his  mind;  he  was  accustomed  to 
complain  that  he  had  been  examined  like  a  sheep-stealer ;  and  his 
melancholy  temperament,  which  even  in  early  youth  had  displayed 
itself  in  an  attempt  at  suicide,  now  further  aggravated  by  ill  health 
and  perhaps  also  by  a  life  of  inaction,  led  him  to  lay  violent  hands ' 
on  himself  (November  22,  1774),  before  he  had  attained  his  50th 
year.* 

§  3.  The  administration  of  Warren  Hastings  was  able  and 
vigorous.  He  reformed  and  improved  the  revenues  of  India;  he 
transferred  the  government  of  Bengal  to  thi  company,  leaving  only 
a  phantom  of  power  at  Moorshedabad ;  he  resumed  the  possession 
of  Allahabad  and  Oorah,  and  discontinued  the  tribute  to  Shah 
Alum.  But  his  measures  for  replenishing  the  company^s  treasury 
were  not  always  scrupulous.  The  vizier  of  Oude  being  desirous  of 
subjugating  the  neighbouring  country  of  Rohilcund,  Hastings  did 
not  hesitate  to  lend  him  some  British  bayonets  for  that  purpose,  in 
consideration,  when  the  conquest  was  acomplished,  of  a  payment  of 
40  lacs  of  rupees.  The  measures  of  Hastings  were  impeded  and 
disconcerted  by  his  council.  In  October,  1774,  general  Olavering, 
colonel  Monson,  and  Mr.  Philip  Francis  arriv^  in  India,  having 
been  appointed  members  of  the  governor-general's  council.  Theee 
men  were  utterly  ignorant  of  Indian  afiairs,  yet  they  united  in 
opposing  every  measure  of  Hastiness.     Francis  was  their  leader, 

*  His  son  was  created  an  English  banm  |  the  family  of  Herhert.  His  defloendantB 
in  17M,  and  earl  Powis  in  1804«  harlng  asenmed  the  name  of  Herbert  Instaad  <d 
married  the  sister  of  the  last  earl  of  <  CUre. 


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A.D.  im-VQS.  ADMINISTRATION  OP  WARREN  HASTINGS.  639 

and  he  and  his  oonfedoates  formed  the  majority  of  the  coundl, 
which  oopristed,  besides  them,  only  of  Hastings  himself  and  Mr. 
BarwelL  Thus  they  were  able  to  control  all  the  steps  of  the 
governor,  and  to  wrest  from  him  his  patronage ;  nay,  they  even 
took  steps  to  bring  him  to  trial  on  a  charge  of  corruption,  but 
Hastings  refused  to  submit  to  their  jurisdiction.  He  afterwards 
prosecuted  in  the  supreme  court  some  of  the  natives  who  had  been 
incited  to  accuse  him ;  and  in  August,  1775,  one  of  them,  the 
Bajah  Nuncomar,  was  hanged.  By  this  decisive  step  Hastings 
Fecovered  the  respect  of  the  natives,  of  which  the  conduct  of  the 
council  had  deprived  him. 

After  the  death  of  colonel  Monson,  in  September,  1776,  Hastings 
recovered  his  authority  in  the  council,  by  virtue  of  his  casting  vote. 
Attempts  were  made  both  in  India  and  at  home  to  deprive  him  of 
the  government,  but  without  success ;  and  when  the  war  with 
France  broke  out  in  1778,  it  was  felt,  even  by  his  enemies,  that 
his  great  abilities  could  not  be  spared.  It  was  under  his  auspices, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  sir  Hector  Munro,  that  Chandemagore, 
Pondicherry,  and  the  other  French  settlements  in  India,  were 
captured.  An  expedition  against  the  Mahratta  chiefo  proved  not 
so  fortunate.  The  British  force,  hemmed  in  at  Wargaum,  was 
obliged  to  capitulate,  on  condition  of  restoring  all  the  conquests 
made  from  the  Mahrattas  since  1756.  All  India  seemed  now  in  a 
conspiracy  against  us.  Hyder  Ali  availed  himself  of  our  entangle- 
ment with  the  Mahrattas  to  overrun  the  Madras  presidency ;  and 
a  body  of  3000  of  our  troops,  under  colonel  Baillie,  was  surprised 
and  cut  to  pieces.  Munro,  at  the  head  of  5000  more,  only  saved 
himself  by  a  precipitate  flight.  All  the  open  country  lay  at  Hyder's 
mercy ;  and  the  smoke  of  the  burning  villages  around  struck  alann 
into  the  capital  itself.  At  this  juncture  Hastings  signally  displayed 
his  genius  and  presence  of  mind.  He  inunediately  abandoned  his 
favourite  scheme  of  the  Mahratta  war,  and,  conceding  to  the  chiefs 
the  main  points  at  issue,  tendered  offers  not  only  of  peace  but  even 
of  alliance.  He  then  despatched  every  available  soldier  in  Bengal, 
under  the  command  of  sir  Eyre  Coote,  by  whose  military  genius  he 
was  ably  seconded,  to  the  rescue  of  Madras.  Coote  defeated  Hyder 
Ali  in  a  great  battle  at  Porto  Novo  (July  1,  1781),  again  at 
Pollalore  (August  27),  and  a  third  time  at  Vellore  (September  27). 
These  victories  led  to  the  recovery  of  the  open  country,  and  saved 
the  Gamatic.  In  1782,  after  a^in  defeating  Hyder  Ali  at  Arnee 
(June  2),  Coote  retired  for  a  while  to  Calcutta.  In  December  of 
that  year  Hyder  died,  and  Coote,  anxious  to  measure  swords  with 
his  son  and  successor  Tippoo,  proceeded  in  1783  to  the  Caroatia 
The  vessel  in  which  he  sailed  was  thased  two  days  and  nights  \j^ 


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640  GEORGE  IIL  Chap,  -nrm 

some  French  men-of-war.  Goote's  anxiety  kept  him  constantly  on 
deck ;  his  feeble  health  received  a  fatal  blow,  and  two  days  after 
landing  at  Madras  he  expired. 

§  4.  The  exertions  for  the  relief  of  Madras  had  exhausted  the 
resources  of  Bengal ;  yet  the  India  proprietors  at  home  expected 
large  remittances.  In  order  to  raise  them,  Hastings  had  recourse  to 
the  feudatory  rajahs,  and  aboye  all  to  Gheyte  Sing,  rajah  of  Benares, 
from  whom  he  was  accused  of  extorting  an  exorbitant  fine  of 
500,000?.  for  having  delayed  to  pay  50,000/.  He  was  said  also  to 
have  received  from  this  rajah  two  lacs  of  rupees  for  his  private  use, 
to  have  retained  the  money  some  time,  and  then  placed  it  to  the 
credit  of  the  company.  But  it  was  his  treatment  of  the  Begums  of 
Oude  that  was  most  loudly  denounced  by  his  enemies.  The  govern- 
ment had  large  claims  on  Asaph  ul  Dowlah,  nabob  vizier  of  Oude. 
To  satisfy  these  claims  Hastings  compelled  him  to  extort  large  sums 
from  the  Begums,  his  mother  and  grandmother,  the  mother  and 
widow  of  Sujah  ul  Dowlah;  although  Asaph  ul  Dowlah,  after  wring- 
ing large  sums  of  money  from  them,  had  signed  a  treaty,  sanctioned 
by  the  council  of  Bengal,  by  which  he  pledged  himself  to  make  no 
further  demands  upon  them.  As  this  treaty,  however,  had  been 
made  coutrary  to  the  wishes  of  Hastings,  and  when  his  authority 
was  overruled  by  the  council,  he  now  disregarded  it.  To  extort  the 
money  from  the  Begums,  two  aged  eunuchs,  their  principal  minis- 
ters, were  thrown  into  prison  and  deprived  of  all  food  till  they  oon- 
bcuted  to  reveal  the  place  where  the  treasure  of  the  princesses  was 
concealed.  Many  other  severities  were  continued  through  the  year 
1782,  till  upwards  of  a  million  sterling  had  been  extorted. 

Hastings  concluded  a  peace  with  Tippoo  in  the  autunm  of  1783, 
un  the  basis  of  mutual  restitution,  and  thea  proceeded  to  Lucknow 
to  tranquillize  that  district.  Towards  the  close  of  1784,  he  an- 
nounced his  intention  of  retiring  ;  and  when  he  sailed  for  England 
in  the  spring  of  1785,  peace  prevailed  throughout  India.  Mr. 
M*Pherson,  senior  member  of  the  council,  succeeded  to  the  vacant 
governmeut,  till  lord  Cornwallis  was  appointed  governor-general 
(February,  1786). 

Such  were  the  chief  transactions  which,  whether  truly  or  falsely 
represented,  gave  rise  to  the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings  by 
Burke,  who  brought  forward  22  articles,  comprehending  a  great 
variety  of  charges.  The  first,  on  the  subject  of  the  Hohilla  war, 
was  negatived  by  a  considerable  majority,  and  the  whole  impeach- 
ment seemed  to  be  upset.  But  on  May  13  Fox  moved  the  charge 
respecting  Cheyte  Sing  and  the  proceedings  at  Benares ;  when  Pitt, 
after  a  speech  in  which  at  first  he  appeared  to  exculpate  Hastings, 
concluded  by  observing  that   he  had  acted  in  an  arbitrary  and 


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AJi.  178a-1789.      THE  FEENCH  REVOLUTION.  641 

tyrannical  manner,  by  imposing  a  fine  so  shamefully  exorbitant. 
This  conclusion  took  the  house  by  surprise,  and  on  a  division  the 
impeachment  was  voted.  Nothing  further  was  done  in  the  matter 
till  February,  1787,  when  Sheridan  moved  the  Oude  charge  in  a 
most  brilliant  harangue.  This  motion  was  also  supported  by  Pitt, 
and  an  impeachment  was  voted.  Other  articles  were  subsequently 
carried,  and  Burke,  accompanied  by  a  great  number  of  members, 
proceeded  to  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  impeached 
Hastings  of  high  crimes  and  misdemeanours.  Hastings  was  com- 
mitted to  custody,  but  released  on  bail.  His  trial  did  not  com- 
mence till  the  spring  of  1788,  and  lasted  seven  years,  when  he 
was  acquitted  by  a  large  majority  on  all  the  charges.  Whatever 
may  be  thought  of  the  acts  which  he  committed  for  the  interest 
of  the  East  India  Company,  his  personal  disinterestedness  was 
proved  by  the  fact  that  he  was  indebted  to  the  bounty  of  the 
directors  for  the  means  of  passing  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  a 
manner  becoming  his  high  station. 

§  5.  In  1788  the  king  was  seized  with  a  violent  illness.  As  the 
symptoms  terminated  in  lunacy,  it  became  necessary  in  October 
to  subject  him  to  medical  treatment,  and  he  was  placed  under 
the  care  of  Dr.  Willis,  who  was  both  a  physician  and  a  clergyman. 
In  this  seclusion  of  the  crown.  Fox  insisted  on  the  exclusive  right 
of  the  prince  of  Wales  to  be  appointed  regent — a  position  which 
Pitt  triumphantly  refuted.  Not,  however,  that  he  opposed  the 
nomination  of  the  prince ;  he  merely  denied  that  he  had  any  natural 
or  legal  right,  without  the  authority  of  parliament.  Committees 
were  appointed  in  both  houses  to  search  for  precedents;  but,  whilst 
the  bill  for  a  regency  was  in  progress,  the  king's  convalescence  was 
announced  (February,  1789).    (Supplement,  Note  XXVni.) 

An  event  was  now  impending  which  was  destined  to  shake 
Europe  to  its  foimdations.  To  outward  appearance  France  seemed 
to  be  in  a  prosperous  condition.  She  was  at  peace  with  all 
Europe;  she  had  achieved  a  triumph  over  England,  her  ancient 
rival,  by  helping  to  emancipate  her  rebellious  colonies ;  yet  she 
was  herself  on  the  brink  of  a  terrible  convulsion.  To  trace  the 
causes,  or  to  detail  the  events,  of  the  French  Revolution,  falls  not 
within  the  scope  of  this  book.  Our  notice  of  it  must  be  confined 
to  those  results  which,  from  the  vicinity  of  the  two  countries,  and 
their  constant  intercourse,  could  not  fail  of  affecting  this  country. 
The  French  had  been  regarded  in  England  as  the  slaves  of  an 
absolute  monarch,  and  the  early  efforts  of  the  revolution  were  looked 
upon  by  many  amongst  us  as  the  first  steps  towards  a  system  of 
constitutional  freedom.  The  storming  of  the  Bastile  was  almost 
afi  much  applauded  in  London  as  in  Paris.    But  the  burnings,  the 


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642  OBOBGX  m.  Chap.  xzxn. 

plundering,  the  muiders,  -vMxik  ensued,  and  degraded  what  once 
had  heen  considered  the  politest  nation  in  the  world  into  a  horde 
of  savages,  soon  alienated  most  English  hearts.  Party  feeling 
was  embittered  in  England ;  the  names  of  democrat  and  aristo- 
crat bade  fair  to  supplant  those  of  whig  and  tory  ;  and  a  stronger 
line  of  demarcation  than  ever  was  drawn  between  political  sections. 
Friends  who  had  long  acted  together  now  parted  for  ever;  in 
particular,  the  separation  of  Burke  from  Fox  and  his  party  was 
conspicuous  from  the  genius  and  eminence  of  the  men.  The  con- 
gratulations addressed  to  the  National  Assembly  of  France  by  a 
club  in  London,  called  the  Revolution  Society,  established  to 
commemorate  the  Revolution  of  1688,  under  the  signature  of 
earl  Stanhope,  their  chairman,  incited  Burke  to  publish  his  ''  Re- 
flections on  the  Revolution  in  France,  and  on  the  Proceedings  of 
certain  Societies  in  London.''  In  the  most  eloquent  and  impressive 
language,  he  denounced  the  proceedings  in  France,  and  almost  pro- 
phetically foretold  the  future  destinies  of  that  country  (1790).* 
This  publication  called  forth  many  attacks  and  answers,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  were  Thomas  Paine's  '*  Rights  of  Man,"  and 
the  Viiidicim  OaUicm  of  Sir  James  Macintosh.  The  former  is 
written  iu  a  coarse  but  forcible  style ;  the  latter  in  elegant  language, 
palliating  the  excesses  of  the  movement  as  the  necessary  concomitants 
of  all  revolutions.  These  three  works  produced  a  prodigious  effect 
on  public  opinion  in  England.  It  was  not,  however,  till  May,  1791, 
in  a  debate  concerning  Canada,  that  Burke,  in  a  powerful  and 
affecting  speech,  wholly  separated  himself  from  Fox. 

§  6.  The  Unitarians  were  the  most  ardent  admirers  of  the  French 
revolution.  Dr.  Priestley,  a  leading  member  of  the  sect,  proposed 
to  celebrate  at  Birmingham  the  anniversary  of  the  capture  of  the 
Bastile  by  a  dinner,  which  was  prepared  on  the  appointed  day  (July 
14, 1790)  at  an  hotel  in  the  town,  in  spite  of  the  plainest  symptoms 
of  an  intended  riot.  The  party,  consisting  of  upwards  of  80  gentle- 
men, were  received  with  hisses  by  the  mob ;  the  windows  of  the  hotel 
were  smashed ;  two  meeting-houses  were  destroyed,  as  well  as  the 
dwelling  of  Dr.  Priestley,  together  with  his  vsJuable  library  and 
philosophical  instruments,  and  the  manuscripts  of  works  which  had 
cost  him  years  of  labour. 

The  decree  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  (September  14,  1791X 
wresting  Avignon  and  the  Yenaionn  from  tiie  pope,  showed  that  the 
French  revolutionary  power  would  not  long  respect  the  territorial 

*  It  is  not  so  much  as  a  history  of  the 
French  Bevolution  that  Burke's  **  Reflec- 
tions "  are  valtiable,  as  for  the  profbnnd 
philosophical  insight  the  work  alTordsiiito 


the  principles  of  the  Eui^lsh  c 

of  politics  in  general,  and  the  immatahle 

laws  on  which  they  rest. 


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A.D.  1790-179a  ATTITUDE  OF  EUROPE.  648 

rights  of  others.  The  person  and  authority  of  Louis  XYI.  were 
no  longer  respected.  His  attempted  flight,  which  was  stopped  at 
Yarennes  (June,  1791),  and  the  outcries  of  the  French  emigrants, 
headed  hy  the  Gomte  d'Artois,  filled  Europe,  and  especially  Germany, 
with  alarm.  The  emperor  Leopold  IE.,  and  Frederick  III.,  king  of 
Prussia,  attended  by  many  of  their  chief  nobility,  held  a  conference 
in  August  at  Pilnitz,  near  Dresden.  They  signc^l  a  declaration  that 
the  interests  of  Europe  were  imperilled  in  the  person  of  Louis. 
Hopes  of  succour  were  held  out ;  Russia,  Spain,  and  the  principal 
states  of  Italy,  subsequently  declared  their  adherence  to  these  views. 
England  alone  observed  a  strict  neutrality.  The  war  was  begun  by 
France.  Leopold  died  in  March,  1792,  and  Dumouriez,  the  GKrondist 
minister  lor  foreign  afOedrs  (for  the  Girondins  were  now  in  the  ascen- 
dant), damanded  from  the  emperor  Francis  II.,  as  king  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  an  explanation  of  his  views  with  rega^  to  France. 
As  his  answers  were  considered  evasive,  war  was  declared  (April 
20).  An  army  of  Austrians  and  Prussians  now  took  the  field, 
imder  the  command  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  who  on  July  25 
published,  against  his  own  better  judgment,  that  ill-considered 
manifesto  which  probably  hastened  the  dethronement  and  murder  • 
of  Louis  XYI.  The  irritating  and  offensive  language  of  the  mani- 
festo was  not  supported  by  vigorous  action.  The  deposition  of  the 
king,  the  massacres  of  September  in  Paris,  the  defeat  of  Yalmy, 
and  finally  the  retreat  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  followed  in  rapid 
succession. 

These  events  occasioned  a  great  ferment  in  London.    The  militia 
was  embodied,  the  Tower  was  fortified  and  guarded.    A  numerous 
meeting  of  merchants,  bankers,  and  traders  signed  a  loyal  declara- 
tion, pledging  themselves  to  uphold  the  constitution.    The  execu- 
tion of  the  French  king  (January  21, 1793)  provoked  a  still  deeper 
sensation  throughout  the  country.    The  French  ambassador  was 
dismissed,  and  immediate  hostilities  were  anticipated.    The  ancient 
jealousies  and  rivalries  between  the  two  nations  still  subsisted,  in 
spite  of  the  imitation  of  English  fashions,  and  some  ill-understood 
admiration  of  English  literature,  which  had  been  introduced  into 
France  by  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  obtained  the  name  of  Anglo- 
mania,   The  French  had  displayed  their  willingness  to  interfere  in 
the  domestic  affairs  of  other  countries,  by  the  decree  of  November 
19,  1792,  declaring  themselves  ready  to  fraternize   with  all  nations 
desirous  of  recovering  their  liberty.     In  England  various   meetings 
and  societies  had  voted  congratulatory  addresses  to  the   French  on 
their  proceedings.     Mongo,  the  French  minister  of  marine,  in  a 
circular  letter  of  December  31, 1792,  distinctly  avowed  the  notion 
of  flying  to  the  assistance  of  the  English  republicans  against  their 


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644  GEORGE  in.  Chap,  xzzn 

tyrannical  government;  and  on  February  3,  179S,  tli«  French 
declared  war  against  England  and  Holland. 

Till  now  Pitt  had  been  sanguine  of  peace.  He  was  busy  iq 
establishing  his  great  project  of  a  sinking  fund  for  reducing  the 
national  debt.  He  had  supported  the  efforts  of  Wilberforce  for  the 
abolition  of  slavery ;  and,  like  most  of  his  countrymen,  he  contenh 
plated  the  further  extension  of  the  revolution  with  the  strongest 
aversion. 

§  7.  The  whole  of  Europe  was  arrayed  against  the  French, 
but  the  vigour  of  their  measures  enabled  them  to  disconcert 
the  ill-conceived  and  dilatory  schemes  of  their  enemies.  In  a  short 
time  they  had  no  fewer  than  eight  armies  on  foot ;  but  into  the 
detail  of  military  operations  we  cannot  enter^  even  briefly,  further 
than  England  is  concerned.  In  the  course  of  the  spring  (1793) 
10,000  British  troops  under  the  duke  of  York  landed  at  Ostend ; 
and,  having  joined  the  imperial  army  under  the  prince  of  Coburg, 
assisted  to  defeat  the  French  at  St.  Amand.  The  success  of  the 
attack  on  the  French  camp  at  Faniars  (May  23)  was  chiefly  owing 
to  the  British  division,  which  turned  the  enemy's  right.  They 
»  were  next  employed  in  the  siege  of  Valenciennes,  which  surrendered 
(July  25).  The  duke  of  York  subsequently  undertook  the  si^e 
of  Dunkirk,  but  without  success ;  he  was  obliged  to  retreat  upon 
Fumes,  and  in  November  the  armies  went  into  winter  quarters. 
In  the  East  and  West  Indies  the  English  arms  were  more  success- 
ful. In  the  former,  Chandernagore,  Pondicherry,  and  one  or  two 
smaller  French  settlements,  fell  into  our  hands;  in  the  latter, 
Tobago,  as  well  as  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  near  Newfoundland,  were 
captured,  but  the  attempts  on  Martinique  and  St.  Domingo  failed. 

In  the  same  year  the  insurrection  at  Toulon  was  aided  by  the 
fleet  cruising  in  the  Mediterranean  under  the  command  of  lor3 
Hood,  consisting  of  English,  Spanish,  and  Neapolitan  vessels.     A 
French  fleet  of  18  sail  of  the  line  lay  in  Toulon  harbour ;  but,  after 
a  little  show  of  resistance,  Hood  and  the  Spanish  commander  took 
possession  of  the  place  in  the  name  of  Louis  XVII.    General  O'Hara 
arrived  from  Gibraltar  with  reinforcements,  and  assumed  the  com- 
mand.    But  even  then  the  garrison  was  too  small  for  the  defence  of 
Toulon  against  a  besieging  army  of  30,000  men,  especially  as  they 
i  to  struggle  with  jealousies  and  dissensions  among  themselves 
i  treachery  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants.     It  was  on  this  scone 
It  that  extraordinary  man  first  appeared,  who  was  to  sway  for  a 
ef  period  the  destinies  of  Europe.     Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  a 
/  de  bataillony  was  despatched  to  Toulon  by  the  Committee  of 
blic  Safety  as  second  in  command  of  the  artillery ;  but  the  siege 
s  in  reality  conducted  by  his  advice.     By  degrees,  the  heights 


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AJ>.  1798-1794  PREPARATIONS  FOB  THE  OAHPAIGN.      645 

which  surround  the  place  were  captured  by  the  French;  and 
when  the  eminence  of  Pharon  fell  into  their  hands,  Toulon  was  no 
longer  tenable.  Before  retiring  it  was  determined  to  bum  the  fleet 
and  arsenal;  a  task  which  was  intrusted  to  the  Spanish,  under 
admiral  Langara,  and  a  body  of  British  under  captain  sir  Sidney 
Smith :  but,  owing  to  the  remissness  of  the  former,  the  operation  was 
badly  conducted.  Nevertheless  three  sail  of  the  line  and  12  frigates 
were  carried  to  England,  and  nine  sail  of  the  line  and  some  smaller 
vessels  were  burnt  by  Smith.  The  allies  also  carried  ofif  as  many 
of  the  royalist  inhabitants  as  possible,  to  save  them  from  the 
vengeance  of  the  republican  army. 

§  8.  In  September  Gamier  des  Saintes  proposed  and  carried  in 
the  Convention  a  vote  denouncing  Pitt  as  an  enemy  of  the  human 
race.  This  patron  of  mankind  wished  to  add  to  the  resolution  that 
anybody  had  a  right  to  assassinate  the  English  minister ;  but  the 
Convention  was  not  quite  prepared  to  adopt  so  abominable  a 
doctrine.  The  manu£Ekctures  of  Great  Britain  were  strictly  pro- 
hibited in  France ;  and  it  was  ordered  that  aU  British  subjects  in 
whatever  part  of  the  republic  should  be  arrested,  and  their  property 
confiscated. 

The  preparations  for  the  campaign  of  1794  seemed  to  promise 
something  of  importance.  The  French  had  three  armies  on  their 
northem  frontier,  those  of  the  North,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Moselle, 
amounting  to  500,000  men  and  mostly  animated  with  an  enthu- 
siastic spirit.  Voltaire,  one  of  the  literary  patriarchs  of  the  revolu- 
tion, had  laughed  at  the  English  shooting  admiral  Byng,  '*  pour 
encourager  les  autres ; "  but  the  French  themselves  had  on  this 
occasion  provided  a  like  stimulus  for  defective  patriotism  or  valour. 
An  ambulatory  guillotine,  imder  the  superintendence  of  St.  Just 
and  Le  Bas,  accompanied  the  march  of  the  French  army,  and  in 
cases  of  failure  it  was  put  into  operation.  The  forces  of  the  allies 
were  also  large,  but  inferior  to  the  French.  The  emperor  com- 
manded in  person  140,000  men,  and  had  besides  an  army  of  60,000 
Austrians  on  the  Rhine  ;  the  Prussians  amounted  to  65,000 ;  the 
duke  of  York  was  at  the  head  of  40,000  British  and  Hanoverians ; 
and  there  was  also  a  body  of  32,000  emigrants  and  others.  But 
division  reigned  among  the  allies.  Austria  and  Prussia  were  jealous 
of  each  other,  and  intent  on  objects  of  selfish  aggrandisement,  to 
which  the  affairs  of  France  were  quite  subordinated.  Prussia  de- 
manded and  received  large  subsidies  from  England,  nor  would 
Russia  move  an  army  without  the  same  support. 

The  plan  of  the  campaign  was  to  take  Landrecies  and  advance 
upon  Paris.  The  siege  was  assigned  to  three  divisions  of  the  allied 
army,  under  the  duke  of  York,  the  prince  of  Coburg,  and  the  here- 
29* 


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646  GEORGE  m.  Orap.  zxxn. 

ditary  prince  of  Orange.  There  was  much  manoeuvring  along  the 
whole  line  of  frontier  from  Luxembourg  to  Nieuport^  and  several 
skirmishes  and  battles,  attended  with  various  success.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  was  the  battle  of  Turcoing.  The  object  was  to 
cut  off  the  left  wing  of  the  French  and  drive  them  towards  the  sea, 
when  they  must  have  surrendered.  The  emperor  superintended  the 
attack  in  person,  which  was  made  with  OO^OOOmen ;  but  the  opera- 
tion proved  a  failure  in  consequence  of  the  various  divisions  not 
arriving  at  the  appointed  time.  On  the  following  morning  (May 
18,  1794),  the  duke  of  York  was  surrounded  at  Turcoing  by  superior 
bodies  of  French,  who  took  1600  prisoners  and  50  guns,  but  left 
4000  men  on  the  field.  The  duke  himself  escaped  only  through 
the  fleetness  of  his  horse.  The  British  troops  retrieved  this  disgrace 
a  few  days  afterwards  at  Pont-^-chin ;  where  Pichegru,  the  French 
general,  with  100,000  men,  made  a  general  attack  on  the  right 
wing  of  the  allies.  The  battle  had  raged  from  5  a.m.  to  3  p.m.,  and 
the  allies  were  beginning  to  give  way,  when  the  duke  of  York 
despatched  to  their  support  seven  battalions  of  Austrians  and  the  2nd 
brigade  of  British  infantry.  The  latter  threw  themselves  into  the 
centre  of  the  French  army,  bayonet  in  hand,  and  completely  routed 
them.  Alarmed  at  the  display  of  British  valour  on  this  and  other 
occasions,  the  Convention  passed  a  dastardly  and  ferocious  decree, 
that  no  quarter  should  be  given  to  British  or  Hanuverians.  But 
the  French  generals  refused  to  execute  it. 

On  June  26  the  allies  were  totally  defeated  on  the  plains  of 
Fleurus,  and  were  compelled  to  retreat  This  battle  sealed  the  £ate 
of  Flanders,  nearly  all  the  towns  of  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
French.  Led  by  generals  Moreau,  Jourdan,  and  Pich^u,  they 
were  equally  successful  on  the  Rhine  and  wherever  they  were  en- 
gaged. During  this  time  the  Reign  of  Terror  was  in  full  vigour  in 
France ;  but  it  was  drawing  towards  its  close,  and  on  July  28 
Robespierre  was  executed. 

The  prince  of  Orange  and  duke  of  York  had  been  compelled  to 

retire  gradually  before  the  overwhelming  armies  of  the  French. 

Towards  winter  they  entered  Amsterdam,  and  a  little  afterwards 

the  duke  resigned  his  command  to  general  Walmoden  and  returned 

to  England.     The  Dutch  had  determined  to  defend  themselves  by 

mdating  the  country ;  but  they  were  deprived  of  this  resource  by 

3vere  frost.     The  French  crossed  the  rivers  and  canals  on  the  ice ; 

i  then  was  beheld  the  singular  spectacle  of  a  fleet,  frozen  up  at 

!  entrance  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  captured  by  land  forces  and  artillery 

e  Stadtholder  and  a  great  number  of  Dutch  of  the  higher  classes 

I  to  England.     The  British  troops,  unable  to  maintain  their 

lition  in  the  province  of  Utrecht,  retreated  towards  Westphalia, 


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U).  1794.  LORD  HOWE'S  VICTORY.  647 

enduring  the  most  dreadful  sufferings,  both  from  the  rigour  of  the 
season  and  the  barbarity  of  their  allies,  who  plundered,  insulted, 
and  soroetiroes  murdered  the  sick  and  wounded.  At  length  they 
reached  Bremen,  and  embarked  for  England  in  March,  1796.  A 
large  portion  of  the  Dutch  nation  were  willing  to  fraternize  with 
the  French,  and  Holland  submitted  to  them  without  resistance. 

§  9.  As  in  the  preceding  year,  the  disasters  of  England  on  the 
continent  were  in  a  great  degree  compensated  by  her  naval  successes 
and  her  victories  in  other  quarters.  In  the  summer  of  1794,  C!orsica 
was  taken  by  admiral  lord  H^kkI  and  annexed  to  the  British  crown ; 
but  in  1796  the  French  recovered  it  by  a  revolt  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  this  expedition  colonel  Moore  and  captain  Nelson  highly  dis- 
tinguished themselves.  At  the  siege  of  Galvi,  Nelson  received  a 
wound  which  destroyed  the  sight  of  his  right  eye.  But  the  most 
brilliant  victory  of  the  year  was  that  gained  by  lord  Howe.  The 
French  had  resolved  to  dispute  the  sovereignty  of  the  seas,  and  had 
prepared  at  Brest  a  fleet  of  26  ships  of  the  line,  commanded  by  Jean 
Bon  St.  Andr6,  once  a  calvinist  minister.  Howe  fell  in  with  them 
(May  28)  with  a  larger  number  of  ships ;  but  in  weight  of  metal  the 
French  were  much  superior,  having  1290  guns  to  1012  of  the  English. 
A  general  enj:agement  ensued  on  June  1,  when,  after  an  hour's  hard 
fighting,  Howe  succeeded  in  breaking  the  French  line.  The  French 
admiral  then  made  for  port,  followed  by  all  the  ships  capable  of 
carrying  sail.  Seven  ships  were  captured  and  one  sunk  during  the 
action.  For  this  victory  lord  Howe  and  the  fleet  received  the  thanks 
of  parliament ;  London  was  illuminated  three  nights ;  and  the  king 
and  queen,  accompanied  by  some  of  the  younger  branches  of  the  royal 
fiamily,  visited  the  fleet  at  Spithead,  when  the  king  presented  Howe 
with  a  magnificent  sword  set  in  diamonds.  Success  also  attended 
our  arras  in  the  West  Indies,  where  admiral  sir  John  Jervis  and 
lieutenant-general  sir  Charles  Grey  captured  Martinique,  St.  Lucie, 
and  Les  Saintes.  But  an  attack  upon  the  French  portion  of  St. 
Domingo  proved  a  failure. 

§  10.  In  England  attempts  were  made  this  year  by  seditious 
admirers  of  the  French  revolution  to  excite  disturbances ;  but  the 
great  mass  of  the  public  remained  unmoved.  Several  prosecutions 
were  instituted  by  government,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  were 
those  of  Hardy,  Home  Tooke,  and  Thelwall ;  but  convictions  were 
obtained  only  in  two  instances  at  Edinburgh,  where  one  individual 
was  hanged  and  another  transported  for  life.  The  ill  success  of  the 
continental  campaigns  had  increased  the  peace  party ;  but  Mr.  Pitt 
warmly  supported  the  war  as  just  and  necessary.  In  April,  1796, 
Prussia,  though  she  had  accepted  a  subsidy  from  England,  made  a 
separate  treaty  with  France,  and  the  emperor  required  a  loan  of 


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648  GEORGE  UL  Chap,  zxxu 

four  or  five  millions  to  continue  the  war,  which  was  granted.  The 
western  provinces  of  France  were  still  in  anns  in  favour  of 
monarchy,  and  Rtt  entertained  their  applications  for  assistance.  A 
considerable  body  of  French  royalists,  accompanied  by  a  few 
English  troops,  landed  at  Quiberon  in  June ;  but  discord  {H^vailed 
among  the  emigrants.  They  were  opposed  by  the  brave  and  skilful 
general  Hoche,  and  were  speedily  obliged  to  surrender  (July). 

After  the  flight  of  the  Stadtholder  to  England,  an  embargo  was 
laid  on  all  Dutch  shipping  in  English  ports ;  and,  as  the  United 
Provinces  had  submitted  to  French  domination,  orders  were  issued 
for  reprisals  against  them.  In  the  West  Indies,  the  Dutch  colonies 
of  Demerara,  Berbice,  and  Essequibo,  were  captured ;  in  the  East, 
the  greater  part  of  the  island  of  Ceylou,  Malacca,  Cochin,  and  the 
other  Dutch  settlements  on  the  continent.  About  the  same  time 
the  Cape  of  Gtx)d  Hope  was  taken ;  and  the  whole  of  a  squadron 
sent  out  by  the  Dutch  in  the  following  year  to  recapture  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  admiral  Elphinstone.  A^inst  these  successes  must 
be  set  off  the  retaking  of  St.  Lucie  and  St  Vincent's  by  the  French- 
Towards  the  close  of  the  year  a  great  disaster  occurred.  To  retrieve 
our  losses  in  the  West  Indies,  a  large  fleet  was  despatched  under 
admiral  Christian,  with  15,000  troops  commanded  by  sir  Ralph 
Abercrombie.  Scarcely  had  they  passed  the  isle  of  Portland  when 
they  were  caught  in  a  violent  gale  from  the  west ;  many  transports 
were  wrecked ;  the  Chesil  beach  was  strewed  with  corpses ;  and  the 
fleet  was  so  much  damaged  that  the  expedition  was  wholly  discon- 
certed. In  the  following  year,  however,  the  remains  of  it  were 
refitted  and  despatched  under  admiral  Comwallis,  and  St.  Lucie 
and  St.  Vincent's  were  rpcoverod. 

In  England  sedition  was  inflamed  by  a  bad  harvest  and  the  high 
price  of  bread.  The  king,  proceeding  to  open  parliament  (October 
29),  was  assailed  with  groans  and  hootings,  and  a  bullet,  or  marble, 
supposed  to  have  been  discharged  from  an  air-gun,  passed  through 
his  carriage-window.  The  same  spirit  was  manifested  on  his 
return.  Missiles  of  every  kind  were  hurled  at  his  coach ;  and  when 
he  had  alighted,  the  rabble  followed  it  to  the  Mews,  and  broke  it 
to  pieces.  During  these  outrages  the  king  displayed  the  greatest 
composure,  and  delivered  his  speech  with  his  usual  firmness. 

§  11.  A  peace  had  been  effected  between  France  and  Spain  by 
Don  Emanuel  Godoy,  afterwards  styled  the  Prince  of  the  Peace ; 
and  in  the  spring  of  1796  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance,  with 
regard  to  England  only,  was  concluded  between  these  powers  at  San 
Udefonso.  The  design  of  this  alliance  was  to  injure  British  com- 
merce by  coercing  Portugal.  A  French  army  was  to  march  through 
Spain  upon  Lisbon ;  and  the  queen  of  Portugal,  in  her  alarm,  con- 


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A.D.  1796-1797.  ATTEMPTED  INVASIONS  OF  ENGLAND.   649 

seated  to  deolare  that  city  a  free  port.    Spain,  which  soon  after- 

'wards  declared  war  against  Great  Britain,  was  by  this  alliance 

placed  as  much  at  the  disposal  of  France  as  by  the  Family  Compact; 

but  she  only  prepared  the  way  for  her  own  subsequent  misfortunes. 

After  their  retreat  from  Holland,  the  English  for  a  long  time 
took  no  part  in  the  struggle  on  the  continent,  and  the  war  was 
confined  to  France  and  Austria  by  land,  and  France,  Spain,  and 
Great  Britain  at  sea.  This  was  the  year  of  Bonapart€*s  splendid 
campaign  in  Italy  (1796) ;  but,  in  spite  of  their  great  successes  in 
that  quarter,  the  French  met  with  reverses  on  the  Rhine.  The 
Directory  seemed  not  disinclined  for  peace,  and  lord  Malmesbury, 
who  was  despatched  to  make  oTertures,  was  received  with  acclama- 
tions by  the  Parisians.  It  was,  however,  soon  evident,  from  the 
arrogant  and  insincere  tone  of  the  French  minister,  that  peace  was 
not  really  desired.  Every  opportunity  was  taken  to  insult  and 
irritate  lord  Malmesbury.  In  December  he  received  a  rude  message 
to  quit  Paris  in  48  hours.  The  uegociations  had  been  protracted 
so  long  merely  to  prepare  an  expedition  against  Ireland ;  and  two 
days  after  lord  Malmesbury's  departure  a  French  fleet  sailed  from 
Brest.  It  was,  however,  dispersed  by  a  storm.  Only  a  small  portion 
of  it  succeeded  in  reaching  Bantry  Bay  ;  but  the  inhabitants  proved 
hostile,  and  the  attempt  was  frustrated.  This  attempt  was  con- 
nected with  another  scheme  for  the  invasion  of  England.  A  body 
of  about  1200  malefactors  and  galley-slaves  were  to  have  ascended 
the  Avon  and  burnt  Bristol ;  but,  having  been  landed  at  Fish- 
guard Bay  in  Pembrokeshire,  they  surrendered  to  about  half  their 
number  of  fencibles  and  militia  collected  by  lord  Cawdor.  The  two 
frigates  which  brought  them  were  captured  on  their  way  home. 

The  war  had  pressed  heavily  upon  the  resources  of  the  country, 
and  early  in  1797  it  was  evident  that  the  Bank  of  England,  which 
had  advanced  10^  millions  for  the  public  service,  would  be  unable 
to  meet  its  payments  in  specie.  In  February  an  order  in  council 
appeared,  prohibiting  the  Bank  from  paying  their  notes  in  specie. 
At  a  meeting  of  the  principal  bankers  and  merchants  in  London,  it 
was  resolved  to  take  Bank  notes  to  any  amount ;  notes  of  1/.  and 
21.  were  issued,  and  in  March  Pitt  brought  in  his  Bank  Restriction 
Bill,  the  main  provisions  of  which  were  to  indemnify  the  Bank  for 
refusing  cash  payments,  and  to  prohibit  them  from  malving  such  pay- 
ments except  in  sums  under  2O0.  The  bill  was  to  continue  in  force 
till  June  24.  Afterwards  the  term  was  prolonged,  and  the  Bank  did 
not  resume  cash  payments  till  some  years  after  the  war  (in  1821). 

§  12.  The  French,  to  whom  Spain  and  Holland  were  now  sub- 
sidiary, determined  upon  an  invasion  of  England  on  a  grand  scale, 
itfid  large  fleets,  amounting  to  more  than  70  sail,  were  got  ready  at 


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650  GEORGE  UL  Chap.  xxxu. 

the  Texel,  Brest,  and  Cadiz*  Commodore  Nelson,  whilst  sailing 
with  a  convoy  to  Gibraltar,  descried  a  Spanish  fleet  of  27  sal)  of  the 
line  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  and  hastened  to  notify  it  to  admiral  Jerris, 
who  was  cruising  with  15  sail  of  the  line.  Nelson  hoisted  his  pend- 
ant on  board  the  Coptom,  of  74  guns ;  and  the  hostile  fleets  came 
in  sight  at  daybreak  on  February  14, 1797.  The  Spaniards  were  not 
only  superior  in  number,  but  also  in  the  size  of  their  ships.  Among 
them  was  the  Santissima  Trinidadf  of  136  guns  on  four  decks,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  largest  man-of-war  in  the  world.  Jervis  cut  oflf  nine 
of  their  ships  before  they  could  form  their  line  of  battle,  eight  of  which 
immediately  took  to  flight.  Of  their  remaining  ships,  Nelson,  sup- 
ported by  captain  'I'rowbridge  in  the  CuUoden,  engaged  no  fewer 
than  six;  namely,  the  Santissima  Trinidiid^  the  San  Josef,  and  the 
Salvador  del  Mondo,  each  of  1 12  guns,  and  three  seventy-fours.  He 
was  nobly  supported  by  captain  Frederick  in  the  Blenhein^  and 
captain  Collingwood  in  the  Excellent.  When  Nelson's  ship  was 
nearly  disabled,  and  his  ammunition  almost  expended,  he  found 
himself  exposed  to  the  fire  from  the  San  Josrf.  Boarding  the  Sau 
Nicolas,  he  next  headed  a  party  and  took  the  San  Josef,  himself  lead- 
ing the  way,  and  exclaiming,  "  Westminster  Abbey  or  victory !  *' 
The  Spanish  admiral  declined  renewing  the  fight,  though  many  of  our 
ships  were  quite  disabled,  and  at  the  close  of  the  day  he  made  his 
escape  in  the  Santissima  Trinidad,  For  this  victory  sir  John 
Jervis  was  raised  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  earl  St.  Vincent, 
with  a  pension  of  3000/.  a  year.  Nelson  was  included  in  a  promo- 
tion of  rear-admirals,  and  received  the  Order  of  the  Bath.  In  July 
he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  the  town  of  Santa  Cruz  in 
Teneriffe,  with  a  small  squadron,  but,  on  the  point  of  landing,  his 
right  arm  was  shattered  by  a  shot,  and  he  was  obliged  to  have  it 
amputated. 

§  13.  Though  our  navy  formed  both  the  glory  and  the  safeguard 
of  the  country,  yet  in  this  very  year  it  threatened  to  be  the  source  of 
our  disgrace  and  ruin.  Discontent  was  lurking  among  the  seamen, 
who  complained  that  they  only  received  the  wages  fixed  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  though  the  prices  of  articles  had  risen  at  least 
30  per  cent. ; — that  their  provisions  were  deficient  in  weight  and 
measure;— that  they  were  not  properly  tended  when  sick  ; — that 
their  pay  was  stopped  when  they  were  wounded ; — ^and  that  when  in 
port  they  were  detained  on  board  ship.  On  May  7  a  mutiny  broke 
out  in  the  fleet  at  Spithead.  Upon  the  signal  being  given  to  weigh, 
the  crew  of  the  Queen  Charlotte,  the  flag-ship,  instead  of  obeying, 
ran  up  the  shrouds  and  gave  three  cheers,  which  were  answered 
from  the  other  ships.  Two  delegates  from  each  then  went  on  board 
the  Q  fc  n  Charlotte,  where  orders  were  framed  for  the  government  of 


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A^.  1797.  MUTINY  IN  THE  NAVT.  661 

the  fleet,  and  petitions  were  draw]\  up  to  the  House  of  Commons  and 
the  lords  of  the  Admiralty  for  a  redress  of  grievances.  This  alarm- 
ing mutiny  was  at  length  suppressed  by  judicious  concessions,  and 
by  the  personal  influence  of  lord  Howe,  who  was  deservedly  popular 
among  the  seamen,  and  who,  at  the  king's  request,  prooeeded  on 
board  the  fleet.  But  no  sooner  was  the  mutiny  at  Spithead  quelled, 
than  another  still  more  dangerous  broke  out  among  the  ships  in  the 
Medway.  One  Richard  Parker,  formerly  a  'small  shopkeeper  in 
Scotland,  was  the  ringleader.  Though  illiterate,  he  was  a  man  of 
quick  intellect  and  determined  will,  and  assumed  the  style  of  rear- 
admiral  Parker.  The  ships  were  withdrawn  from  Sheemess  to  the 
Nore,  to  be  out  of  readi  of  the  batteries ;  the  obnoxious  officers  were 
sent  on  shore  and  the  red  flag  hoisted.  The  demands  of  the  muti- 
neers were  more  peremptory  and  more  extensive  than  those  made 
at  Portsmouth,  and  embraced  important  alterations  in  the  Articles 
of  War.  Altogether  24  or  25  ships  were  included  in  the  mutiny. 
The  mutineers  seized  certain  store-ships,  fired  on  some  frigates  that 
were  about  to  put  to  sea,  and  had  even  the  audacity  to  blockade  the 
mouth  of  the  Thames.  Gloom  and  depression  pervaded  the  metro- 
polis, and  the  Funds  fell  to  an  unheard-of  price.  All  attempts  at 
conciliation  having  failed,  it  became  necessary  to  resort  to  stringent 
measures.  Pitt  brought  in  a  bill  for  the  better  prevention  and 
punishment  of  attempts  to  seduce  seamen ;  and  another  forbidding 
all  intercourse  with  the  mutineers,  on  the  penalty  of  felony. 
Several  ships  and  numerous  gunboats  were  armed ;  batteries  were 
erected  on  shore;  the  mutineers  were  prevented  from  landing  to 
obtain  fresh  water  or  provisions;  and  all  the  buoys  and  beacons 
were  removed,  so  as  to  render  egress  from  the  Thames  impossible. 
A  great  part  of  the  crews  had  in  their  hearts  continued  loyal,  and 
the  proposal  to  carry  the  fleet  into  a  French  port  was  rejected  with 
horror.  One  by  one  the  ships  engaged  in  the  mutiny  began  to  drop 
off,  and  at  last  the  Sandwich,  Parker's  flag-ship,  ran  in  under  the 
batteries  and  deli  vered  up  the  ringleaders.  Parker  was  hanged  at  the 
yard-arm  (June  30).  He  behaved  at  his  death  with  great  modesty 
and  firmness,  expressing  a  hope  that  his  fate  would  be  considered 
as  some  atonement  for  his  crimes,  and  save  the  lives  of  others. 

Notwithstanding  the  defeat  of  their  Spanish  auxiliaries  at  St. 
Vincent,  the  French  did  not  abandon  their  project  of  an  invasion, 
and  during  the  summer  a  fleet  of  15  sail  of  the  line,  with  frigates, 
under  admiral  de  Winter,  was  prepared  in  the  Texel  to  convey 
16,000  men  to  Ireland,  then  on  the  point  of  rebellion.  Admiral 
Duncan,  who  was  refitting  in  Yarmouth  Roads  after  the  mutiny,  hear- 
ing that  De  Winter  had  put  to  sea,  joined  his  fleet  in  sight  of  the 
enemy,  placed  himself  ^between  them  and  a  lee  shore,  off  Camper- 


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652  QEOBOE  m.  Qhap.  xxzn. 

down,  and  after  a  desperate  engagement,  which  lasted  foiir  hoors, 
captured  eight  sail  of  the  line,  two  ships  of  56  guns,  and  a  frigate 
(October  11).  For  this  victory  he  was  made  vifioonnt  Duncan*  of 
Camperdown,  with  a  pension  of  3000?. 

Duncan's  victory  was  an  effectual  bar  to  all  projects  of  invasion ; 
nevertheless  the  French  still  continued  their  empty  menaces. 
Bonaparte,  who  was  now  rapidly  advancing  towards  supreme  power, 
had  conceived  a  deadly  hatred  of  this  country.  After  compelling 
the  Austrians  to  the  peace  of  Gampo  Formio  (October  17),  he  had 
returned  to  Paris,  where  he  was  enthusiastically  receivcl;  the 
Directory  called  him  to  their  councils,  and  consulted  him  on  every 
occasion.  An  army,  called  the  Army  of  England,  was  marched 
towards  the  Channel.  A  proclamation  was  issued,  in  which  it  is 
difficult  to  say  whether  the  abuse  of  England  or  the  vaunting*  laud- 
ation of  France  was  the  more  silly  and  extravagant.  A  loan  of 
about  four  millions  sterling  was  proposed  to  be  raised  on  Uie  security 
of  the  contemplated  conquest,  but  without  effect  The  threatened 
invasion  was  only  a  mask,  intended  to  conceal  an  expedition  which 
Bonaparte  was  now  meditating  against  Egypt. 

§  14.  The  English  in  their  turn  were  not  backward.  In  May, 
1798,  Havre  was  bombarded  by  sir  Richard  Strahan ;  and  in  the 
same  month  an  expedition,  under  sir  Home  Popbam^  was  undertaken 
agai  n  st  Ostend.  General  CJoote  landed  with  1000  men,  and  destroyed 
the  basin,  gates,  and  sluices  of  the  Bruges  canal,  in  order  to  iDter- 
rupt  the  navigation  between  France  and  Flanders.  But  as  the  surf 
prevente«l  their  return  to  the  ships,  and  on  the  following  morning  they 
were  surrounded  by  several  columns  of  the  enemy  drawn  from  the 
adjacent  garrisons,  they  were  outnumbered,  and  obliged  to  surrender. 

At  the  same  period,  Bonaparte,  accompanied  by  a  body  of  iavans, 
sailed  from  Toulon  on  his  Egyptian  expedition,  with  13  ships 
of  the  line  and  transports,  conveying  20,000  men  (May  19).  ffis 
object  was  a  mere  desire  of  spoliation  and  aggrandizement,  fiw 
the  French  had  not  the  shadow  of  a  grievance  to  allege  agunst 
the  Porte.  On  the  way,  Malta,  then  governed  by  the  Grand  Master 
and  Knights  of  St.  John,  was  surprised  and  seized  with  as  little 
pretence.  At  the  beginning  of  July  the  French  landed  between 
3000  and  4000  men  near  Alexandria,  and  captured  that  city  after 
a  slight  resistance.  They  took  Aboukir  and  Rosetta^  and  thus 
gained  the  command  of  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Nile.  Bonaparte 
issued  a  proclamation,  in  which  he  declared  that  the  French  were 
"  true  Mussulmans,**  and  took  credit  for  driving  out  the  Christian 
Knights  of  Malta.  He  then  crossed  the  desert,  fought  the  battles  of 
Ohebreiss  and  the  Pyramids,  and  seized  Cairo,  the  capital  of  Egypt 
•  Hit  BOD  was  created  earl  of  OampenlowD  In  1831. 


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AJk  1798.  BATTLE  OF  THE  NILE.  658 

Meanwhile  Nelson  had  heen  vainly  looking  out  for  the  French 
fleet,  and  it  was  not  till  August  1  that  he  descried  their  trant* 
ports  in  the  harhour  of  Alexandria.  Their  men-of-war  wcr^ 
anchored  in  the  Bay  of  Ahoukir,  as  close  as  possible  to  the  shore. 
Nevertheless  Nelson  determined  to  get  inside  of  them  with  some  of 
his  vessels,  a  manoeuvre  for  which  they  were  not  prepared ;  and, 
though  the  (hUloden  grounded  in  the  attempt.  Nelson  persevered. 
Thus  a  great  part  of  the  enemy's  fleet  was  placed  between  two  fires. 
The  battle  began  at  six  in  the  evening.  By  eight  o'clock  four  ships  of 
the  French  van  had  struck,  but  the  combat  still  raged  in  the  centre. 
Between  nine  and  teu  o'clock,  the  French  admiral's  ship,  L*  Orient, 
having  caught  fire,  blew  up  with  a  terrible  explosion,  followed 
by  a  deep  silence  of  full  ten  minutes.  The  battle  was  then 
renewed,  and  continued  through  the  night,  with  only  an  hour's 
respite.  Separate  engagements  occurred  throughout  the  following 
day,  and  at  noon  rear-admiral  Yilleneuve  escaped  with  four  ships. 
On  the  following  morning  the  only  French  ships  remaining  un- 
captured  or  undestroyed  were  the  Timoleon  and  the  Tonnant,  when 
the  latter  surrendered,  and  the  former  was  set  on  fire  and  abandoned 
by  the  crew.  Such  was  the  victory  known  as  the  "  Battle  of  the 
Nile."  From  the  heights  of  Rosetta  the  French  beheld  with  con- 
sternation and  dismay  the  destruction  of  their  fleet,  which  deprived 
them  of  the  means  of  returning  to  their  country.  Soon  afterwards 
the  islands  of  Gozo  and  Minorca  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English. 

The  news  of  Nelson's  victory  was  received  with  the  sincerest 
demonstrations  of  joy  not  only  at  home,  but  through  a  great  part 
of  Europe.  He  was  created  baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile  ana  of  Bum- 
ham  Thorpe  in  Norfolk ;  the  thanks  of  both  houses  of  parliament 
were  voted  to  him,  and  an  annuity  of  2000/.  He  received  also 
magnificent  presents  from  the  Grand  Seiguor,  the  emperor  of  Russia, 
and  the  king  of  Sardinia.  His  return  to  the  Bay  of  Naples  ani- 
mated the  king  to  undertake  an  expedition  against  Rome,  which 
was  recovered  from  the  French.  At  the  same  time  Nelson  landed 
6000  men  and  captured  Leghorn,  lliese  enterprises,  however,  were 
rash  and  ill-considered.  In  a  few  days  the  French  retook  Rome 
and  marched  upon  Naples  itself,  when  the  king  took  refuge  on  board 
Nelson's  ship  and  proceeded  to  Sicily,  which  for  some  time  became 
his  home.  Naples,  deserted  by  the  sovereign  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  nobility,  was  heroically  defended  by  the  lower  classes  and 
the  lazzaroni ;  but,  as  they  had  no  artillery,  they  were  forced  to 
succumb,  and  the  French  established  the  Parthenopean  Republic. 

In  consequence  of  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  an  alliance  was  formed 
between  England,  Russia,  and  the  Porte;  and  early  in  1799  hostilities 
were  recommenced  between  Austria  and  France.    The  Congress  of 


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664  QBOBGE  m.  Ohap.  xzhl 

Rastadt,  which  had  been  scHiie  time  aitting  with  the  view  of  arrang- 
ing a  general  pacification,  was  diaeolyed,  and  the  French,  defeated 
by  the  archduke  Charles  at  the  battle  of  Stockach,  near  the  Lake 
of  Constance  (March  25),  were  obliged  to  recross  the  Rhine.  At  the 
same  time  the  Russians  under  Suwaroy,  adyancing  into  Italy, 
recovered  with  extraordinary  rapidity  all  the  conquests  made  by 
Bonaparte,  with  the  exception  of  Qenoa.  Suwaroy  then  inyaded 
Switzerland,  but  all  his  successes  were  compromised  by  the  want 
of  cordial  co-operation  between  him  and  the  Austrians. 

§  15.  After  the  alliance  between  England  and  Russia,  a  joint  expe- 
dition was  agreed  upon  for  the  roooyery  of  Holland,  which  was  to  be 
undertaken  with  30,000  British  troops  under  sir  Ralph  Abercrombie 
and  1 7,000  Russians  (1799).  The  first  diyision  of  the  British,  under 
sir  James  Pulteney,  general  Moore,  and  general  Coote,  effected 
a  landing,  and  after  two  seyere  enoountera  took  the  towns  c^  the 
Helder  and  Huysduinen.  The  fieet  entered  the  Texel,  fuid  the 
Dutch  fleet  of  13  ships  of  war,  together  with  some  Indiamen 
and  transports,  surrendered  by  capitulation  to  admiral  Mitchell 
(August  30).  In  the  middle  of  September,  by  the  arriyal  of  some 
Russian  divisions,  and  of  the  duke  of  York  with  three  British 
brigades,  the  allied  army  amounted  to  83,000  men,  of  which  the 
duke  was  commander-in-chief.  Seyeral  actions  took  place,  attended 
with  varying  success  and  considerable  losses  on  both  sides.  At 
length  the  duke,  sensible  of  the  adyancing  season,  and  finding  that 
his  army  was  reduced  by  10,000  men,  retired  to  a  fortified  position 
at  the  Zype,  which  he  might  haye  maintained  by  inundating  the 
country ;  but,  as  such  an  operation  would  haye  destroyed  an  im- 
mense amount  of  property  and  occasioned  great  misery  to  the  Dutch, 
he  preferred  to  capitulate.  It  was  agreed  that  he  should  restore  the 
Helder  in  the  same  state  as  before  its  capture,  together  with  8000 
Dutch  and  French  prisoners,  and  that  the  allied  army  should  re- 
embark  without  molestation  before  the  end  of  November.  Thus 
ended  an  expedition  which,  though  unfortnnate,  can  hardly  be 
called  disgraceful.  As  a  sort  of  compensation,  the  Dutch  colony 
of  Surinam  was  conquered  this  summer. 

Meanwhile  the  situation  of  the  French  in  Egypt  had  become  yery 
critical.  The  army  was  seized  with  akrm  and  dejection ;  many 
committed  suicide ;  but  Bonaparte  retained  his  presence  of  mind. 
Haying  despatched  Desaix  against  the  Mamelukes  in  Upper  Egypt, 
he  himself  undertook  an  expedition  into  Palestine  against  Djeszar 
Pasha.  El  Arish,  Gaza,  Jaffa,  yielded  to  his  arms.  At  Jaflfe  he 
massacred  in  cold  blood  between  3000  and  4000  prisonere.  But  at 
St.  Jean  d*Acre,  the  key  of  Syria,  he  was  met  by  sir  Sidney  Smith, 
to  whon\  the  sultan  had  entrusted  his  fleet.     Sir  Sidney  destroyed 


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AJX  179a  DISTUBBAKCES  IN   IRELAND.  655 

the  flotilla  that  was  conYoyiiig  the  French  hattering-traln ,  neyer- 
theless  they  continued  the  siege  with  field-pieces.  After  a  siege  of 
two  months,  and  seyeral  assaults,  Bonaparte  was  compelled  to 
retreat,  though  he  had  resorted  to  the  treachery  of  ordering  an 
assault  after  sending  in  a  flag  of  truce.  Returning  to  Egypt  to- 
wards the  end  of  August,  he  went  on  hoard  a  French  man-of-war 
in  the  night,  accompanied  by  some  of  his  best  generals,  leaving  the 
command  of  the  army  to  M^nou  and  Either.  By  hugging  the 
African  coast  he  escaped  the  English  cruisers,  and  arrived  safely  at 
Fr^jus.  Notwithstanding  his  ill  success,  his  popularity  had  if 
possible  increased  in  Paris.  On  the  18th  of  Bmmaire  (November  9), 
he  turned  out  the  two  Legislative  Assemblies  at  St.  Cloud.  The 
five  Directors  were  compelled  to  resign,  and  a  new  executive,  con- 
sisting of  three  consuls,  Bonaparte,  Si^yes,  and  Roger  Duces,  took 
their  places. 

§  16.  A  measure  was  now  in  agitation  in  England  for  con- 
solidating the  power  and  integrity  of  the  empire  by  a  union  with 
Ireland.  That  country  had  been  for  some  years  in  a  very  disturbed 
state.  The  examples  of  America  and  France  had  inspired  many 
with  the  idea  of  establishing  an  independent  republic.  About  1793 
the  society  of  United  Irishmen,  consisting  mostly  of  Protestants, 
was  formed.  Its  projector,  a  barrister  named  Theobald  Wolfe  Tone^ 
having  become  secretary  of  the  committee  for  managing  the  affairs 
of  the  Irish  Roman  catholics,  effected  an  alliance  between  the  two 
religious  parties.  The  ramifications  of  this  society  extended 
throughout  Ireland.  Tone,  having  been  detected  in  a  treasonable 
correspondence  with  the  French,  was  obliged  to  fly  to  America, 
whence  he  soon  afterwards  passed  over  to  France,  and  employed 
himself  in  forwarding  the  projected  invasions  already  mentioned 
in  1796  and  1797.  Notwithstanding  the  frustration  of  these  ex- 
peditions, the  Irish  malcontents  did  not  abandon  their  plan  of  an 
insurrection.  One  of  their  principal  leaders  was  lord  Edward 
Fitzgerald,  brother  to  the  duke  of  Leinster.  Fitzgerald  was 
seconded  by  Arthur  O'Connor,  Napper  Tandy,  Thomas  Addis 
Emmet,  Oliver  Bond,  and  others.  But  the  conspiracy  was  divulged 
by  one  Thomas  Reynolds,  and  some  of  the  principal  conspirators 
were  arrested  at  a  meeting  held  by  them  in  Bond's  house. 
(March  12, 1798).  Fitzgerald  happened  not  to  be  present,  but  he 
was  discovered  and  seized  about  two  months  afterwards.  He  made  a 
desperate  resistance,  wounding  two  of  the  ofBcers  sent  to  apprehend 
him,  one  of  whom  died  of  his  injuries.  He  himself  was  shot  with 
a  bullet  in  the  shoulder,  the  effects  of  which  proved  fatal.  After 
this  discovery  martial  law  was  proclaimed  in  Ireland,  and  many 
acts  of  violence  and  cruelty  took  place  on  both  sides.    Numerous 


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656  GEORGE  lU.  Cbaf.  xxzn. 

engagements  occurred  in  various  quarters,  in  which  the  rebels  were 
ahuost  invariably  defeated,  except  in  Wexford,  where  thej  were  in 
greatest  force,  and  where  they  sometimes  made  head  against  the 
king's  troops.  Their  principal  camp  or  station  was  at  Vinegar 
Hill,  near  the  town  of  Wexford,  and  here  they  were  defeated  (June 
21)  by  general  Lake,  the  commander-in-chief.  Lord  Comwallis, 
the  new  viceroy,  who  arrived  shortly  afterwards,  succeeded  in 
reducing  the  country  to  comparative  tranquillity. 

The  imion  of  England  and  Ireland  had  been  discussed  for  many 
years  as  a  speculative  question,  and  these  disturbances  forced  it 
upon  the  serious  attention  of  the  government.  The  king,  in  his 
speech  on  opening  parliament  (Jan.  22, 1800),  alluded  to  the  subject, 
and  a  few  days  afterwards  Pitt  brought  forward  a  series  of  resolutions, 
which  were  carried  after  considerable  debate.  A  bill  embodying 
these  resolutions  passed  both  houses  in  the  following  July.  By  its 
main  provisions,  100*  Irish  members  were  added  to  the  English 
House  of  Commons,  32  Irish  peers  to  the  House  of  Lords — foiu- 
spiritual  and  28  temporal — whose  seats  were  to  be  held  for  life. 
The  measure  passed  both  houses  of  the  Irish  parliament,  and  it  was 
agreed  that  the  Union  should  take  effect  on  January  1,  1801.  On 
that  day,  a  council  was  held  consisting  of  the  most  eminent 
dignitaries  in  church  and  state,  including  the  royal  princes.  They 
issued  proclamations  for  making  the  necessary  changes  in  the  king's 
title,  the  national  arms,  and  the  liturgy.  The  title  of  "  King  of 
France "  was  dropped  and  the  fleurs  de  If/s  expunge  1  from  the 
royal  arms;  long  since  an  empty  pretension,  which  had  proved 
inconvenient  in  recent  negociations  with  France. 

§  17.  When  Pitt  br-mght  forward  this  measure,  he  publicly  re- 
nounced the  opinions  which  he  had  formerly  held  on  the  subject  of 
parliamentary  reform.  England  had  now,  he  considered,  ridden 
through  the  revolutionary  storm,  and  the  change  of  circumstances 
produced  by  the  French  revolution  justi6ed  a  change  of  views. 

During  the  debates  on  the  Union  the  Irish  catholics  remained 
almost  entirely  neutral,  and  what  little  feeling  they  displayed  was 
in  its  favour.  This  is  attributable  to  their  hatred  of  the  Orange- 
men, the  wannest  opponents  of  union,  as  also  to  the  expectation 
that  their  demands  would  be  more  favourably  considered  in  a  united 
parliament  than  by  a  separate  Irish  legislature.  Pitt  was  not 
adverse  to  their  claims,  and  held  out  to  them  hopes  to  that  effect. 

This  year  the  king  was  shot  at  in  his  box  at  Drury-lane  theatre 
(May  15).  When  the  assassin  was  apprehended,  he  was  found  to  be 
a  lunatic  named  James  Hatfield,  and  the  attempt  was  not  in  any  way 
connected  with  politics.     But  the  de6cient  harvest  this  year,  and 

•  Now  106. 


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A.D.  1801.  RESIGNATION   OF  PITT.  657 

the  consequent  high  price  of  bread,  occasioned  much  distress  and 
discontent.  Attacks  on  the  property  of  fanners,  millers,  and  corn- 
dealers,  were  frequent  in  the  country  and  riots  occurred  in  I.ondon. 

On  December  25,  1799,  Bonaparte  addressed  a  letter  personally 
to  Gteorge  III.,  containing  overtures  of  peace ;  but  on  receiving 
only  an  unfevourable  reply,  couched  in  official  terms,  and  another 
of  similar  import  from  Austria,  he  crossed  the  Alps,  and  defeated  the 
Austrians  at  Marengo  (June  14,  1800).  By  this  success  he  became 
master  of  northern  Italy,  while  the  battle  of  Hohenlinden,  in 
Bavaria,  gained  by  Morcau  in  December,  by  opening  to  the  French 
the  way  to  Vienna,  enabled  Bonaparte  to  dictate  peace  to  the  Aus- 
trians at  Luneville  (February  9, 1801).  On  the  other  hand,  Malta 
surrendered  to  the  British,  after  a  blockade  of  two  years  (Sep- 
tember 5, 1800). 

Disputes  had  again  occurred  between  England  and  the  northern 
powers  respecting  the  right  of  search,  and  they  were  artfully 
fomented  by  France.  The  emperor  Paul  was  also  ofifendetl  by  the 
rejection  of  his  claims  upon  Malta,  to  which  he  thought  himself 
entitled  as  Grand  Master.  In  November,  1800,  he  proceeded  to 
lay  an  embargo  on  British  vessels  and  to  sequester  all  British 
property  in  Russia.  The  masters  and  crews  of  a^»out  300  ships 
were  seized  and  carried  in  dispersed  parties  into  the  interior, 
where  only  a  miserable  pittance  was  assigned  for  their  subsistence. 
Before  the  end  of  the  year  a  league  of  armed  neutrality  was  formed 
between  Russia  and  Sweden,  and  was  soon  after  joined  by  Denmark. 

§  18.  While  new  difficulties  were  thus  gathering  around  Eng- 
land, the  statesman  who  had  hitherto  so  ably  directed  her  course 
was  about  to  retire  from  the  helm.  Previously  to  the  Union,  Pitt 
had  expressed  himself  in  favour  of  the  catholic  claims,  and 
^ore  the  first  parliament  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  assembled 
he  addressed  a  letter  to  the  king  (January  31, 1801),  in  which  he 
expressed  the  opinion  of  himself  and  his  colleagues,  that  Roman 
catholics  should  be  admitted  to  sit  in  parliament  and  to  hold  public 
offices.  (Joorge  III.  entertained  very  strong  scruples  on  this  sub- 
ject. He  regarded  any  relaxation  of  the  catholic  disabilities  as  a 
breach  of  his  coronation  oath,  and  in  this  opinion  he  was  confirmed 
by  lord  Loughborough,  the  chancellor.  In  his  reply  the  king 
entreated  Pitt  not  to  leave  office,  but  he  would  make  no  concessions 
to  his  views,  and  Pitt  determined  to  resign.  The  king  then  sent  for 
Mr.  Addington,  the  speaker,  who  after  some  delay  succeeded  in 
forming  a  ministry.  Sir  John  Scott  obtained  the  chancellorship, 
with  the  title  of  lord  Eldon ;  bis  predecessor,  lord  Loughborough, 
retiring  with  a  pension  and  the  higher  title  of  earl  of  Rosslyn. 

The  threatening  nature  of  the  northern  league  now  demanded 


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658  QEOROE  UL  Chap.  xzxu. 

serious  attention.  In  March  the  king  of  Prussia  had  notified  to 
the  Hanoverian  goyemment  his  accession  to  the  league,  and  the 
closing  of  the  mouths  of  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  and  the  Ems.  He 
demanded  and  obtained  immediate  military  possession  of  Hanover. 
A  little  previously  Hambui^  had  been  seized  in  the  name  of  the 
king  of  Denmark  by  prince  Charles  of  Hesse,  at  the  head  of 
15,000  men,  and  an  embargo  laid  on  all  British  property.  Remon- 
strances having  failed,  a  fleet  of  18  sail  of  the  line,  with  frigates, 
gunboats,  and  bomb-vessels,  was  despatched  to  Denmark,  under 
the  command  of  sir  Hyde  Parker,  with  Nelson  as  second  in  com- 
mand. The  Danish  navy  itself  was  considerably  superior  to  the  force 
despatched  against  it,  and  Nelson  pressed  the  necessity  of  hasten- 
ing operations  before  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  should  enable  the 
Russians  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  enemy.  The  passage  of 
the  Sound  was  preferred  to  that  of  the  Belt,  though  more  exposed 
to  the  guns  of  the  enemy,  and  by  keeping  near  the  Swedish  coast 
the  fire  of  Kronburg  castle  was  avoided.  Between  Copenhagen  and 
the  sand-bank  which  defends  its  approach,  the  Danes  had  moored 
floating  batteries  mounting  70  guns ;  and  13  men-of-war  were  also 
posted  before  the  town.  Nelson  led  in  with  the  greater  part  of  the 
fleet,  and  anchored  off  Draco  point,  while  sir  Hyde  Parker  with  the 
remainder  menaced  the  Crown  batteries.  Two  of  Nelson's  ships 
grounded  in  going  in,  so  that  he  could  not  extend  his  line.  The 
action  was  hot,  and  sir  Hyde  Parker  hoisted  the  signal  to  desist ; 
but  Nelson  would  not  see  it,  and,  hoisting  his  own  for  closer  action, 
ordered  it  to  be  nailed  to  the  mast.  The  Danes,  encouraged  by  the 
presence  of  the  crown-prince,  fought  with  desperate  valour ;  but  by 
half-past  three  the  Danish  ships  had  all  struck,  though  it  was  im- 
possible to  carry  them  off  on  account  of  the  batteries.  Nelson  now 
sent  a  note  ashore  addressed  "  to  the  brothers  of  Englishmen,  the 
Danes/' in  which  he  remarked  that  if  he  could  effect  a  reconciliation 
between  the  two  countries,  he  should  consider  it  the  greatest  victory 
he  ever  had  gained  (April  ?,  1801).  Subsequently  he  had  an  audi- 
ence with  Christian  VII.,  and  Denmark  was  detached  from  the  league. 
The  happy  effects  of  this  blow  were  seconded  by  an  accident. 
Just  at  this  time  the  emperor  Paul  was  assassinated.  His  son  and 
successor,  Alexander  I.,  immediately  dt  dared  his  intention  of  govern- 
ing on  the  principles  of  Catharine,  and  he  ordered  all  British  prisoners 
to  be  liberated  and  all  sequestrated  British  property  to  be  restored. 
When  Nelson  proceeded  from  Copenhagen  to  Cronstadt,  he  found 
that  the  pacific  disposition  of  Alexander  rendered  all  attack  super- 
fluous, even  had  the  strength  of  the  place  permitted  it  Lord  St 
Helens  negociated  a  treaty  at  St.  Petersburg,  to  which  the  king  of 
Sweden  acceded.    On  June  17  a  definitive  treaty  was  signed  l^ 


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AJ>.  1801.  CAMPAIGN  IN   EGYPT.  659 

Qre&t  BrituD,  Russia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden.  By  this  treaty  the 
rights  of  neutral  navigation  were  placed  on  a  satisfactory  footing, 
the  neutrality  of  the  Elbe  was  re-established,  the  troops  withdrawn 
from  Hamburg  and  Lubeck,  and  the  embargo  on  British  property 
removed.  On  the  other  hand,  England  restored  all  captured  vessels 
belonging  to  the  northern  powers,  and  the  islauds  in  the  West 
Indies  which  she  had  taken  from  the  Danes  and  Sweden.  These 
results  were  due  in  great  part  to  the  unhesitating  vigour  of  Nelson. 

§  19.  Foiled  in  their  northern  projects,  the  French  renewed  the 
threat  of  invasion.  Camps  had  been  formed  at  Ostend,  Dunkirk, 
Brest,  and  St  Malo ;  but  the  main  force  was  assembled  at  Boulogne. 
It  was  rumoured  that  immense  rafts,  to  be  impelled  by  mechanical 
power,  and  capable  of  conveying  an  army,  were  to  be  constructed. 
But,  though  so  chimerical  a  project  was  never  realized,  precautions 
against  it  were  adopted  in  England.  Nelson,  having  taken  the 
command  of  a  squadron,  commissioned  to  operate  between  Orford- 
ness  and  Beachy  Head,  sent  a  few  vessels  into  Boulogne,  which 
succeeded  in  destroying  two  floating  batteries,  two  gunboats,  and 
a  gun-brig.  An  attempt  to  cut  out  the  flotilla  in  that  harbour  with 
boat«  proved  abortive,  and  the  French  triumphed  in  the  result  as 
if  the  memory  of  Copenhagen  and  the  Nile  had  been  obliterated 
(August  16). 

Ever  since  the  accession  of  Mr.  Addington  to  power,  negociations 
had  been  attempted  for  a  peace  with  France,  but  the  haughty 
views  of  the  first  consul  rendered  them  abortive.  The  eyes  of  the 
English  ministry  were  still  anxiously  directed  towards  Egypt,  from 
which,  on  account  of  our  East  Indian  possessions,  as  well  as  for 
other  reasons,  it  was  highly  desirable  that  the  French  should  be 
expelled.  Towards  the  cl-  se  of  1800,  an  army  of  about  15,000  men, 
under  the  command  of  sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  was  despatched  to 
Egypt.  The  French  force  there  had  been  greatly  underrated.  In 
spite  of  our  cruisers,  they  had  managed  to  procure  reinforcements. 
Their  army  numbered  more  than  32,000  men,  with  upwards  of 
1000  pieces  of  artillery  and  some  excellent  cavalry,  whilst  the 
English  were  very  deficient  in  both.  Early  in  March,  1801,  the 
first  British  division,  consisting  of  5000  or  6000  men,  landed  in 
boats  in  Aboukir  Bay,  under  a  hot  discharge  of  shot,  shell,  grape, 
and  musketry  from  the  castle,  and  from  artillery  planted  on  the 
sand-hills.  In  the  midst  of  this  fire  the  British  troops  formed 
on  the  beach  as  they  landed,  and  vrithout  firing  a  shot  drove  the 
French  from  the  position  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  Their  loss, 
however,  was  very  considerable.  On  March  18,  Aboukir  castle 
surrendered.  Early  in  the  morning  of  the  2l8t,  Menou,  who  had 
succeeded  Kl^r  as  commander-in-chief,  advancing  from  Cairo 


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660  QEOBGE  m.  Qhap. 

with  a  large  force,  attempted  to  surprise  the  English  camp.  The 
combat  was  sustained  with  great  obstinacy,  and,  the  ammumtioa  oi 
both  parties  being  exhausted,  was  carried  on  with  stones.  At 
length,  after  a  struggle  of  nearly  seren  hours  and  the  loas  of  4000 
men,  M^nou  retired.  The  En^^ibh  loas  vas  only  about  1500,  but 
among  them  was  Abercombie,  v/ho  reccircd  a  wound  of  which  he 
ex.pired  in  a  week. 

§  20.  General  Hutchinson,  on  whom  the  oonunand  now  deyoWed, 
being  reinforced  by  tho  Turks,  succeasiyely  captured  IU>Eetta,  El 
Aft,  and  Cair< ,  which  kit  surrendered  on  June  27,  after  a  siege  of 
20  days.  It  was  agreed  that  the  garrison,  consisting  of  about 
13,000  French,  should  be  conveyed  to  France  at  the  expense  of  the 
allied  powers.  M^nou  still  held  out  m  Alexandria.  General  Hut- 
chinson, being  again  reinforced  by  7000  or  8000  Sepoys  from  India 
as  well  as  by  British  troops,  lidd  siege  to  that  city  on.  August  3, 
and  on  the  22nd  it  siurendcred  in  cpitc  of  M^nou's  boast  of  holding 
out  to  the  last  extremity.  The  French  garrison  of  11,500  men 
obtained  the  same  terms  as  that  of  Cairo.  8ix  ships  of  war  in  the 
harbour  were  divided  betveen  the  Ln^lish  and  Turks.  The  Bavan* 
were  permitted  to  retain  their  private  papers,  but  all  manuscripts 
and  collections  of  art  and  science  made  for  the  republic  were 
surrendered.* 

The  French  now  began  to  listen  to  proposals  for  peace,  and  the 
preliminaries  were  signed  (October  1).  England  was  to  cede  all 
the  French,  Spanish,  and  Dutch  colonies  acquired  during  the  war, 
except  Trinidad  and  Ceylon ;  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope  was  to  be 
open  to  both  the  contracting  parties ;  Minorca  was  finally  given 
back  to  Spain ;  Malta  to  be  restored  to  the  Order  of  St.  John, 
Egypt  to  tht^  l\>rte ;  the  French  were  to  evacuate  Naples  and  the 
States  of  the  Clmrch,  the  English  Porto  Ferrajo  in  Elba.  On  these 
terms  a  definitive  treaty  was  signed  at  Amiens  between  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Holland  (March  27, 1802).  It  was  joyfully 
received  in  London  as  well  as  in  Paris;  yet  even  the  ministers 
did  not  venture  to  call  it  great  or  glorious.  It  left  France  in  a  state 
of  unjust  aggrandizement,  whilst  we  had  acquired  little  or  nothing 
by  the  expenditure  of  so  much  blood  and  treasure.  Franco  r^ 
tained  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  Dutch  Flanders,  the  course  of  the 
Scheldt,  and  part  of  Dutch  Brabant,  Moestricht,  Yenloo,  and  other 
foi-tresses  of  importance,  the  German  territories  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  Avignon,  Savoy,  Grencva,  Nice,  eta  Yet  Bonaparte's  am- 
bition was  not  satisfied.     Charles  Emmanuel  lY.,  king  of  Sardliaa, 

•  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  cele- 
brated Bosetu  stone  was  acquired,  to- 
fether  with  many  statues,  oriental  MSS., 
w.,  which,  pMsenied  to  tbe  nation  by 


George  IIL,  fonncd  tbe  ftnuMUIlon  of  Ibe 
oollectloa  of  EgTptUn  entiqutie}  Sn  the 
British  Mowqsi: 


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Aj>.  180S.  PBACE  OF  AMIENS.  661 

iiaying  abdicated  his  throne  in  &Yoiir  of  liis  brother,  Victor 
Emmanuel  I.  (June  4),  Bonaparte  annexed  Piedmont  to  France  as 
the  27th  military  department,  on  the  pretence  that,  this  being  the 
king's  second  abdication,  his  subjects  were  released  from  their 
allegiance.  Soon  after,  on  the  death  of  the  grand  duke  of  Parma, 
his  territories  were  also  seized.  In  all  the  neighbouring  countries 
the  influence  of  France  was  paramount.  Spain  was  her  abject 
vassal ;  her  troops,  under  pretence  of  a  Jacobin  plot,  still  occupied 
Holland,  contrary  to  the  treaty  of  Amiens ;  and  in  Switzerland, 
whose  constitution  had  been  overthrown  by  Bonaparte,  he  reigned 
supreme  under  the  title  of  Mediator.  France  herself  was  rapidly 
passing  firom  anarchy  to  despotism.  On  May  9,  Bonaparte  was 
elected  consul  for  ten  years,  and  in  August  for  life.  In  his  court 
at  the  Tuileries  and  St.  Cloud  he  displayed  as  much  magnificence 
as  the  ancient  sovereigns  of  France.  His  power  was  supported 
by  the  establishment  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  a  sort  of  new 
nobility,  consisting  of  7000  men  receiving  honours  and  pensions, 
and  dispersed  throughout  the  republic.  But  amidst  these  selfish 
aims  much  was  also  efiected  for  the  public  good  by  the  establishment 
of  the  code,  still  in  force  as  the  "  Code  Napol^n,"  by  the  diffusion 
of  public  instruction,  and  by  other  measures  of  the  like  nature. 
The  church  and  the  authority  of  the  pope  were  restored  by  a  con- 
cordat, tliough  the  clergy  were  still  held  in  an  oppressed  an<^. 
degraded  state.  (Supplement,  Note  XXIXO 
80 


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Medal  in  oommomoration  of  the  Bftftle  of  Trafalffar. 
Obr.:  HomAno.TBOouxTMBLsoK:  K.B.DUZBorBwmm.JI.    BnattoMt 

CHAPTER  XXXlll. 

aiOBOE  III.— CONTINUED.      FROM  THB  PEACE  OF  AMIEITO  TO  THE 
DEATH  OF  THB  KING.      A.D.  1802-1820. 

1.  Hostile  feelings  between  France  and  Englaad.  Declaration  of  war. 
Hanover  seized.  §  2.  Change  of  ministrj.  Pitt  premier.  War  with 
Spain.  Bonaparte  proclaimed  emperor,  as  Napolbon  I.  His  violent 
measures.  §  3.  Impeachment  of  lord  Melville.  League  between 
England,  Russia,  and  Sweden.  Napoleon  enters  Vienna.  $  4.  Nelson 
chases  the  French  fleet  to  the  West  Indies.  Sir  Robert  Calder's  action. 
Battle  of  Trafalgar,  and  death  of  Nelson.  §  5.  Death  of  Pitt.  The 
*'  Talents  "  ministry.  Fox  vainly  attempts  a  peape.  §  6.  Battle  of 
Maida.  War  between  France  and  Prussia.  Berlin  Decree.  §  7.  Death 
of  Fox.  Duke  of  Portland  prime  minister.  Abolition  of  the  slave- 
trade.  §  8.  Expeditions  to  Rio  de  la  Plata,  to  Constantinople,  and  to 
Egypt.  §  9.  Peace  of  Tilsit.  Expedition  to  Copenhagen  and  captare 
of  the  Danish  fleet.  §  10.  Napoleon  seizes  Lisbon.  Milan  Decree. 
The  throne  of  Spain  seized  for  Joseph  Bonaparte.  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  proceeds  to  Portugal.  §  11.  Battle  of  Vimiera.  Advance 
and  retreat  of  sir  John  Moore.  Battle  of  Corunna,  and  'death  of 
Moore.  §  12.  Colonel  Wardle's  charges  against  the  duke  of  York.  Sir 
A.  Wellesley  commander-in-chief  in  PortugaL  Battle  of  Talavcra. 
§  13.  Napoleon  conquers  the  Austrians.  Expedition  to  Walcheren. 
Expedition  to  Calabria.  Ionian  islands  captured.  §  14  Change  in  the 
ministry.  Mr.  Perceval  premier.  Burdett  riots.  Massena  advances 
into  Portugal.  Battle  of  Busaco.  Wellington  occupies  the  lines  of 
Torres  Vedras.  §  15.  George  Ill.'s  illness.  The  regency.  Retreat  of 
Ma.>sena.  Battles  of  Barrosa,  of  Fuentes  de  Ofioro,  and  of  Albnera. 
§  16.  Perceval  shot.  Lord  Liverpool  prime  minister.  Ciudad  Rodrigo 
and  Badajoz  taken.  Battle  of  Salamanca.  Wellington  enters  Madrid. 
§  17.  War  with  the  Americans.  Napoleon's  Russian  expedition. 
Treaties  with  Sweden   and  Russia.      §  18.  Wellington  advances  luto 


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A.i>.  1802-1808.       IMPENDING   HOSTILITIBa  663 


B«T. :  EVOXJLND  KCPBCTS  KVBKT  If  AM  If  ILL  DO  HIB  DUTT.     EngUsh  Slid  PtWch     tl«et 

ei^aged.    Below,  Trafalgar  oct  .  31  .  1805. 

Spain.  Battle  of  Vittoria.  Retreat  of  the  French,  and  battles  of  the 
Pyrenees.  Wellington  enters  France.  §  1 9.  Coalition  against  Napo- 
leon. Battles  of  Orthez  and  Toulouse.  Abdication  of  Napoleon. 
§  20.  Congress  of  Ch&tillon.  The  allies  enter  Paris.  Restoration  r.f 
Louis  XVIIL,  and  peace  of  Paris.  §  21.  Progress  of  the  American 
war.  Peace  of  Ghent.  §  22.  Congress  of  Vienna.  Escape  of  Napoleon. 
Battle  of  Waterloo.  §  23.  The  allies  enter  Paris.  Napoleon  carried 
to  St.  Helena.  Peace  of  Paris.  §  24.  Distress  and  discontent  in 
England.  Hampden  clubs.  Spa-fields  riot.  Algiers  reduced.  §  25. 
Hone's  trial.  Death  of  the  princess  Charlotte.  Royal  marriages. 
Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  §  26.  Peel's  Act  to  repeal  the  Bank 
restriction.  Manchester  riots.  Repxcssire  measures.  Death  and 
character  of  George  III. 

S  1.  It  was  soon  felt  that  the  peace  could  not  last.  Bonaparte 
evidently  designed  to  exclude  England  from  all  continental  influence 
or  even  commerce.  Libels  and  invectives  appeared  both  in  the 
French  and  English  newspapers.  The  harbouring  of  French  emi- 
grants in  England,  and  allowing  them  to  wear  orders  which  had 
been  abolished,  furnished  prominent  topics  of  complaint.  To  re- 
move one  cause  of  dissatisfaction,  Peltier,  the  editor  of  a  French 
paper  published  in  London,  called  the  Ambigu,  was  prosecuted  and 
convicted  of  a  libel  on  Bonaparte ;  but  before  sentence  was  passed  he 
escaped  punishment,  owing  to  the  altered  relations  between  the  two 
countries. 

It  was  known  that  extensive  preparations  were  making  in  the 
ports  of  France  and  Holland,  designed,  as  it  was  pretended,  for  the 
French  colonies ;  but  George  IIL,  in  a  message  to  parliament 
(March  8, 1803),  adverted  to  the  necessity  of  being  prepared,  and 
it  wan  resolved  to  call  out  tb^^.  militia  and  augment  the  naval 


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664  GEORGE  III.  Chap,  xxxiil 

force.  Thi8  message  excited  the  indignntion  of  the  first  consuL  In 
a  crowdcnl  court  at  the  Tuilerics  he  addressed  our  ambassador,  lord 
Whitworth,  in  an  angry  tone  (March  13).  He  made  bitter  com- 
plaints of  the  delay  in  the  evacuation  of  Malta,  and  displayed  so 
much  irritation  that  lord  Whitworth  refused  to  attend  the  court, 
without  some  assurance  that  such  conduct  should  not  be  repeated. 
After  some  further  negociatious,  and  an  ultimatum  to  which  n<» 
satisfactory  answer  was  returned,  lord  Whitworth  quitted  Paris 
(May  12),  and  at  the  same  time  general  Andrdossi,  the  French 
ambassador,  was  directed  to  leave  London.  Thus,  after  a  short  and 
anxious  peace,  or  rather  suspension  of  hostilities,  the  two  nations 
were  again  plunged  into  war  (May  18). 

Lord  Whitworth's  departure  was  protracted  as  long  as  possible  by 
Talleyrand ;  nevertheless  there  was  time  to  seize  about  200  Dutch 
and  French  vessels,  valued  at  nearly  three  millions  sterling.  In 
retaliation,  Bonaparte  ordered  all  English  residents  or  travellers  in 
France,  and  in  all  places  subject  to  the  French,  to  be  seized  and 
detained.  About  10,000  persons  of  every  class  and  condition,  and  of 
all  ages  and  sexes,  were  apprehended  and  conveyed  to  prison.  Subse- 
quently a  considerable  portion  of  them  were  cantoned  at  Verdun  and 
in  other  French  towns.  Immediately  after  the  declaration  of  war,  a 
French  army,  under  marshal  Moitier,  marched  into  Hanover;  the 
duke  of  Cambridge,  the  viceroy,  capitulated,  and  retired  beyond  the 
Elbe,  and  the  French  entered  the  capital  (June  5).  On  the  other 
hand,  the  French  and  Dutch  colonies  in  the  West  Indies  soon  fell 
into  our  possession.  The  most  enthusiastic  patriotism  was  ex- 
hibited in  England.  No  fewer  than  300,000  men  enrolled  them- 
selves in  different  volunteer  corps  and  associations.  The  French 
camp  at  Boulogne  still  held  out  an  empty  menace  of  invasion,  and 
in  July  the  "  Army  of  England  "  was  reviewed  by  Bonaparte ;  but 
our  cruisers  swept  the  Channel,  and  occasionally  bombarded  the 
enemy's  towns. 

§  2.  Early  in  1804  the  king  had  a  slight  return  of  his  former 
malady.  Ui>on  his  convalescence,  Addington,  whose  decreasing 
majorities  rendered  it  impossihle  for  him  to  caiTy  on  the  ministry, 
retired  from  office,  and  Pitt  again  became  premier  (May  12).  Pitt 
was  very  popular,  especially  in  the  city.  After  the  peace  of 
Amiens,  a  deputation  of  London  merchants  had  waited  upon  him 
and  informed  him  that  100,000/.  had  been  subscribed  for  his  use, 
and  that  the  names  of  the  contributors  would  never  be  known ;  but 
he  declined  this  magnificent  offer.  The  state  of  the*king's  health, 
as  well  as  the  alarming  crisis  of  the  country,  induced  Pitt  to  waive 
for  the  present  the  question  of  the  catholic  claims. 

The  friendship  of  Spain  was  more  than  doubtful.    A  large  ftnn»- 


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A.D.  1808-1804      WAR  WITH   FRANCE   AND  SPAIN.  665 

ment  was  prepHring  in  the  port  of  Ferrol,  and  its  destination  could 
hardly  be  questionable.  It  was  therefore  determined  to  intercept 
four  Spani^  frigates,  laden  with  treasure,  on  their  return  to  Cadiz 
from  Monte  Video.  Captain  Graham  Moore,  with  four  English 
frigates,  having  in  vain  summoned  them  to  surrender,  an  action 
ensued,  in  which  three  of  the  Spaniards  were  captured  and  the  fourth 
blown  up  (October  5, 1804).  The  treasure  taken  on  this  occasion  was 
valued  at  nearly  a  million  sterling.  The  policy  of  the  act,  setting 
aside  the  question  of  justice,  may,  however,  be  questioned,  as  it 
alienated  from  us  a  large  party  in  Spain  that  was  hostile  to  the 
French.  It  was,  of  course,  followed  by  a  formal  declaration  of  war 
on  the  part  of  Spain  (December  12). 

Bonaparte  had  been  proclaimed  emperor,  as  Napoleon  I.  (May 
18, 1804).  Shortly  before,  on  the  groundless  suspicion  that  the  duke 
d'Enghien,  a  Bourbon  prince  who  was  residing  at  the  castle  of 
Ettenbeim  in  the  neutral  territory  of  Baden,  had  been  concerned  in 
the  conspiracy  of  Gborges  and  Pichegru,  Napoleon  ordered  him  to 
be  secretly  seized  in  the  night,  and  conveyed  to  the  castle  of  Vin- 
cennes,  where  he  was  shot  in  the  ditch.  On  October  24,  sir  George 
Rumbold,  the  English  minister  at  Hamburg,  was  seized  in  like 
manner  by  a  detachment  of  250  French  soldiers  of  the  army  occupying 
Hanover.  He  was  conveyed  to  Paris  and  confined  in  the  Temple, 
but  was  released  at  the  intervention  of  Prussia.  By  means  of  an 
infamous  spy  named  De  la  Touche,  who  received  money  at  once 
both  from  the  French  and  the  English  governments.  Napoleon  con- 
trived to  expel  our  envoys  from  Munich  and  Stuttgart,  on  the 
charge  of  favouring  a  plot  for  his  assassination.  Though  the  accusa- 
tion was  false,  the  dependent  states  of  Europe,  and  even  the  court  of 
Prussia,  congratulated  Napoleon  on  his  happy  escape. 

§  3.  Pitt's  ministry  was  not  strong.  Lord  Grenville,  having 
coalosoed  with  Fox  and  the  party  called  the  "  Talents,"  offered  a 
formidable  opposition.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year,  by  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  king,  a  reconciliation  was  effected  between  Pitt  and 
Addington :  the  latter  was  created  viscount  Sidmouth,  and  became 
president  of  the  council,  in  place  of  the  duke  of  Portland.  Soon 
aften^'ards  lord  Melville  (Dundas),  first  lord  of  the  admiralty, 
was  compelled  to  resign,  as  Mr.  Whitbread  had  carried  a  charge 
(April  6)  against  him  of  conniving  at  the  misapplication  of  the 
public  money,  and  even  of  deriving  benefit  from  it  himself.  Pitt, 
with  a  bitter  pang,  was  compelled  to  advise  the  king  to  erase  the 
name  of  his  old  friend  and  companion  from  the  list  of  the  privy 
coundL  Lord  Melville  acknowledged  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of 
Commons  that  his  paymaster,  Mr.  Trotter,  might  have  used  the 
public  money  for  his  own  advantage ;  and,  as  there  were  some  cir- 


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666  G£OEGE  IIL  Chap.  xxxnL 

cumstanoes  of  suspicion  against  Melvillo  himself,  Mr.  Whitbread, 
in  the  name  of  the  commons  of  England,  impeached  him  of  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanoura  at  the  bar  of  the  lords  (June  26)l 
The  impeachment  was  not  heard  till  the  following  year,  when  he  was 
acquitted  after  a  trial  of  16  days  (June  12,  1806).  His  culpability 
appears  to  have  been  owing  rather  to  negligence  than  dishonesty. 

In  April  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  England  and  Russia, 
by  which  they  bound  themselves  to  resist  the  encroachments  of 
France,  and  to  secure  the  independence  of  Europe.  The  league 
was  afterwards  joined  by  Sweden  and  Austria;  but  the  king  of 
Prussia  kept  aloof,  intent  on  appropriating  the  Hanoverian  do- 
minions of  his  relative  and  ally. 

The  year  1805  was  the  period  of  Napoleon's  most  brilliant  six>- 

cesses.    In  May  he  was  crowned  king  of  Italy  in  the  cathedral  of 

Milan  with  the  iron  crown  of  the  Lombard  kings ;  and  he  appointed 

his  stepson,  Eugene  Beauhamsds,  to  be  viceroy  of  that  kingdom.^ 

At  the  same  time  the  republic  of  Qenoa  was  tmited  to  France. 

Napoleon  introduced  the  conscription  into  Italy,  and  an  army  of 

40,000  Italians  proved  of  great  service  to  him  in  his  subsequent 

wars  with  Austria.     On  his  return  from  Italy,  be  again  repaired 

to  Boulogne ;   but  when  the  hostile  disposition  of  Austria  was 

ascertained,  the  **  Army  of  England,**  consisting  of  150,000  men» 

was  declared  to  be  the  Army  of  Oermany,  and  was  rapidly  marched 

towards  the  Rhine  (August  28).    The  Austrians,  who  had  postponed 

hostilities  too  long,  afterwards  precipitated  them  before  the  Russians 

could  come  to  their  support ;  and  the  power  of  Austria  was  com' 

pletely  broken  by  the  disgraceful  capitulation  of  general  Mack  at 

Ulm  (October  17).    The  road  was  now  open  to  Vienna,  which  was 

occupied  without  a  struggle  (November  14).     Meanwhile  Massena 

had  driven   the  archduke  Charles  out  of   Italy,    and    obtained 

possession  of  the  Tyrol.    Napoleon  pushed  on  into  Moravia,  the 

emperor  and  the  czar  retreating  before  him.    The  court  of  Berlin, 

guided  by  the  counsels  of  its  minister  Haugwitz,  temporized,  waiting 

the  result  of  another  battle.    That  battle  was  fought  at  Austerlitz 

(December  2),  where  the  Russians  and  Austrians  were  completely 

defeated.    The  former  retired  into  their  own  country ;  and  Austria 

made  a  separate  peace  with  France,  by  which  sl.e  lost  Trieste,  her 

only  port,  and  recognized  the  regal  titles  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtem- 

berg.t     The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  was  now  formed,  with 

Napoleon  for  its  protector  (July,  1806). 

*  Josephine,  the  wife  of  Napoleon,  was  i  mother  of  NapolMa  III. 
the  wido  w  of  General  Beanbarnais,  and  had        f  Francis  II.  resigned  the  old  title  of 
by  him  a  son   Eugene,  and  a  daughter     emperor  of  Uie  Holy  Roman  Bmpin,  and 
Hortense,  married  to  T>oui«  Napoleon's     took  rank  as  the  flrst  emperor  of  J 
btother,  kixi|f  of  Holland.    Hortenae  was  I  under  the  title  of  Franda  L 

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A.i>.  1806.  BATTLE  OF  TBAFALOAK.  667 

§  4.  Thus  the  objecto  of  the  English  and  Russian  league  seemed 
completely  frustrated ;  and  England  appeared  destined  to  be  success- 
ful only  when  she  acted  by  herself  on  her  own  peculiar  domain,  the 
ocean.  Nelson  had  been  in  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet 
since  1803.  The  winter  of  1804  was  spent  in  watching  the  harboui* 
of  Toulon,  where  the  French  fleet  was  preparing  to  embark  a  large 
body  of  troop8  whose  destination  was  unknown.  To  draw  them 
out.  Nelson  sailed  for  Barcelona,  and  in  his  absence  ViUeneuve,  the 
French  admiral,  put  to  sea  with  10  sail  of  the  line,  besides  several 
frigates  and  brigs  (March,  1805).  Nelson  concluded  that  they  were 
bound  for  Egypt, and  made  sail  for  Sicily;  but  he  soon  learned  that 
they  had  passed  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  At  Cadiz  they  were  rein- 
forced by  six  Spanish  and  two  French  line-of-battle  ships,  thus 
making  their  whole  number  18  sail  of  the  line.  Nevertheless,  as 
soon  as  the  wind  permitted,  Nelson  followed  them  to  the  West 
Indies  with  10  sail  of  the  line,  but  returned  to  Europe  without 
having  been  fortunate  enough  to  discover  them.  Being  in  a  bad 
state  of  health,  he  struck  his  flag  at  Spithead,  and  retired  to  his 
seat  at  Merton. 

Sir  Robert  ('aider  was  more  fortunate.  On  July  22,  he  fell  in 
with  the  enemy  at  some  distance  from  Cape  Finisterre,  and,  though 
much  inferior  in  force,  brought  them  to  action.  Two  of  the  Spanish 
ships  were  taken.  Calder,  having  neglected  to  renew  the  engage- 
ment on  the  following  day,  was  brought  to  a  court-martial  and 
reprimanded.  ViUeneuve  ultimately  got  into  Cadiz,  where  he 
found  his  fleet  now  amoimting  to  35  sail  of  the  line.  CoUingwood, 
who  was  watching  that  port,  communicated  the  interesting  intelli- 
gence to  Nelson,  who  had  led  his  friends  to  expect  that  he  had 
finally  retired  from  the  service.  But  at  this  news  his  ardour  could 
no  longer  be  restrained.  He  immediately  volunteered  his  services 
to  the  admiralty,  which  were  gladly  accepted,  and  on  the  I5th  of 
September  he  was  again  on  board  the  Victory,  accompanied  by  the 
-4Aw;»  the  Thunderer,  and  the  Euryalus  frigate.  On  the  29th,  his 
birthday,  he  arrived  off  Cadiz,  and  joined  Collingwood ;  but  his 
arrival  was  kept  secret  from  the  enemy,  lest  they  should  not 
venture  out  of  port.  No  salute  was  fired,  and  Nelson  kept  well  out 
at  sea. 

On  October  19,  want  of  provisions  obliged  ViUeneuve  to  leave 
Cadiz,  and  the  English  fleet  immediately  gave  chase,  the  course 
being  towards  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  It  was  not  till  the  21st  that 
Nelson  fell  in  with  them  about  sevt^n  miles  east  of  Cape  Trafalgar, 
there  being  a  light  breeze  from  the  west.  Nelson  felt  a  sure  pre- 
sentiment of  victory,  but  at  the  same  time  of  death.  The  enemy 
tacked,  in  order  to  be  able,  if  necessary,  to  run  back  to  Cadiz,  when 


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668  QBOBOE  m.  Ohap.  xxzm. 

Nelson  steered  a  little  more  to  the  n<ffth,  in  order  to  cat  off  their 
van.  He  now  asked  captain  Blackwood  of  the  EuryaltUy  who  was 
on  board  the  Victory ^  whether  a  signal  was  not  wanted.  The  latter 
replied  that  he  thought  all  knew  what  they  were  about ;  but  Nelson 
ran  up  to  the  mast-head  his  last  ognal — ^EInolaio)  expects  that 
BVBBT  MAN  WILL  DO  HiB  DUTY — ^which  was  greeted  with  three 
cheers  from  every  ship.  Nelson  led  the  weather-line  in  the  Victory ; 
but  the  lee-line,  under  CoUingwood,  was  the  first  to  get  into  action. 
The  British  fleet  comprised  27  sail  of  the  line,  4  frigates,  a  schooner, 
and  a  cutter ;  the  combined  French  and  Spanish  fleets  numbered  33 
sail  of  the  line,  5  frigates,  and  2  brigs ;  and  they  were  vastly 
superior  in  weight  of  metal,  having  2626  guns  to  2148  of  the  English. 
The  enemy's  line  had  accidentally  fisdlen  into  the  shape  of  a  cres- 
cent, which  rendered  the  attack  more  difficult  It  was  a  little  after 
noon  that  Collingwood,  in  the  Boyal  Sovereiyn,  began  the  action. 
He  was  soon  surrounded  by  fire  French  and  Spanish  vessels ;  but, 
finding  that  they  damaged  one  another,  they  graduaUy  drew  off  and 
left  Collingwood  in  single  combat  with  the  Santa  Anna.  He  had 
been  engaged  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before  the  other  ships  got 
into  action.  As  the  Victory  bore  down,  she  was  made  a  mark  by 
the  enemy :  her  rigging  was  much  damaged,  her  wheel  shot  away, 
and  50  officers  and  men  killed  or  wounded  before  she  had  fired  a  shot 
The  foremost  ships  of  the  enemy,  to  the  number  of  19,  closed  round 
Nelson's  column,  leaving  a  gap  of  nearly  a  mile  between  it  and  the 
spot  where  Collingwood  and  his  comrades  were  engaging  the  re- 
maining 14.  Nelson,  in  the  Victory,  first  engaged  with  Yilleneuve's 
flag-ship,  the  Bucentaur,  of  80  gun6»  and  after  disabling  it  he 
attacked  the  Redoubtable;  that  ship  and  the  Victory  getting  as 
it  were  locked  together  by  their  anchors.  The  tops  of  the  Bedouht- 
able  were  filled  with  riflemen,  and  Nelson,  on  going  into  action, 
afforded  a  conspicuous  mark.  The  action  had  lasted  about  half  an 
hour,  when  he  was  struck  by  a  musket-ball  and  fell  on  the  quarter- 
deck. On  his  captain  expressing  a  hope  that  he  was  not  seriously 
wounded,  Nelson  replied,  "  They  have  done  fojr  me  at  last.  Hardy — 
my  backbone  is  shot  through."  He  was  carried  to  the  cockpit, 
where  it  was  found  that  the  shot,  having  entered  the  left  shoulder 
at  the  epaulette,  had  lodged  in  the  spine,  inflicting  a  mortal  wound. 
While  the  hero  lay  there  expiring,  the  battle  still  raged  two  hours, 
distressing  him  with  the  concussion  of  the  firing,  though  ever  and 
anon  he  was  cheered  by  the  huzzas  of  the  crew  as  one  after  another 
the  enemy's  ships  struck  their  colours.  He  had  the  satisfaction  to 
hear  from  captain  Hardy  before  his  death  that  he  had  gained  a 
complete  victory.  Almost  his  last  words  were  to  recommend  to  his 
country  lady  Hamilton,  with  whom  he  lived,  and  his  daughter- 


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A.D.  18«^1806.      DEATH  OF  NELSON  AND  PITT.  669 

llien  exolaiming,  *'  Thank  God,  I  have  done  my  duty ! "  he  expired, 
at  the  age  of  47  (October  21),  almost  without  a  struggle,  about 
three  hours  after  receiving  his  wound.  He  had  said,  almost  pro- 
phetically, when  going  into  action,  that  he  should  be  content  with 
20  8hips;  19  of  the  enemy's  line  actually  struck  at  Trafalgar, 
and  one  blew  up.  The  prisoners,  includin.;  the  troops  on  board, 
amounted  to  12,000.  Four  ships  that  had  taken  little  part  in 
the  action  were  subsequently  captured  by  Sir  Richard  Strachan 
(November  4).  By  this  glorious  victory  the  French  navy  was 
nearly  annihilated,  and  England  rescued  from  all  chance  of  an 
invasion. 

Nelson  was  honoured  with  a  magnificeut  i«ublic  funtral.  Th(; 
body  lay  in  state  in  Greenwich  Hospital,  and  was  attended  to  St^ 
Paul's  by  a  procession  by  land  and  water.  His  brother,  a  clergyman , 
was  made  an  earl ;  100,000^.  were  voted  him  to  buy  an  estate,  with 
a  pension  of  6000^.  a  year;  and  10,000/.  were  given  to  each  of  bis 
sisters  (November  9). 

§  5.  Pitt  did  not  long  survive  England's  greatest  naval  com- 
mander. The  cares  and  anxieties  of  office,  at  a  crisis  so  tremen- 
dously agitating,  had  undermined  a  constitution  naturally  feeble. 
He  expired  at  the  age  of  46,  January  23,  1806.  Of  his  disin* 
terestcdness  no  greater  proof  can  be  offered  than  that,  in  spite  of  his 
apparent  opportunities  of  enriching  bimself,  he  died  40,000/.  in  debt. 
His  debts  were  discharged  by  a  vote  of  the  Commons,  and  a  funeral 
decreed  for  him,  at  the  public  expense,  in  Westminster  Abbey :  the 
latter  was  ungenerously  opposed  by  Fox  and  his  party.  Pitt  must 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  ministers  this  country  ever  saw. 
His  councils  chiefly  enabled  England  to  stem  the  overbearing  in- 
solence and  ambition  of  the  French  republic.  To  him  the  nation  is 
indebted  for  the  financial  poUcy  carriwi  out  by  Peel  and  Gladstone. 
His  measures  for  freedom  of  commerce  with  Ireland  were  rejected  by 
the  Irish  ijarliament  (1786),  and  his  commercial  treaty  with  France 
(1786)  was  nullified  by  the  revolutionary  movements  in  that 
country.  He  was,  in  fact,  one  of  the  very  few  statesmen  who 
combined  a  thorough  mastery  of  great  jdnciples,  financial  and 
legislative,  with  consummate  practical  tact  and  sagacity. 

Attempts  were  made  to  patch  up  the  ministry,  but  failed,  and 
the  king  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  lord  Grenville  and  "  All 
the  Talents."  This  involved  the  readmission  of  Fox,  who  was  now 
allied  with  that  party,  and  the  king  was  obliged  to  waive  his  per- 
sonal dislike  of  that  statesman.  Early  in  February  a  ministry  was 
formed,  with  lord  Grenville  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  Fox  foreign 
secretary,  lord  Howick  (afterwards  earl  Grey)  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  and  Erskine  lord  chancellor. 
30* 


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670  GEORGE  in.  Chap,  xxxitl 

It  was  naturally  expected  that  Fox,  who  had  so  long  denounced 
the  war  both  as  iniquitous  and  impolitic,  would  exert  himself  to 
terminate  it;  and  he  did,  indeed,  open  communications  with  the 
French  government  through  lord  Yarmouth,  afterwards  marquess  of 
Hertford,  one  of  the  detenus  at  Verdun.  But  he  soon  discovered 
that  Napoleon  would  never  agree  to  terms  which  this  country  could 
accept  with  honour.  Tho  financial  measures  of  the  new  govern- 
ment were  universally  complained  of,  and  especially  the  increase  of 
the  obnoxious  property -tax  to  10  per  cent. 

§  6.  Napoleon  had  now  installed  his  brother  Joseph  as  king  of 
Naples,  his  brother  Louis  as  king  of  Holland,  and  had  bestowed  12 
Italian  duchies  upon  as  many  of  his  most  favoured  generals.  Fer- 
dinand IV.  of  Naples  had  been  driven  to  take  refuge  in  Sicily, 
as  already  related.  At  the  request  of  his  consort,  Caroline  of  Aus- 
tria, sister  of  the  unfortunate  Marie  Antoinette,  sir  John  Stuart,  who 
a)mmanded  the  British  forces  in  that  island,  was  induced  to  pass 
over  into  Calabria  with  a  small  army  of  less  than  5000  men, 
and  to  try  his  fortune  against  tho  French  general  Bcgnier,  who 
occupied  that  province.  On  July  6,  an  engagement  took  place  at 
]Sf  aida,  in  which  the  French,  though  considerably  the  stronger,  were 
entirely  defeated.  Regnier  fled  across  the  Apennines,  and  Stuart 
cleared  the  whole  of  Lower  Calabria  of  the  French ;  but  his  force 
was  too  small  to  hold  it,  and  he  was  obliged  to  retiu'n  to  Sicily. 
It  was  one  of  the  mistakes  of  the  government  to  fritter  away  the 
strength  of  the  nation  in  small  expeditions  of  this  fruitless  kind. 
At  the  same  time  sir  Sidney  Smith's  squadron  harassed  the  French 
on  the  coast  of  Italy,  from  the  Tiber  to  the  bay  of  Naples. 

During  his  negociations  with  the  new  ministry.  Napoleon  had 
iffered  to  restore  Hanover.  The  desire  of  possessing  that  coimtry 
had  induced  the  court  of  Prussia  to  desert  the  cause  of  Germany. 
They  had  likewise  found  other  causes  of  complaint  against  France 
in  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  in  the  depreciatory  tone  in 
which  the  Monitevr  spoke  of  Prussia  and  her  pretensioiLs.  On 
October  1,  Prussia  required  the  French  to  evacuate  Germany ;  on 
the  lUh  the  battle  of  Jena  laid  her  at  the  feet  of  Napoleon,  a 
fitting  reward  of  her  perfidy  and  selfishness.  On  the  25th  the 
French  entered  Berlin,  and  Mortier  was  sent  forward  to  occupy 
Hamburg  and  seize  all  British  property.  On  November  20  appeared 
the  celebrated  Berlin  Decree,  forbidding  all  intercourse  with  Eng- 
land, and  all  use  of  her  manufactures  or  colonial  products. 

§  7.  Fox  did  not  live  to  see  this  event  He  had  been  attacked 
with  dropsy,  and  after  July  became  too  unwell  to  attend  to  busi- 
ness. On  September  13,  he  expired,  in  his  59th  year,  at  the  duk«i^  of 
Devonshire's  scat  at  Chiswick,  whither  he  had  proceeded  on  his 


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A.D.  18(»-1807.     ABOLITION  OF  THE  SLAVE  TRADE.       671 

way  to  his  own  house  at  St.  Ann's  Hill.  He  received  a  public 
funeral,  and  was  buried  in  Westminister  Abbey  (October  10),  by  the 
side  of  his  great  rival  Pitt.  Posterity  will  be  rather  at  a  loss  to  discover 
in  his  character  any  transcendent  merits  as  a  statesman,  or  to  point 
out  any  great  benefits  that  he  achieved  for  his  country.  His  in- 
fluence during  his  lifetime  seems  to  have  been  principally  acquired 
by  his  powerful  and  fervid  oratory,  and  by  his  engaging  qualities, 
which  attached  to  him  a  host  of  personal  firiends.  His  death  did 
not  break  up  the  ministry ;  lord  Howick  succeeded  to  the  place  of 
foreign  secretary,  and  Mr.  Thomas  Grenville  became  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty. 

Lord  Grenville  had  made  no  compact  with  the  sovereign  on  the 
subject  of  catholic  emancipation,  but  early  in  March,  1807,  lord 
Howick  brought  in  a  bill  to  enable  Roman  catholic  officers  to  serve 
in  the  army  and  navy  in  England  as  well  as  in  Ireland.  In  the 
latter  country  a  Romau  catholic  officer  could  attain  any  rank, 
except  commander-in-chief,  master  general  of  the  ordnance,  or 
gemral  on  the  staff.  The  bill  was  opposed  by  Spencer  Perceval 
and  others ;  and,  as  the  king  had  a  great  repugnance  to  the  measure, 
it  was  not  difficult  to  persuade  him  to  dismiss  his  ministers.  Be- 
fore the  end  of  the  month  a  new  administration  was  formed,  with 
the  duke  of  Portland  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury,  George  Canning 
foreign  secretary,  lord  Castlereagh  secretary  at  war  and  for  the 
colonies,  Spencer  Perceval  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  lord 
Eldon  chancellor  in  place  of  Erskine.  A  "  No  Popery  "  cry  was 
rained,  in  which  the  majority  of  the  country  joined ;  the  ministers 
took  advantage  of  it  to  dissolve  the  parliament,  though  it  had 
been  returned  only  a  few  months,  and  the  elections  secured  them 
a  large  majority. 

A  little  before  the  dismissal  of  lord  Grenville,  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade  had  been  carried.  That  question  had  now  been  20 
years  in  agitation.  A  society  had  been  formed  for  its  promotion, 
of  which  Mr.  Granville  Sharpe  was  chairman,  and  Wilberforce  and 
Clarkson  distinguished  members.  This  inhuman  traffic  had  been 
denounced  by  several  writers,  but  it  required  all  the  zeal  and 
enthusiasm  of  the  evangelical  party,  which  had  sprung  up  of  late 
years,  in  order  to  effect  its  abolition.  The  society  adopted  every 
means,  by  newspaper  articles,  pamphlets,  speeches,  and  letters,  to 
influence  the  public  mind  on  the  subject.  Pitt  approved  the  cause, 
and  a  board  of  the  privy  council  had  been  formed  to  consider  the 
state  of  the  Attcan  trade ;  but  the  commercial  interests  of  the 
country  offered  a  great  impediment,  and  all  that  could  be  obtained 
at  first  was  a  mitigation  of  the  horrors  of  the  middle  passage. 

f  8.  The  military  plans  arranged  by  lord  Grenville's  ministry 


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(J72  GBORGB  m.  Chap.  xxrm. 

tumea  out  unfortunate  in  all  quarters.  Two  .expeditions  had  been 
despatched  early  in  1807  against  Constantinople  and  Egypt 
French  intrigues,  ably  conducted  by  general  Sebastian!,  had  in« 
duced  the  Turks  to  declare  war  against  Russia,  and  had  thus 
diverted  a  great  part  of  the  force  which  might  have  been  used 
against  Napoleon.  Sir  John  Duckworth  was  despatched  with  a 
squadron  to  bring  the  Turks  to  reasen :  he  succeeded  in  passing 
the  Dardanelles,  and  appeared  before  Constantinople  in  February. 
But  the  Turks  amused  him  with  negociations,  till  they  had  put  the 
Dardanelles  in  a  formidable  posture  of  defence;  and  Duckworth 
made  a  disgraceful  retreat,  for  which  he  was  subsequently  brought 
to  a  court-martial.  At  the  same  time  the  expedition  to  Egypt 
under  major-general  Frazer  proved  equally  unfortunate ;  the  new 
ministry  declined  to  support  it ;  and,  in  September,  the  remnant 
of  the  British  force  was  obliged  to  return  to  Sicily.  The  only 
effect  of  theac  proceedings  was  that  the  Turks  declared  war  against 
Great  Britain,  and  confiscated  all  British  property. 

§  9.  Meanwhile  Russia,  exhausted  by  the  well-contested  fields 
of  Eylau  and  Friedland,  and  receiving  no  assistance  either  in  men 
or  money  from  England,  concluded  with  France  the  peace  of  Tilsit 
(July  7, 1807),  to  which  Prussia  afterwards  acceded.  Both  countries 
agreed  to  shut  their  ports  against  the  English ;  and,  indeed,  the 
French  were  in  possession  of  those  of  Prussia.  When  it  was  too 
late,  Canning  despatched  lord  Leveson-Gk>wer  to  conciliate  the 
emperor  Alexander.  He  could  not  even  obtain  an  audience,  and 
returned  with  the  conviction  that  Alexander,  by  a  secret  article 
of  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  had  placed  not  only  his  own  fleet,  but  also 
those  of  Sweden  and  Denmark,  at  the  disposal  of  Napoleon.  He 
had  been  drawn  into  this  engagement  by  the  fascination  of  the 
French  emperor,  who  had  dazzled  the  young  czar  with  a  vision  of 
empire,  in  which  Europe  and  'Asia  were  to  be  partitioned  into  west 
and  east  under  two  great  heads.  For  the  accomplishing  of  this  object 
the  destruction  of  Qreat  Britain  was  a  necessary  preliminary.  There 
was  no  time  for  hesitation.  Denmark  commanded  the  entrance 
to  the  Baltic  ;  a  large  fleet  was  lying  in  her  harbours ;  the  north  of 
Germany  was  full  of  French  troops ;  and,  however  friendly  might 
be  the  disposition  of  the  Danes,  it  was  evident  that  their  move- 
ments would  depend  on  the  will  of  Napoleon.  A  powerful  arma- 
ment, consisting  of  17  sail  of  the  line,  21  Mgates  and  other  small 
vessels,  and  377  transports  carrying  27,000  troops,  was  secretly 
and  promptly  fitted  out,  and  sailed  from  Yarmouth  Roads,  under 
the  command  of  admiral  Gambier  (July  26).  Lord  Cathcart  was 
at  the  head  of  the  land  forces,  and  under  him  served  sir  Arthur 
Wellesley,  an  officer  who  had  greatly  distinguished  himself  in 


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A.D.  1807.       CAPTURE  OF  THE  DANISH  FLEET.  673 

India.  On  Angost  9,  the  expedition  was  safely  anchored  in  the  roads 
of  Zlsinore,  and  the  fleet  was  strengthened  by  the  arrival  of  eight  aaSl 
of  the  line  and  19  frigates.  Negociations  were  opened  for  the  delivery 
of  the  Danish  fleet,  under  the  solemn  promise  that  it  should  be 
restored  on  the  conclusion  of  a  peace  with  France.  The  proposal 
being  indignantly  rejected  by  the  crown  prince,  preparations  were 
made  to  enforce  it.  The  fleet  proceeded  to  Copenhagen,  the  troops 
were  landed,  and  batteries  constructed;  and  on  September  2  a 
bombardment  commenced  both  by  sea  and  land.  On  the  evening 
of  the  5th  the  Danish  commander  surrendered,  and  on  the  8th 
Oambier  took  possession  of  Copenhagen.  Our  whole  loss  did  not 
much  exceed  200  men.  By  October  20  the  whole  of  the  Danish 
fleet  was  prepared  for  sea,  to  be  carried  ofi"  to  England,  together 
with  an  immense  quantity  of  naval  stores,  and  between  2000  and 
3000  pieces  of  artillery.  But  of  the  17  line-of-battle  ships  four  only 
proved  to  be  fit  for  service.  The  island  of  Heligoland  was  also 
captured  (September  5),  and  served  as  a  dep6t  for  English  goods  to 
be  smuggled  into  the  continent.  The  rage  (if  Bonaparte  at  this 
intelligence  was  terrific.  The  entry  of  the  French  into  Stralsund 
(September  1)  showed  the  wisdom  of  our  rapid  and  decisive  move- 
ment. The  Danes  declared  war  against  us,  the  consequence  of 
which  was  the  capture  of  the  Danish  West  India  islands  of  St. 
Thomas,  St.  John's,  and  Santa  Croce,  in  December. 

§  10.  The  king  of  Portugal  having  refused  to  enforce  the  Berlin 
Decree  against  England,  Napoleon  determined  to  attack  that 
country.  For  that  purpose  he  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Spain 
(October  27),  which  was  to  have  a  portion  of  Portugal ;  and  before 
the  treaty  was  signed  he  despatched  an  army  of  30,000  men  under 
Junot  across  the  Bidassoa,  and  proclaimed  that  the  house  of  Bra- 
ganza  had  ceased  to  reign.  Junot  entered  Lisbon  (No\  ember  30). 
Don  John,  the  regent,  afterwards  John  VI.,  with  many  of  his 
nobility  and  18,000  of  his  subjects,  had  sailed  the  day  previously 
for  Brazil  Towards  winter  Napoleon  visited  Italy,  and  issued, 
in  the  capital  of  Liombardy  (December  27),  his  celebrated  Milan 
Decree,  declaring  all  vessels,  of  whatsoever  nation,  that  should 
submit  to  the  British  orders  in  council,  lawful  prizes.  These  orders 
had  been  issued  in  retaliation  for  the  Berlin  Decree.  They  de- 
clared the  whole  French  coast  in  a  state  of  blockade,  thus  render- 
ing neutral  vessels  with  French  goods  on  board  liable  to  seizure, 
a  proceeding  which  formed  the  principal  ground  of  quarrel  with 
the  Americans.  But,  in  fiuit,  both  the  Berlin  Decree  and  the  orders 
in  council  were  in  great  degree  inoperative.    (Sup.  N.  XXX.) 

No  sooner  was  Bonaparte  in  possession  of  Portugal  than,  with 
the  help  of  Godoy,  the  Prince  of  the  Peace,  the  prime  minister  of 


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674  GEORGE  lU.  Chip.  xzxm. 

Spain  and  paramour  of  the  queen,  he  treacheronsly  turned  his  anoit 
against  that  country.  Murat  occupied  Madrid  with  a  French  divi- 
sion. The  imbecile  Charles  IV.,  and  his  son  Ferdinand,  who  was 
not  much  better,  together  with  Godoy  and  the  queen,  were  decoyed 
to  Bayonne,  where  a  renunciation  of  the  Spanish  throne  in  favour 
of  Napoleon  was  extorted  from  them,  in  consideration  of  the  palace 
and  do»  lains  of  Navarre  and  a  pension  of  400,000  francs!  (May  8, 
1808).  It  was  declared  that  the  Spanish  Bourbons  had  ceased  to 
reign.  Joseph  Bonaparte,  much  against  his  will,  was  compelled 
to  exchange  the  crown  of  Naples  for  that  of  Spain,  while  the 
former  was  bestowed  upon  Napoleon*8  brother-in-law,  Murat.  KiDg 
Joseph  entered  Madrid  (Jidy  20)  ;  but  by  this  time  the  Spaniards, 
who  had  risen  in  insurrection,  had  established  at  Seville  a  **  Supreme 
Junta  of  S\mn  and  the  Indies,'*  and  had  declared  Ferdinand  king, 
with  the  title  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  though  he  was  now  residing  in 
Talleyrand's  house  at  Valcn^ay.  In  this  struggle  the  Spaniards 
displayed  the  greatest  animosity  towards  the  French,  and  murdered 
all  the  stragglers  they  could  lay  hands  on. 

These  revolutions  were  destined  again  to  bring  the  English  into 
contact  with  the  French  on  land  as  well  as  sea.  General  (>a8taiios, 
who  commanded  the  S^ianish  army  of  Andalusia,  applied  to  sir 
Hew  Dalrymple,  commandant  of  Gibraltar,  with  a  view  to  obtain 
the  assistance  of  England.  The  merchants  of  that  place  supplied 
the  junta  of  Seville  with  money ;  CoUingwood  carried  his  fleet  into 
Cadiz  and  lent  the  Spaniards  what  assistance  he  could  in  ammu- 
nition and  stores ;  and  the  English  government  at  length  under- 
took to  aid  the  Sfianish  loyalists  with  troops.  On  July  10  sir 
Arthur  Wellesley  sailed  from  Cork  for  the  Peninsula  with  about 
10,000  men.  Preceding  the  fleet  in  a  fast  vessel,  he  landed  at 
Corunna  in  order  to  consult  the  junta  of  Galicia  as  to  his  proceed- 
ings. By  their  advice,  with  which  his  own  views  entirely  coin- 
cided, he  determined  to  land  near  Oporto.  Portugal  at  this  time, 
like  Spain,  was  in  full  insurrection  against  the  French.  In  the 
latter  country,  Joseph  had  been  driven  out  of  his  new  capital  before 
he  had  been  a  fortnight  in  it.  He  had  taken  up  his  abode  at  Vittoria 
in  order  to  be  nearer  the  French  frontier,  and  Madrid  had  been 
occupied  by  Castailos.  The  British  army  landed  near  the  town  of 
Figuoira  (August  1),  and,  being  reinforced  by  some  troops  from 
Cadiz,  numbered  in  all  about  14,000  men.  Junot  had  17,000  or 
18,000  men  in  Portugal ;  but,  as  many  of  these  were  in  garrison, 
his  disposable  force  was  not  much  larger  than  the  British ;  and  the 
success  of  the  loyalists  in  Spain  had  cut  him  ofif  from  all  commu- 
nication with  his  countrymen  in  that  kingdom.  Such  was  the 
beginning  of  the  Peninsular  war. 


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AJ>.  1808.  BATTLE  OF  YIMIERA.  675 

{  11.  Wellesley  begttn  his  march  upon  Lisbon  (August  9).  In 
about  a  week  he  came  upon  a  French  division  of  5000  men,  under 
Delaborde,  occupying  a  strong  position  at  Boli9a,  which  was  carried 
after  a  struggle  of  two  hours  (August  17).  Ou  the  19th  he  reached 
Vimiera,  where  he  was  reinforced  by  two  British  brigades,  under 
generals  Anstruther  and  Acland,  making  his  whole  force  about 
17,000  men,  besides  1600  Portuguese.  On  the  21st  was  fought  ihe 
battle  of  Vimiera,  where  in  two  hours  the  French  were  com- 
pletely defeated,  with  the  loss  of  14  guns  and  many  prisoners.  But 
Wellesley  was  superseded  the  same  day  by  sir  Harry  Burrard. 
The  government  had  detormined  to  raise  the  army  in  the  Peninsula 
to  30,000,  under  sir  Hew  Dalrymple,  with  sir  Harry  Burrard  as 
second  in  command,  while  sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  sir  John  Moore, 
and  others  were  to  be  generals  of  division.  Sir  H.  Burrard  by 
suspen<Ung  the  pursuit  lost  the  fruits  of  the  victory,  and  the 
French,  to  their  own  great  astonishment,  got  safe  to  Torres  Yedras. 
Next  day  sir  Hew  Dalrymple  arrived,  the  command  being  thus 
twice  changed  in  24  hours.  On  August  30  a  convention  was 
signed,  by  which  Junot  agreed  to  evacuate  Portugal.*  The  French 
were  deprived  of  the  spoils  of  the  royal  museum  and  library,  church 
plate,  and  other  plunder,  which  they  were  preparing  to  carry  off.  A 
Russian  fleet  blockaded  in  the  Tagus  was  surrendered.  Early  in 
September  the  British  army  entered  Lisbon.  The  three  generals 
were  recalled;  Sir  H.  Dalrjrmple  was  censured  (December  22); 
but  sir  A.  Wellesley  was  marked  out  for  high  CQi»imand. 

Sir  John  Moore,  who  had  remained  with  the  array  in  Portugal, 
was  reinforced ;  and,  with  20,000  men,  was  directed  to  co-operate  with 
the  Spaniards  in  driving  the  French  from  the  north  of  Spain.  On 
November  11  he  crossed  the  frontier  into  Leon,  and  advanced  by 
Ciudad  Bodrigo  to  Salamanca.  Meanwhile  Napoleon  himself  had 
entered  Spain  at  the  head  of  some  chosen  troops;  and,  having 
replaced  his  brother  at  Madrid  (December  4),  he  proceeded  to  seek 
sir  John  Moore.  Moore  had  discovered  that  there  was  no  Spanish 
force  on  which  he  could  rely  for  support,  and  he  had  been  contem- 
plating a  retreat ;  but  in  consequence  of  wrong  intelligence  received 
from  Mr.  Frere,  formerly  our  minister  at  Madrid,  he  determined  to 
advance,  and,  before  Napoleon  could  come  up,  strike  a  blow  at 
Soult,  who  was  on  the  banks  of  the  Carion  with  about  18,000  men. 
But  Soult  had  withdrawn  ;  and  Moore,  apprehensive  of  being  sur- 


*  This  treaty  is  often  erroneoosly  called 
the  **  Convention  of  Ctntra,"  because  sir 
H.  Dalrymple's  despatches  announcing  it 
were  dated  fhmi  that  place:  bat  in  fact 
dntn  lies  between  Torres  Yedras  and 
tUbon  {  and  consequently,  had  the  eon- 


vention  been  nude  there,  the  British  most 
have  been  already  in  pose-ssion  of  the 
former  strong  position,  which,  on  the  con- 
trary, fell  into  their  hands  tbrooi^  the 
convention. 


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676  OBOBOE  m.  Chap.  xxxm. 

rounded,  commenced  a  retreat  Napoleon  was  cloee  at  his  heels. 
On  Januftry  1,  1809,  he  was  at  Astorga  with  70,000  infantry, 
10,000  cavalry,  and  200  guns ;  and  from  this  place  he  could  descry 
the  British  rear.  But  he  was  now  called  away  by  news  from 
Austria,  and  left  the  pursuit  to  Soult.  The  weather  was  bad,  the 
roads  miserable,  proyisions  scanty,  and  the  British  had  often  to  &ce 
about  and  repulse  the  enemy.  At  last,  on  January  13,  Moore  reached 
Corunna ;  but  the  transports  did  not  arrive  till  the  following  day. 
Soult  had  got  possession  of  the  hills  round  the  town,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  fight  a  battle  to  cover  the  embarkation.  This  took  place 
on  the  I6th.  Moore  had  between  15,000  and  16,000  infiemtry  in  line, 
Soult  about  20,000, — the  ground  was  not  good  for  cavalry.  In  de- 
fending the  village  of  Elvina,  against  which  the  French  were  making 
a  concentrated  attack,  Moore  was  struck  in  the  breast  by  a  spent 
cannon-ball,  and  was  carried  to  Corunna  in  a  blanket,  often  stopping 
to  look  back  on  the  progress  of  the  battle.  The  French  were  b«Lt«i 
off  along  the  whole  line,  but  night  coming  on  prevented  all  pursuit ; 
and,  as  the  remainder  of  Soult's  forces  might  be  expected  every  hour, 
it  was  determined  to  hasten  the  embarkation.  Sir  John  Moore  died 
that  evening,  and  was  buried  at  midnight  on  the  ramparts  ''with 
his  martial  cloak  around  him."  The  embarkation,  being  covered 
by  some  liue-of-battle  ships,  was  completed  in  safety  by  the  18th. 
During  the  whole  camjwign  Moore  received  no  assistance  firom  the 
Spaniards,  who,  on  the  contrary,  were  a  positive  hindrance  to  him 
by  crossing  his  line  of  retreat  at  Astorga. 

§  12.  The  English  ministry,  however,  were  determined  to  pmrsue 
the  war  in  the  Peninsula,  in  which  they  were  encouraged  by  the 
distraction  caused  to  the  French  arms  by  the  renewal  of  the  war 
with  Austria ;  and  Mr.  Canning  executed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with 
the  Spanish  insurgents,  or  rather  royalists  (January  14).  The 
English  nation,  in  spite  of  the  long  struggle  it  had  already  main- 
tained, was  so  little  crippled  in  its  resources,  that  a  loan  of  eleven 
millions  was  raised  at  a  lower  interest  than  had  ever  beft>re  been 
known.  Many  abuses  were  at  this  time  discovered  in  the  bestowal 
of  military  and  naval  patronage,  in  some  of  which  the  duke  of  York 
himself,  the  commander-in-chief,  was  implicated.  It  appeared,  from 
some  charges  brought  against  him  in  the  House  of  Commons  by 
Mr.  Wardle,  a  Welsh  colonel  of  militia,  that  the  duke,  abandoning 
himself  to  the  influence  of  Mrs.  Clarke,  had  bestowed  commissions 
in  the  army  on  several  unworthy  persons,  such  as  Mrs.  Clarke's 
brother,  and  even  her  footman.  Before  the  termination  of  th€ 
proceedings  the  duke  resigned  his  office,  and  the  investigation 
was  dropped.  Alx)ut  the  same  time  the  commissioners  of  naval 
and  those  of  military  enquiry  brought  to  light  a  great   many 


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AJ).  1809.  BATTLE  OF  TALAVERA.  677 

abuses  and  frauds  in  the  method  of  conducting  the  budness  of 
those  departments. 

The  chief  command  in  the  Peninsula  was  nowgjyen  to  sir  Arthur 
WeUesley,  who  advised  that  in  the  first  instance  our  exertions 
should  be  confined  to  Portugal.  On  April  22  he  arrived  at  Lisbon, 
where  he  found  himself  at  the  head  of  about  26,000  men,  including  a 
body  of  Portuguese  under  general  Beresford.  On  the  9th  of  May  he 
directed  his  march  upon  Oporto,  now  occupied  by  Soult,  who,  after 
the  battle  of  Gorunna,  had  invaded  Portugal.  In  a  few  days  the 
Douro  was  crossed  by  a  daring  manoeuvre,  and  the  French  were 
driven  out  in  precipitate  flight.  Wellesley  now  entered  Spain, 
and  formed  a  junction  with  the  Spanish  general  Cuesta  at  Oropesa  in 
Estremadura.  Cuesta's  army,  however,  amounting  to  about  30,000 
men,  was  in  very  bad  condition.  On  July  26,  and  the  two  fol- 
lowing days,  marshals  Victor  and  Sebastiani  attacked  the  position  of 
the  allied  armies  before  Talavera.  The  attack  was  mainly  directed 
against  the  allied  left,  held  by  the  British,  and  especially  against 
a  height  occupied  by  general  Rowland  Hill :  the  Spaniards  on  the 
right  were  comparatively  safe,  from  the  nature  of  the  groond.  At 
one  time  the  British  centre  was  broken,  the  guards,  after  repulsing 
the  French,  having  got  into  disorder  by  pursuing  them  too  far ;  but 
the  advance  of  the  enemy  was  arrested  by  the  48th  regiment.  On 
the  evening  of  the  28th  all  firing  ceased,  both  armies  retaining  their 
original  position;  but  in  the  night  the  French  retreated  over  the 
Alberche.  This  was  one  of  the  most  bloody  and  best  contested 
battles  in  the  Peninsular  war.  The  French  lost  7000  men  killed 
and  wounded ;  the  British  upwards  of  6000.  This  victory  gained 
Wellesley  the  title  of  viscount  Wellington  of  Talavera.  The  British, 
however,  were  not  in  a  condition  to  penetrate  further.  The  French, 
who  had  200,000  men  dispersed  in  Spain,  were  gathering  round  them 
from  all  sides,  and  early  in  August,  besides  Victor  and  Sebastiani, 
marshals  Soult,  Ney,  Mortier,  Kellermnnn,  and  king  Joseph  himself, 
were  in  Estremadura.  The  English  general  retired  into  Portugal 
by  Truzillo  and  Badajoz  ;  and  sir  Kobert  Wilson,  who  at  the  head  of 
a  light  corps  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  had  pushed  on  as  far  as 
Madrid,  also  returned.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  the  French  had 
virtually  annihilated  the  Spanish  forces,  and  lord  Wellington  now 
concentrated  his  attention  on  the  defence  of  Portugal,  fixing  his 
head-quarters  at  Viseu,  with  advanced  posts  towards  Ciudad  Rodrigo. 

§  13.  We  have  adverted  before  to  Napoleon's  sudden  abandonment 
of  the  pursuit  of  sir  John  Moore,  which  was  occasioned  by  a  breach 
with  Austria.  In  March,  1809,  the  emperor  Francis  declared  war 
against  him.  But  Napoleon,  a''t€r  inflicting  a  severe  defeat  upon  the 
archduke  Charles  at  Eckmiihl,  marched  rapidly  to  Vienna,  which  he 


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678  OEOBOE  m.  Ohap.  zxznL 

entered  with  little  lesistaiioe  (May  13).  He  had  still,  however,  to 
fight  the  hattle  of  Aspem,  near  Vienna,  in  which  he  may  be  nid 
to  have  been  defeated.  But  the  French  army  was  allowed  time  to 
recover  from  the  shock,  and  the  bloody  battle  of  Wagram  followed, 
which  laid  Austria  at  Napoleon's  feet  (July  5).  This  was  succeeded 
by  the  disgraceful  peace  of  Schonbrunn  (October  14),  which  sub- 
sequently led  to  the  marriage  of  Napoleon  with  the  arch-duchess 
Maria  Louisa  (April  2, 1810).  In  the  same  year  Napoleon  annexed 
the  States  of  the  Church  to  France,  and,  having  been  excom- 
municated by  Rus  YIL,  he  caused  that  pontiff  to  be  carried  off  to 
Savona. 

In  order  to  support  the  Austrian  struggle,  the  English  ministry 
resolved  to  divert  the  French  arms  by  an  expedition  to  the  Scheldt ; 
especially  as  Napoleon  was  attempting  to  convert  Antwerp  and 
Flushing  into  great  naval  depdts.  Before  the  end  of  July,  37  sail  of 
the  line  and  an  army  of  40,000  men  were  despatch^  \mder  a 
most  incompetent  leader — the  earl  of  Chatham,  Pitfs  elder  brother, 
assisted  by  rear-admiral  sir  Richard  Strachan.  The  opinion  of  tiie 
most  experienced  ofiQcers  was  for  a  eoup-<l&^main  on  Antwerp; 
instead  of  which,  a  fortnight  was  spent  in  reducing  Flushing, 
during  which  time  the  Scheldt  had  been  strongly  fortified,  and 
40,000  men  thrown  into  Antwerp.  The  enterprise  was  then 
abandoned  as  impracticable,  and  the  expedition  returned  home, 
leaving  about  16,000  men  in  possesmon  of  the  isle  of  Walcheren. 
These,  however,  began  rapidly  to  disappear,  from  the' effects  of  the 
fever  and  ague  common  on  that  imhealthy  coast,  and  in  a  short 
time  half  the  force  were  in  hospital  After  the  treaty  of  Schon- 
brunn, the  occupation  of  Walcheren  was  deemed  of  no  advantage 
and  towards  the  middle  of  November  it  was  evacuated,  the  harbour, 
arsenal,  and  magazines  of  Flushing  having  been  destroyed  as  fieu' 
as  possible.  Such  was  the  end  of  an  expedition  said  to  have  cost 
20  millions. 

Another  diversion  was  attempted  in  Calabria,  where  the  news  of 
Napoleon's  exconmiunication  had  excited  a  great  sensation  among 
the  people.  In  June  sir  J.  Stuart  again  crossed  over  from  Sicily, 
with  15,000  men,  while  sir  William  Hostess  squadron  and  flotillas 
of  gunboats  and  small  armed  vessels  operated  upon  the  coast.  Tlie 
French  retired  before  sir  J.  Stuart,  but  little  was  effected  besides 
the  dismantling  of  the  castles  of  Ischia  and  Procida.  In  the 
autumn  five  of  the  seven  Ionian  islands,  then  held  by  the  French, 
were  captured.  Santa  Maura  held  out  till  the  following  spring ; 
and  Corfu,  the  most  important  of  the  whole,  was  not  obtained  till 
1814,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  Ionian  republic,  under  an  T^ngliah 
protectorate,  by  Louis  XVIII. 


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A.D.  1809-1810.        MINISTERIAL   CHANGES.  679 

S  14.  A  feeling  of  jealousy  had  long  existed  between  Mr.  Canning 
and  lord  Castlereagh,  which  being  heightened  by  mutual  recrimina- 
tions after  the  failure  of  the  Walchercn  expedition,  a  duel  ensued, 
in  which  Canning  was  wounded  (September  21).  Both  had 
previously  resigned ;  and,  the  duke  of  Portland  dving  soon  after, 
the  ministry  seemed  tottering  to  its  fall.  Mr.  Perceval,  however, 
accepted  the  office  of  first  lord  of  the  treasxuy,  retaining  also  the 
exchequer ;  the  marquess  Wellesley,  our  representative  with  the 
Spanish  junta,  was  sent  for  and  became  foreign  secretary  in  place 
of  Canning ;  lord  Liverpool  was  tmnsferrcd  from  the  home  office  to 
lord  Castlereagh's  place,  with  lord  Palmerston  as  secretary  at  war ; 
the  right  honourable  Richard  Hyder  took  the  home  deimrtment. 

In  the  spring  of  1810  serious  riots  occurred  in  London.  John 
Gale  Jones  being  brought  to  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
charged  with  the  publication  of  a  placard  reflecting  on  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  house,  was  committed  to  Newgate  (February  21).  In 
defending  Jones  sir  Francis  Burdott  contended  that  by  his  com- 
mittal the  House  of  Commons  had  infringed  the  laws  of  the  land. 
Defeated  on  this  motion,  sir  Francis  pursued  the  same  argument  in 
Cvbhett's  Begister,  For  this  violation  of  the  privileges  of  the  house 
(March  t?rt),  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower.  On  his  way  thither 
the  mob  were  very  riotous ;  the  windows  of  several  unpopular  noble- 
men and  gentlemen  were  broken,  and  some  lives  were  lost.  On  the 
prorogation  of  parliament  sir  Francis  was  of  course  liberated ;  but 
he  diRai)pointed  the  populace  of  an  expected  ovation  by  returning 
home  by  water. 

In  the  Peninsula  the  Spaniards  had  been  beaten  at  every  point, 
and  the  junta  itself  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Cadiz,  which  in 
February,  1810,  was  invested  by  a  French  army.  A  British  force  of 
about  6000  men  had  been  thrown  into  that  place  to  assist  in  the 
defence,  and  the  English  fleet  kept  open  the  communication  by  sea ; 
but  the  blockade  was  not  raised  till  August,  1812.  After  the  peace 
with  Austria,  Napoleon  was  enabled  to  throw  lai^e  reinforcements 
into  Spain,  including  some  of  his  best  troops.  The  "  Army  of 
Portugal,"  comprising  90,000  men  under  Massena,  was  cantonwi  in 
Old  Castile  and  Leon.  Massena  promised  to  drive  the  English 
out  of  Portugal  in  three  months,  for  which  purpose  he  advanced 
with  a  force  of  more  than  60,000  men.  Lord  Wellington  had 
24,000  British  troops,  and  more  than  double  that  number  of  Portu- 
guese, who  made  much  better  soldiers  than  the  Spaniards;  but 
part  of  his  force  was  detiched  south  of  the  Tagus,  to  watch  Soult's 
Army  of  Andalusia  The  French  advanced  by  Ciudad  Rodrigoand 
Almeida,  which  they  took ;  and  Wellington  fell  back  u]Km  a  strong 
position  at  the  Sierra  de  Busaco,  near  Coinibra.  The  British  line,  ex- 


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680  aSOROB  m.  Chap.  xxzm. 

tending  nearly  eight  miles,  but  with  considerable  gaps,  was  attacked 
by  the  French  with  great  yigour  on  the  morning  of  September  27. 
They  were  repulsed,  however,  with  the  loss  of  5000  men;  and 
Massena,  instead  of  renewing  the  attempt,  seized  the  pass  <^ 
Boialva,  thus  opening  the  road  to  Coimbra  by  turning  the  British 
left.  Wellington  now  retired  upon  the  famous  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras,  nearly  30  miles  north  of  Lisbon,  a  position  which  his  eagle 
eye  had  marked  out  in  the  preceding  year.  These  lines  were  three- 
fold :  the  first  or  oatermost  ran  from  Alhandra  on  the  Tagus  to  the 
heights  of  Torres  Yedras,  and  thence  along  the  little  river  Zizambre 
to  the  sea ;  the  second  began  at  Quintilla,  iower  down  the  Tagus, 
and  ran,  at  a  distance  varying  fh>m  six  to  ten  miles  from  the 
former,  by  Bucellas  and  Montachique  to  the  mouth  of  the  little 
river  San  Lorenzo ;  the  third  or  innermost  was  merely  intended,  in 
case  of  need,  to  cover  the  embarkation  of  the  army  on  board  the 
fleet  in  the  Tagus.  The  streams  were  dammed  up  and  reservoirs 
formed,  so  that  the  ground  could  be  inundated  if  necessary.  The 
right  of  the  lines  was  covered  by  the  fleet  and  gunboats  in  the 
Tagus.  The  lines  were  fortified  with  breast- works,  abattis,  etc.,  and 
nearly  100  redoubts  or  forts,  mounting  upwards  of  600  guns.  Some 
of  them  were  capable  of  holding  several  hundred  men,  and  one 
required  a  garrison  of  3000.  Wellington  entered  these  lines 
on  October  10.  Massena  came  up  three  days  afterwards,  and  was 
filled  with  despair  at  the  sight.  After  viewing  them  about  a  month, 
he  retired  in  the  middle  of  November  into  winter  quarters,  without 
having  attempted  anything. 

Our  general  operations  this  year  were  not  unattended  with 
success.  An  attempt  of  the  French  upon  Sicily  was  repulsed  with 
great  loss.  By  the  end  of  the  year  they  had  been  deprived  of  all 
their  possessions  in  both  Indies.  The  Dutch  had  also  lost  most  of 
their  East  Indian  settlements,  and  in  the  following  year  the  re- 
mainder were  reduced.  On  the  continent,  however,  the  French 
empire  was  extended.  Napoleon,  having  deposed  his  intractable 
brother  Louis,  annexed  Holland  to  France ;  and,  the  German  coast 
up  to  Hamburg  being  afterwards  added,  the  French  empire  might  be 
said  to  reach  from  Naples  to  the  frontiers  of  Denmark,  embracing  a 
population  of  80  millions.  Nearly  all  the  rest  of  Europe  wots 
Napoleon's  allies ;  and  Bemadotte,  one  of  his  marshals,  had  been 
elected  crown  prince  of  Sweden.  Between  him  and  Napoleon,  how- 
ever, there  was  a  great  antipathy ;  and  when  the  former  came  next 
year  to  the  Swedish  crown,  he  adopted  Swedish  views,  condliated 
the  friendship  of  England,  and  ultimately  declared  against  his 
former  patron. 


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A.D.  1810-18H.     OPEBATIONS  IN  THE  PENINSULA.  681 


THE  RBGENCY. 

§  15.  At  home  the  scene  was  clouded  by  a  return  of  the  king's 
malady,  brought  on  perhaps  by  the  death  of  his  beloved  daughter, 
the  princess  Amelia  (November  2,  1810),  at  the  age  of  28.  Mr. 
Perceval  now  proposed  the  prince  of  Wales  as  regent,  under  the 
same  restrictions  with  regard  to  the  creation  of  peers,  and  the 
granting  of  offices,  as  those  laid  down  by  Pitt  in  1788.  The 
a/rangements  were  not  finally  completed  till  January,  1811. 
(Jeorge  III.  never  recovered,  and  the  regency  consequently  lasted 
till  his  death  in  1820.  At  first  it  was  anticipated  that  there  would 
be  a  change  of  ministry,  and  lords  Grey  and  Grenville  were  actually 
employed  to  draw  up  answers  to  the  addresses  of  parliament ;  but, 
being  disgusted  by  some  alterations  suggested  by  Sheridan,  they 
declined  any  further  interference,  and  the  old  ministry  was  re- 
tained. Shortly  after,  the  duke  of  York  was  reinstated  as  com- 
niander-in-chief. 

Early  in  1811,  Soult  invaded  Portugal  from  Andalusia,  in  order 
to  co-operate  with  Massena.  He  took  Olivenza  and  Badajoz 
(March  10) ;  but  by  this  time  Massena's  army  was  in  a  state  of 
sickness  and  disorganization,  and  he  was  obliged  to  commence  a 
retreat,  closely  followed  by  the  English.  His  march  was  first 
directed  on  Coimbra  and  Oporto ;  but  his  attempt  to  pass  the  Mon- 
dego  at  the  former  place  being  repulsed,  he  retreated  up  the  left 
bank  of  that  river,  much  harassed  by  the  British.  The  French 
committed  the  most  horrible  cruelties  and  devastations  in  their 
retreat.  The  absence  of  several  general  officers,  who  had  returned 
to  England  on  pretence  of  private  business,  was  bitterly  reflected 
on  in  the  English  newspapers,  and  occasioned  no  small  concern  to 
Wellington. 

The  draughts  made  by  Soult  for  Portugal  having  reduced  the 
French  army  blockading  Cadiz  to  16,000  men,  general  Graham 
(afterwards  lord  Lynedoch),  with  about  4000  men,  partly  Portu- 
guese, proceeded  by  sea  to  Alge9iras,  in  the  bay  of  Gibraltar ;  and, 
having  been  joined  at  Tarifa  by  7000  Spaniards,  marched  by  way 
of  Medina  Sidonia  towards  the  French  position,  with  the  view  of 
taking  them  in  the  rear.  Graham  had  expected  that  the  Spaniards 
would  have  held  the  heights  of  Barrosa ;  but  when  he  arrived  there, 
he  found  them  occupied  by  marshal  Victor  with  8000  men  and  a 
fonnidable  artillery.  With  his  small  division  Graham  carried  them 
at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  in  little  more  than  an  hour,  with  great 
loss,  indeed,  though  almost  twice  as  great  on  the  side  of  the  French. 
But,  faiiing  of  support  from  the  Spaniards,  he  was  unable  to  follow 
up  his  victory,  and  the  whole  enterprise  led  to  no  result  (March 
5, 1811). 


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QEORGE  III.  GuAi'.  xxxiii. 

Towards  the  end  of  April,  Massena,  who  had  received  reinfurce- 
ments  which  swelled  his  arniy  to  40,000  foot  and  5000  horse,  re- 
entered Portugal  with  the  view  of  relieving  the  fortress  of  Almeida. 
Wellington  marched  to  oppose  him  with  32,000  foot  and  1200 
horse.  They  met  at  Fnentes  de  Onoro,  on  the  evening  of  May  3 : 
a  fierce  struggle  ensued  for  the  possession  of  the  place,  and  ulti- 
mately the  French  were  driven  out.  Early  on  the  morning  of  the 
5th,  Massena  vigorously  renewed  the  attack,  which  was  kept  up  till 
evening,  when  the  French  retired  with  great  loss.  A  few  days 
after  they  evacuated  Almeida.  Napoleon  was  so  dissatisfied  vnXh 
Massena,  that  he  superseded  him  in  the  command  hy  general  Mar- 
mont.  Marmont,  however,  could  do  no  better  than  his  predecessor, 
and  retired  to  Salamanca. 

On  May  16,  a  memorable  battle  was  fought  at  Albuera  between 
marshal  Beresford,  who  was  besieging  Badajoz,  and  Soult,  who  had 
marched  to  its  relief.  Soult  had  about  23,000  men  and  50  guns ; 
Beresford  had  27,000 ;  but  of  these  more  than  a  third  wore  Span- 
iards, who  fied  at  the  first  attack,  and  left  the  centre,  where  the 
British  were  posted,  exix)8ed  to  all  the  fury  of  the  French  assault 
The  victory  fell  to  Beresford  after  six  hours  of  desperate  fighting ; 
but  of  6000  British  who  contended  mth  the  French  columns  for 
the  ridge  of  Albuera,  only  about  1600  were  left  unwounded.  The 
French  lost  9000  men.  As  Beresford  was  reinforced  a  day  or  two 
after  with  1500  English,  Soult  did  not  think  fit  to  renew  the  attack, 
but  retreated  towards  Seville.  On  the  19th,  Wellington  arrived 
with  two  fresh  divisions,  and  the  siege  of  Badajoz  was  resumed 
(May  25).  But  a  large  French  force  approaching,  the  si^e  was 
abandoned  after  two  unsuccessful  assaults,  and  Wellington  fell  back 
on  Campo  Mayor  (June  10).  A  little  after,  the  successes  of  general 
Hill  obliged  the  French  to  evacuate  the  greater  part  of  Estremadura. 
But  in  the  eastern  provinces  of  Spain  they  were  everywhere 
triiunphant. 

§  16.  The  beginning  of  1812  was  marked  by  ministerial  changes. 
The  marquess  Wellesley  resigned,  objecting  to  serve  under  Mr. 
Perceval,  and  lord  Castlereagh  occupied  his  place  as  foreign  secre- 
tary. Shortly  afterwards  Perceval  was  shot  in  the  lobby  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  about  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  May  11, 
by  one  Bellingham,  a  Liverpool  broker,  whose  petitions  had  been 
rejected.  The  assassin  was  convicted  and  hanged  within  a  week. 
Upon  this  event  all  the  ministers  tendered  their'  resignations.  A 
fruitless  attempt  was  made  to  construct  a  whig  cabinet.  Lord 
Liverpool  now  became  premier,  with  Mr.  Vansittart  as  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer.  The  financial  measures  of  Perceval  were  adopted, 
and  it  was  resolved  to  push  the  war  with  vigour. 


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A.D.  181S.  BATTLE  OF  SALAMANCA.  68S 

Wellington  had  opened  the  campaign  in  the  Peninsula  with  the 
capture  of  Ciudad  Bodrigo,  after  less  than  a  fortnight's  siege 
(January  19, 1812).  The  Spaniards  now  6r8t  hegan  to  appreciate 
his  genius :  the  Cortes  voted  him  their  thanks,  and  the  title  of  duke 
of  Ciudad  Rodri^o.  The  English  )>arliament  granted  him  an 
annuity  of  2000^.,  to  he  annexed  to  the  earldom  to  which  he  was 
now  raised.  Shortly  after  Badajoz  was  again  invested  (March  16), 
and  was  carried  (April  6)  with  a  terrible  slaughter.  Soult,  who  was 
advancing  to  its  relief,  now  again  retreated  towards  Seville,  pursued 
by  the  British,  who  overtook  and  routed  his  rear-guard  at  Villa 
(>arcia.  General  Hill  having  by  a  masterly  movement  cut  off  the 
communication  between  Soult  and  Marmont,  by  seizing  Almarez 
(May  19),  which  covered  the  passage  of  the  Tagus,  Wellington,  no 
longer  reduced  to  the  defensive,  prepared  to  advance  into  Spain. 
He  had  now  40,000  men,  but  one  division  consisted  of  Spaniards. 
Marmont  had  about  f)0,000,  and  was  much  superior  in  cavalry  and 
artillery,  yet  he  evacuated  Salamanca  when  Wellington  appeared 
before  it  (June  16).  As  an  instance  of  the  barbarous  manner  in 
which  the  French  conducted  the  war  in  Spain,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  during  their  occupation  of  this  celebrated  university  town  they 
had  destroyed  22  out  of  its  25  colleges.  In  July  both  armies  were 
facing  each  other  on  the  banks  of  the  Guareiia.  On  the  20th, 
Marmont,  who  had  been  reinforced,  put  his  army  in  motion  to 
regain  the  banks  of  the  Tonnes,  and  cut  off  Wellington's  communi- 
cation with  Salamanca.  Wellington  immediately  started  after  him, 
the  two  armies  moving  in  parallel  columns  within  sight  of  each 
other,  yet  refraining  from  all  hostilities,  except  the  occasional 
exchange  of  a  cannon-shot.  It  was  a  sort  of  race  which  should 
arrive  first  at  the  Tormes.  The  armies  crossed  that  river,  the 
British  at  the  bridge  of  Salamanca,  the  French  at  the  fords  higher 
up ;  and  both  t<x>k  up  positions  on  the  south  bank.  On  the  22nd, 
Marmont  having  too  much  extended  and  weakened  his  left,  Wel- 
lington took  advantage  of  the  error  and  completely  defeated  him. 
Wellington  in  his  despatch  calculates  the  French  loss  at  from 
17,000  to  20,000  men,  and  says  it  was  admitted  that  their  whole 
army  would  have  been  in  his  hands  bad  there  been  an  hour  more 
daylight  Marmont  himself  was  wounded  by  a  shell.  The  French, 
now  under  general  Clausel,  fled  precipitately  to  Valladolid,  which 
they  abandoned  on  the  approach  of  the  British.  Hearing  that  king 
Joseph,  with  20,000  men,  was  threatening  his  flank  and  rear.  Weir 
lington,  leaving  a  force  on  the  Duero  to  watch  Clausel,  turned  upon 
him,  pursued  him  on  the  road  to  Madrid  through  San  Ildefonso,  and 
entered  the  Spanish  capital  (August  14),  the  French  and  their 
Spanish  partisans  hurrying  from  it  In  the  greatest  haste.    On  tlie 


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684  GEORGE  111.  Chap,  xxxni 

14th  the  French  garrison  in  the  Hetiro  palace  surrendered,  when  180 
guns,  20,000  stand  of  arm'<,  and  an  immense  quantity  of  warlike 
stores,  were  captured. 

One  of  the  first  results  of  the  h\\  of  the  capital  was  that  Soult 
abandoned  the  blockade  of  Cadiz  and  retired  to  Granada ;  but  Wel- 
lington soon  found  that  it  would  be  impossible  with  his  small  force 
to  bold  an  open  town  like  Madrid  in  the  presence  of  the  large  and 
well-disciplined  French  armies  both  in  the  north  and  south  of 
Si  ain,  and  he  retired  on  Salamanca,  and  subsequently  went  into 
winter  quarters  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo. 

§  17.  During  our  arduous  struggle  with  the  French,  the  Americans 
had  displayed  an  unfriendly  disposition  towards  this  country.  They 
were  incensed  at  our  exercise  of  the  right  of  search,  which  had  been 
forced  upon  us  by  the  Berlin  Decree,  and  they  insisted  on  the  doctrine 
that  the  neutral  flag  makes  free  goods.  In  1811  Napoleon  released 
the  Americans  from  the  observance  of  the  Berlin  and  Mi  Ian  decrees ; 
and  in  the  same  year  the  Americans  passed  against  us  a  non«-inter- 
course  act,  by  which  all  British  goods  arriving  in  America  were  to 
be  seized,  unless  we  recalled  the  obnoxious  orders  in  council  before 
alluded  to.  These  were  revoked  in  favour  of  America  in  June,  1812, 
although  we  had  been  already  subjected  to  many  insults  from  the 
Americans,  which  we  had  disregarded.  But  the  concession  came 
too  late :  the  Americans  had  declared  war  a  few  days  previously. 
They  had  long  been  making  preparations  tor  a  struggle  which 
promised  to  be  profitable  to  them  ;  and  they  immediately  despatched 
to  Canada  a  body  of  2500  men  under  general  Hull.  Proclamations 
were  issued  inviting  the  Canadians  to  throw  off  the  British  yoke ; 
but  they  remained  faithful,  and  the  military  measures  adopte  1  by 
general  Brock  were  so  judicious  that  in  less  than  two  months  Hull 
was  obliged  to  capitulate.  A  second  attempt  under  general  Wads- 
worth  was  repulsed  with  great  loss.  At  sea  tJie  Americans  succeeded 
in  capturing  some  of  our  frigates,  owing  to  their  own  being  much 
more  heavily  armed. 

Meanwhile  that  breach  between  France  and  Russia  had  occurred, 
which  ultimately  proved  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  Napoleon's  down- 
fall. Both  Russia  and  Sweden  had  declined  to  carry  out  the  Berlin 
Decree;  and  in  March,  1812, a  treaty  was  concluded  between  those 
powers,  in  consequence  of  which  Napoleon  made  active  preparations 
for  war.  Before  entering  on  it,  he  was  willing  to  patch  up  a  peace 
with  England,  and  was  ready  to  make  large  concessions  ;  but,  as  be 
still  demanded  Spain  for  his  brother  Joseph,  his  proposals  were  not 
entertained.  Napoleon  then  undertook  his  disastrous  expedition  into 
Russia.  The  burning  of  Moscow,  which  he  entered  on  September 
15,  forced  him  to  a  retreat,  during  which  the  greater  part  of  his  Tast 


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AA  1818.  BATTLE  OF  VITTOBIA.  685 

host  was  annihilated  either  hy  the  InolemeQcy  of  the  weather  or  the 
sword  of  the  enemy.  Napoleon,  abandoning  his  army  to  its  fate, 
travelled  post-haste  to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  (December  18) 
thoroughly  beaten  and  discomfited.  During  the  summer  a  treaty 
was  concluded  between  England  and  Sweden,  and  subsequently 
between  England  and  Russia;  and  when  the  British  parliament 
assembled  in  November,  a  grant  of  200,0002.  was  voted  for  the  relief 
of  the  sufferers  in  Russia,  in  addition  to  a  large  amount  raised  by 
private  subscription.  The  parliament  also  voted  100,0002.  to  lord 
Wellington. 

§  18.  The  French  reverses  not  only  prevented  Napoleon  from 
sending  reinforcements  into  Spain,  but  obliged  him  to  recal  marshal 
Soult  and  20,000  men  from  that  country,  to  oppose  the  advance 
of  the  Russians.  Thus  a  brighter  prospect  was  opened  to  the 
British  arms  in  the  Peninsula.  The  Spanish  provisional  govern- 
ment, throwing  aside  its  ridiculous  pride,  made  Wellington 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Spanish  forces,  which  were  little  better 
than  an  undisciplined  rabble.  Their  greatest  service  was  in  guerrilla 
warfare.  The  whole  force  on  which  Wellington  could  rely  was 
under  70,000  British  and  Portuguese,  of  which  about  6000  were 
cavalry.  On  May  6,  1813,  he  entered  Spain  in  three  divisions,  the 
centre  being  led  by  himself,  the  right  by  sir  Ifowland  Hill,  the  left 
by  sir  Thomas  Graham.  The  advance  was  made,  by  Yalladolid, 
the  French  retreating  before  him,  till  they  took  up  a  string  position 
in  front  of  Yittoria.  Yittoria  was  attacked  (June  21),  and  carried 
after  an  obstinate  resistance,  the  French  being  driven  through  the 
town,  and  pursued  till  it  grew  dark.  The  whole  of  the  French 
artillery,  baggage,  and  ammunition,  together  with  property  valued 
at  a  inillion  sterling,  was  captured  on  this  occasion;  and  king 
Joseph  himself  was  nearly  seized  by  a  party  of  the  10th  hussars. 
The  French  army  fled  in  the  greatest  disorder  to  Pampluna ;  but, 
as  that  place  would  evidently  have  to  sustain  a  siege  <ir  blockade, 
the  garrison  would  admit  none  of  their  countrymen  except  king 
Joseph.  The  remainder  of  the  fugitives  pursued  their  flight,  and 
did  not  rally  till  they  reached  the  Pyrenees.  Pampluna  and  San 
Sebastian  were  soon  invested  by  the  allies,  and  the  passes  of  the 
Pyrenees  were  occupied  fix>m  Roncesvalles  to  Irun,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Bidassoa. 

Napoleon  now  sent  Soult,  with  the  title  of  "  lieutenant  of  the 
emperor,**  to  reorganize  the  defeated  army  and  defend  the  frontiera 
of  France.  The  former  commission  he  executed  with  great  promp- 
titude and  skill  at  St.  Jean  Pied  de  Port ;  the  latter  was  beyond 
his  power,  though  he  made  desperate  attempts,  and  even  succeeded 
in  regaininir  two  of  the  mountain  ])asi«es.  These  operations-  ex-  - 
81 


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688  QBOBOE  lU.  Chap.  xzxm. 

tended  from  July  24  to  August  2,  the  last  six  days  of  which  were 
one  continual  combat.  These  engagements  are  known  as  the 
**  Battles  of  the  Pyrenees.''  Soult  would  have  been  fairly  entangled 
and  surrounded  at  San  Estevan,  but  for  the  imprudence  of  three 
drunken  English  soldiers  who  were  surprised  near  his  quarters. 
His  army  suffered  severe  losses  in  that  terrible  pass.  He  now 
retired  behind  the  Bidassoa,  and  Wellington  halted  to  besiege  San 
Sebastian. 

On  August  31,  San  Sebastian  was  carried  by  assault,  but  with 
terrible  loss;  and  the  castle  surrendered  a  few  days  after.  Pamp- 
luna  held  out  till  October  31 ;  but  Wellington,  leaving  that  fortress 
invested,  crossed  the  Bidassoa  early  in  that  month  with  bis  left 
wing,  and  Soult  retreated  to  the  Nivelle.  Before  the  middle  of 
November  all  the  allied  army  was  on  French  ground.  Wellington 
had  issued  a  proclamation,  containing  the  strictest  injunctions  not 
to  molest  the  peaceable  inhabitants,  which  the  Spaniards  could  not 
be  brought  to  obey,  and  at  last  he  was  obliged  to  send  most  of 
them  back  over  the  frontier.  The  peasants  of  the  south  of  France, 
oppressed  by  the  conscription,  welcomed  the  English  as  deliverers. 
On  November  10,  the  French  position  on  the  Nivelle  was  forced. 
Soult  then  retired  to  his  entrenched  camp  at  Bayonne,  from  Avhich 
he  attacked  the  English  posts,  but  without  success.  The  allies 
then  went  for  a  few  weeks  into  winter  quarters. 

§  19.  The  whole  continent  had  now  risen  in  arms  against 
Napoleon.  During  his  disastrous  retreat  from  Russia,  the  em  perm 
Alexander  had  hung  upon  his  rear ;  and,  as  the  forces  of  Russia 
approached  the  west,  they  were  joined  by  the  Poles,  and  then  by  the 
Prussians.  A  sentiment  of  revenge  for  national  d^rada'ion  had  at 
length  aroused  the  latter.  The  news  of  Wellington's  glorious 
campaign  in  the  Peninsula  also  stimulated  the  Germans  to  resist- 
ance. Frederick  William  III.,  king  of  Prussia,  and  the  Czar  con- 
tracted an  allinnce  offensive  and  defensive  (March  1, 1813),  which 
was  ratified  at  Kalisch.  This  coalition,  being  the  sixth  against 
France,  was  joined  by  Great  Britain  (June  14).  Napoleon,  how- 
ever, was  still  superior  in  force  to  the  allies.  By  the  most  un- 
sparing conscription  he  had  raised  300,000  men,  half  of  whom  were 
desijatched  into  (Germany ;  but  they  were  raw  recruits,  necessarily 
much  inferior  to  those  by  whom  he  had  won  his  early  victories. 
He  gained  in  May  the  battles  of  Lutzen  and  Bautzen ;  but  they 
were  bloody,  and  led  to  little  result.  The  French  reoccupied 
Leipsic  and  Dresden,  and  an  armistice  was  agreed  upon,  from 
June  4  to  August  10,  to  give  time  for  negociations  mediated  by 
Austria.  Napoleon  refused  to  give  up  his  conquests  beyond  the 
Rhine ;  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  armistice  Austria  joined  the 


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A.D.  1818.  ABDICATION  OF  NAPOLEON.  087 

coalition  against  him^  although  the  emperor's  daughter  had  heen 
left  regent  of  France.  England  supplied  the  Prussians,  Hanoverians, 
and  Swedes,  with  money  and  stores.  Then  followed  the  battles  of 
Gross  Beeren,  Katzbach,  Dresden,  and  Dennewitz,  in  all  which  the 
French  were  defeated,  and  finally  the  crowning  battle  of  Leiixtic 
(October  lG-18),  called  by  the  Germans  the  Volkerschlarht,  or 
battle  of  the  nations,  from  the  numbers  engaged.  Napoleon  was 
completely  overthrown,  and  compelled  to  a  retreat  as  disastrous  as 
that  from  Moscow,  recrossing  the  Rhine  with  less  than  a  quarter  of 
the  enormous  army  he  had  collected  in  Qermany.  He  reached 
Paris  (November  9),  still  self-confident  and  presumptuous,  though 
beaten.  On  the  21st  of  December,  1813,  the  vanguard  of  the 
allied  armies  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  the  war  was  carried  into 
France. 

On  February  21, 1814,  Wellington  again  took  the  field,  and  Soult 
retired  before  him  across  the  Ghtve  d'016ron.  On  the  27th,  he  was 
defeated  at  Orthez  with  great  loss,  and  Wellington  pushed  on  to 
the  Adour,  directing  sir  John  Hope  to  invest  Bayonne,  and  marshal 
Bcresford  to  occupy  Bordeaux.  On  his  arrival  the  mayor  and 
citizens  proclaimed  Louis  XVIIL  of  their  own  accord,  for  Welling- 
ton studiously  avoided  all  interference  in  favour  of  the  Bourbons. 
Soult  now  retreated  u^ion  Toulouse  ;  and  Wellington,  who  reached 
that  city  on  March  27,  found  him  posted  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
broad  and  rapid  Garonne.  It  was  the  9th  of  April  before  the 
British  anny  could  be  conveyed  to  the  other  side,  and  on  the  10th, 
Easter  Sunday,  was  fought  the  bloody  battle  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  town.  The  force  of  Wellington  was  a  little  superior,  but 
Soult  was  much  stronger  in  artillery.  His  position  was  carried,  but 
with  considerable  loss,  and  on  the  night  of  the  11th  he  evacuated 
Toulouse  and  retreated  towards  Carcassone.  In  that  night  he 
marched  21  miles :  yet  some  French  writers  have  claimed  the  battle 
of  Toulouse  as  one  of  their  victories  I  Wellington  entered  Toulouse 
on  the  12th,  and  in  the  afternoon  he  received  intelligence  that 
Napoleon  had  abdicated  at  Fontoinebleau  six  days  before  the  battle. 
Soult  at  first  refused  to  acknowledge  the  provisional  government 
established  in  the  name  of  Louis  XVIIL ;  but  on  his  receiving 
further  intelligence,  a  convention  was  signed  on  the  18th.  On  the 
14  th,  general  Thouvenot,  though  apprized  of  the  state  of  afiairs  at 
Paris,  wantonly  made  a  night  s(dly  from  Bayonne,  in  which  a 
great  number  of  men  were  killed  and  wounded  on  both  sides. 

§  20.  All  February  and  March,  1814,  Napoleon  had  obstinately 
contested  with  far  inferior  forces  the  advance  of  the  allies  from  the 
Rhine,  displaying  all  his  great  qualities  as  a  general.  During  this 
campaign  a  congress  of  the  ministers  of  the  allied  powers  and  of 


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6b8  GEORGE  IIL  Chap,  tttttt 

France  was  held  at  Ch&tillon-STir-Seine,  England  being  represented 
by  lord  Castlereagh.  They  offered  those  boundaries  which  France 
pretended  to  claim  as  her  natural  limits — the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps, 
and  the  Rhine ;  but  to  these  proposals  Napoleon  refused  to  accede 
till  too  late.  Of  this  campaign  it  will  suffice  to  say,  that  aft^ 
several  battles  the  emperor  Alexander  and  the  king  of  Prussia 
entered  Paris  (Mnrch  tU).  The  allied  sovereigns  now  refused  to 
treat  with  Napoleon,  who  had  retired  to  Fontainebleau.  He  was 
compelled  to  abdicate  (April  4),  and  a  provisional  government  was 
formed  to  effect  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  At  the  instance 
of  the  emperor  Alexander,  Napoleon  was  allowed  to  retain  his 
imperial  title,  the  isle  of  Elba  was  assigned  as  his  dominion, 
and  he  was  to  receive  from  France  a  pension  of  six  million  francs. 
England  was  no  party  to  this  treaty,  but  afterwards  assented  to  it. 
Louis  XYIII.,  who  during  hb  exile  had  resided  in  England,  entered 
Paris  in  state  (May  3),  and  on  the  30th  he  signed  with  Great 
Britain,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  a  treaty  of  peace  and  alliance, 
by  which  the  French  boundaries,  with  some  additions,  were  deter- 
mined and  secured  as  they  existed  in  1792.  The  possession  of 
Malta  and  its  dependencies  was  confirmed  to  England  :  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  had  been  secured  by  a  previous  treaty  with  Holland; 
but  all  the  Dutch  East  India  colonies,  except  Ceylon,  were  restored. 
All  the  colonies  possessed  by  France  in  1792  were  also  restored, 
except  Tobago,  St.  Lucie,  and  the  Isle  of  France;  and  several 
islands  and  colonies  were  likewise  given  back  to  Spain.  Hanover 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  kingdom,  with  the  succession  in  the 
male  line  only.  In  June  the  allied  armies  evacuated  Paris.  The 
emperor  Alexander,  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  many  of  their  most 
di8tins;uished  generals  and  nobility,  tlen  visited  England,  when 
there  was  a  solemn  thanksgiving  in  St.  Paul's,  and  a  series  of  grand 
fetes  and  entertainments. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  advance  of  the  allies  upon  Paris,  an 
English  force  under  sir  Thomas  Graham,  which  was  afterwards 
joined  by  Bernadotte  and  his  Swedes,  had  been  engaged  in  reducing 
Holland,  and  the  English  suffered  severely  in  attempting  to  storm 
the  formidable  fortress  of  Bergen-op-Zoom  (March  10).  By  the 
peace  of  Paris,  Belgium  was  incorporated  with  Holland,  and  formed 
the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  Lord  William  Bentinck,  with  an 
AnRlo-Sicilian  force,  assisted  by  a  squadron  under  sir  Edward 
Pellew,  succeeded  in  reducing  Genoa,  which  was  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Sardinia.  Pius  VII.  was  restored  to  the  papal  throne ; 
and  Lombardy,  with  the  addition  of  Venire  and  several  other 
places,  was  made  over  to  Austria,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  viceix^, 
Eugene  Beanhamais.    Bentinck  appears  to  have  exceeded  his  powers 


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A,D.  1813-1816.       THE  WAR   WITH   AMERICA.  089 

in  proclaiming  the  independence  of  C^noa,  and  thus  exciting 
hopes  which  could  not  be  realized.  Ferdinand  VII.  had  already 
been  restored  to  the  throne  of  Spain  by  Napoleon,  without  the 
exaction  of  any  pledge.  Soon  after,  the  duke  of  Wellington,  for 
such  he  had  now  been  created,  arrived  at  Madrid  to  mediate  be- 
tween the  contending  pa'ties;  and  he  advised  Ferdinand  to  grant 
the  Spaniards  a  constitution,  and  to  rule  with  liberality  and  modera- 
tion.  On  his  return  home  the  duke  received  the  thanks  of  both 
houses,  and  a  sum  of  500,0002.  was  voted  to  him  for  an  estate. 

§  21.  Our  war  with  America  during  this  period  presented 
features  of  little  interest.  Instructed  by  the  events  of  1812,  the 
English  government  sent  oat  a  more  powerful  class  of  frigates,  and 
lienceforward  the  engagements  terminated  for  the  most  part  in 
favour  of  the  British.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  was  that  be- 
tween the  Shannon  and  Chesapeake,  a  British  and  an  American 
frigate,  of  which  the  latter  was  considerably  superior  in  weight  of 
metal.  Captain  Broke  of  the  Shannon  sent  a  challenge  to  the 
Chesaj  eahe  in  Boston  harbour,  and  a  battle  was  fought  (June  1, 
1813),  when,  after  an  action  of  fifteen  minutes,  captain  Broke 
boarded  the  Chesapeake,  and  carried  her  oJBT  in  sight  of  the  dis- 
appointed Americans.    (Supplement  Note  XXXI.) 

In  1813  and  1814  the  Americans  renewed  their  attempts  upon 
Canada,  bat  without  success,  and  it  is  calculated  that  their  three 
invasions  cost  them  50,000  men.  Meanwhile  our  squadrons 
ravaged  the  American  coast,  the  lighter  vessels  penetrating  up  the 
rivers  and  inflicting  considerable  damage.  In  1814  the  British  in 
America  were  reinforced  with  some  of  the  veterans  of  the  Peninsula. 
On  August  24  general  Ross,  with  only  1600  men,  dispersed  in  half 
an  hour  about  8000  Americans  posted  on  some  heights  near  the 
river  Potomac,  entered  Washington,  the  capital  of  the  Union,  and 
burnt  the  Senate-house,  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  Capitol, 
the  president's  residence,  the  arsenal,  dockyards,  and  other  public 
buildings.  Several  other  American  towns  were  taken ;  but  an 
attack  upon  Baltimore  was  repulsed  with  great  loss,  including  the 
death  of  general  Ross  (September  13)  ;  and  an  attempt  upon  New 
Orleans  (January,  1815)  was  still  more  unfortunate.  After  the  abdi- 
cation of  Napoleon  the  Americans  began  to  think  of  peace,  and  a 
treaty  was  signed  at  Ghent  (December  '24,  1814).  Both  parties 
agreed  to  use  their  endeavours  to  suppress  the  slave-trade. 

§  22.  In  January,  1815,  a  congress  of  eight  of  the  principal  Euro- 
pean powers  assembled  at  Vienna  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  Europe ; 
but  they  had  not  proceeded  far  in  their  labours  wher.  they  were 
astoxmded  with  the  intelligence  that  Bonaparte  had  e8cape<l  from 
Elba.     He  landed  at  Cannes  (March  1)  with  1000  men,  and  the 


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690  GEOBGB  m.  Chap,  zxxhl 

troops  sent  ngainBt  Him  joined  Mb  standard  as  he  advanced.  On 
the  night  of  March  19  Louis  XYIIL  fled  to  lille,  and  on  the 
following  night  Napoleon  entered  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries.  The 
congress  at  Vienna  declared  him  an  outlaw  and  violator  of  the 
common  peace,  devoted  him  to  public  vengeance,  and  agreed  to 
xmite  for  the  maintenance  of  the  treaty  of  Paris.  The  duke  of 
Wellington,  who  was  present  at  the  congress,  was  consulted  as  to 
the  conduct  of  the  war.  The  duke  imjH^ssed  upon  the  English 
ministry  the  necessity,  even  on  the  ground  of  economy,  of  making 
a  grand  effort  to  crush  the  enemy  at  once.  Both  the  ministry  and 
the  parliament  were  impressed  with  the  soundness  of  this  advice. 
The  budget  of  the  year  was  raised  to  the  enormous  sum  of  ninety 
millions,  a  considerable  part  of  which  went  to  subsidize  the  con- 
tinental nations ;  and  the  duke  proceeded  to  Belgium  to  prepare  for 
the  expected  campaign. 

Napoleon  crossed  the  Belgian  frontier  (June  14)  with  about 
100,000  infantry,  25,000  cavahry,  and  360  pieces  of  artillery; 
and  advanced  by  Charleroi.  Wellington  lay  at  Brussels  with  about 
76,000  men,  not  half  of  whom  w^^  British,  and  some  84  guns ; 
Bliicher  being  at  some  distance  on  his  left,  with  80,000  Prussians  and 
200  guns ;  and  when  Wellington  had  ascertained  the  real  point  of 
attack,  he  made  the  pcoper  dispositions  to  meet  it.  On  the  15th 
marshal  Ney  advanced  beyond  Charleroi  on  the  road  to  Brussels, 
driving  back  from  Quatre  Bras  an  advanced  brigade  of  the  Army  of 
the  Netherlands  under  the  prince  of  Weunar.  The  position  was, 
however,  recovered  by  the  prince  of  Orange ;  and  on  the  next  day, 
general  Picton  having  arrived  with  the  5th  division  and  some 
Germans  under  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  Ney  was  repulsed  from 
Quatre  Bras,  though  his  force  was  nearly  double  that  of  the  allies. 
Meanwhile,  on  the  same  day,  Napoleon  with  his  main  body  had 
attacked  the  Prussians  at  Ligny  and  St.  Aroand,  in  front  of  their 
head-quarters  at  Sombref,  had  driven  Bliicher  back  with  great  loss, 
and  compelled  him  to  retreat  to  Wavre.  But  so  little  aware  was  he  of 
his  victory,  that  it  was  not  till  noon  on  the  17th  that  he  despatched 
Grouchy,  with  a  corps  of  32,000  men,  in  pursuit  of  the  Prussians. 

Bliicher*s  retrograde  movement  necessitated  a  similar  one  on  the 
part  of  Wellington,  In  order  to  keep  up  the  communication  between 
the  allied  armies.  On  the  17th  he  made  a  leisurely  retreat,  undis- 
turbed except  by  a  few  cavalry  skirmishes,  to  the  position  of  Mont 
St.  Jean,  two  miles  in  front  of  Waterloo,  which  he  had  previously 
selected  for  a  battle-field.  In  the  course  of  the  same  day  Napoleon 
formed  a  junction  with  Ney,  when  their  united  forces  amounted  to 
about  78,000  men.  The  night  was  stormy,  with  thunder,  rain,  and 
wind;  the  following  morning  (Sunday,  June  18)  opened  heavily 


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kJ>.  1815.  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO.  691 

but  the  rain  had  ceased.  Wellington  occupied  a  podtdon  extending 
from  a  ravine  near  Merke  Braine  on  the  right  to  the  hamlet  of  Ter 
la  Haye  on  the  left ;  on  which  side  the  communication  was  open  with 
BlUcher  at  Wavre,  through  Chain.  In  front  of  his  right  centre  was 
the  ch&teau  of  Hougoumont,  in  front  of  his  left  centre  the  farm- 
house of  La  Haye  Sainte,  both  occupied  by  our  troops.  In  the  rear 
of  the  British  centre  was  the  farmhouse  of  Mont  St.  Jean,  and 
still  further  back  the  village  of  the  same  name.  The  French  occu- 
pied some  heights  in  front  of  Wellington's  position,  and  about  a 
mile  distant ;  their  right  being  before  the  village  of  Planchenois, 
and  occupying  the  farm  of  La  Belle  Alliance,  whilst  their  left  rested 
on  the  Genappe  road.  It  was  the  first  time  that  Napoleon  had 
come  into  contact  with  British  troops.  He  was  full  of  confidence, 
and  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  *'  Enfin  je  vais  me  m^urer  avec  ce 
•Vilainton.''  About  ten  o'clock  the  French  line  was  observed  to  be 
in  motion,  and  soon  a  violent  attack  was  made  on  Hongoumont, 
defended  by  a  brigade  of  the  guards,  who  held  it  throughout  the  day. 
The  French  succeeded  better  at  La  Haye  Sainte,  though  it  was 
bravely  defended  by  some  of  the  Oerman  Legion,  who  were  all  slain ; 
but  the  post  was  afterwards  recovered.  In  other  parts  of  the  line 
repeated  attacks  were  made  by  heavy  columns  of  French  infantry, 
but  without  success,  and  Napoleon  then  had  recourse  to  some  despe- 
rate charges  of  cavalry,  which  weie  repulsed  by  the  British  infantry 
formed  in  squares.  To  put  an  end  to  this,  Wellington  ordered  an 
advance  of  the  brigade  of  heavy  cavalry  under  lord  Edward  Somerset, 
consisting  of  the  life  guards,  horse  guards,  and  Ist  dragoon  guards, 
who  completely  rode  down  and  dispersed  the  French  cuirassiers, 
2000  of  them  being  made  prisoners  in  this  charge.  At  seven  o'clock 
in  the  evening  the  British  line  retained  its  original  position  ;  when 
Bulow's  corps  of  Prussians,  which  had  arrived  at  Planchenois  and 
La  Belle  Alliance,  began  to  engage  the  French  right.  Napoleon's 
chances  were  now  growing  desperate,  and  as  a  last  effort  he  ordered 
the  advance  of  his  magnificent  Old  Guard  agamst  the  British 
position.  He  led  the  advance  some  way  himself,  and  then  took 
shelter  behind  some  rising  ground,  leaving  Ney,  "  the  bravest  of 
the  brave,"  to  head  the  charge.  The  guard  advanced  up  the  gently 
sloping  ndge  in  two  dark  and  threatening  columns,  galhd  by  a 
flank  fire  from  the  British  light  division.  At  the  top  ot  that  ridge 
the  British  guards  were  lying  down  to  avoid  the  fire  of  the  French 
artillery ;  but,  as  the  French  columns  approached,  they  sprang  up 
and,  at  the  distance  of  about  50  yards,  delivered  a  terrible  volley 
into  the  French  ranks,  as  they  were  attempting  to  deploy  into 
line.  Their  columns  shook  and  wavered,  a  charge  was  ordered,  anO 
the  Old  Guard  was  hurled  down  the  hill  in  one  mingled  mass  with 


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692  GEOBGE  IIL  Cbap.  xzzm. 

their  conquerors.  The  sight  of  this  repulse  threw  the  whole  French 
line  into  confusion  and  dismay :  Napoleon  gallopped  to  the  rear,  and 
Wellington,  availing  himself  of  the  auspicious  moment,  ordered  a 
general  advaiice.  The  French  army  was  now  in  complete  rout; 
Wellington  and  Bllicher  met  at  a  house  called  La  Maison  Rouge, 
not  far  from  La  Belle  Alliance ;  and  the  pursuit  of  the  enemy  was 
left  to  the  Prussians,  who  were  comparatively  fresh.  Many  pri- 
soners were  made,  and  150  guns  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies. 
Napoleon  himself  narrowly  escaped  capture.  It  was  computed  that 
in  the  three  days'  engagements  and  in  the  retreat  the  French  lost 
30,000  men ;  and  when  the  remaining  fugitives  reached  the  French 
frontier,  the  greater  part  dispersed,  never  to  meet  again  But  the 
loss  of  the  allies  was  also  enormous.  It  is  estimated  that  nearly 
half  the  men  actually  engaged  were  either  killed  or  wounded. 
Among  the  killed  were  general  Rcton  and  general  sir  William 
Ponsonby ;  among  the  wounded,  the  earl  of  Uxbridge  (afterwards 
marquess  of  Anglesey),  general  Cooke,  general  Halkett,  colonel 
Fitzroy  Somerset  (afterwards  Lord  Raglan),  and  others.  The  prince 
of  Orange  was  also  wounded.  The  duke  of  Brunswick  had  fallen 
at  Quatre  Bras,  at  the  head  of  his  black  hussars. 

§  23.  'llie  allies  now  advanced  upon  Paris,  which  the  remains  of 
the  grand  army  evacuated  (July  6),  and  the  allies  took  possession. 
Blucber  wished  to  pull  down  the  colunm  in  the  Place  Venddme, 
blow  up  the  bridge  of  Jena,  and  levy  100  million  francs  on  the 
city;  but  on  all  these  points  he  ultimately  yielded  to  the  more 
moderate  counsels  of  Wellington.  Napoleon  had  abdicated  (June 
22)  in  favour  of  his  young  son.  Napoleon  II. ;  but  the  allies  would 
be  content  with  nothing  less  than  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons, 
and  Louis  XVIII.,  who  had  re-entered  Paris  with  the  allies,  quietly 
resumed  the  government. 

Meanwhile  Napoleon,  distracted  by  uncertainty,  now  thinking  of 
joining  the  remains  of  his  army  beyond  the  Loire,  and  now  of  flying 
to  America,  arrived  at  Rochefort  (July  3).  But  finding  all  hope  of 
escape  cut  off  by  the  numerous  British  cruisers,  he  surrendered 
himself  to  captain  Maitland,  ou  board  the  Bdlerophon^  an  English 
ship  of  the  line,  which  happened  to  be  in  the  roads.  He  had 
previously  written  to  the  prince  regent,  claiming  the  protection  of 
the  British  people,  and  comparing  himself  to  Themistocles  when  he 
sought  the  hospitality  of  Admetus.  Captain  Maitland  gave  him 
to  understand  that  he  could  make  no  promises  as  to  his  recep- 
tion, and  could  only  undertake  to  convey  him  safely  to  England. 
Maitland  was  ordered  to  proceed  to  Plymouth  Sound,  and  allow 
no  communication  with  the  shore.  The  resolution  of  the  allies 
was   communicated  to  Napoleon  (July  31),  and  on  August  7 


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▲J>.  1815-1816.      DlSnULJS  AND  DISCONTENT.  698 

he  was  put  on  board  the  Narthumberiand,  the  flag-chip  of  admiral 
sir  G.  Cockbum,  and  conyeyed  to  the  island  of  St.  Helena.  Hen  < 
he  lingered  till  his  death  (Bfay  5,  1821).  He  was  incontestablj 
the  greatest  general  of  modem  times,  and  had  taken  every  capital  of 
importance  in  Europe,  except  London  :  yet  he  was  deficient  in  the 
qualities  which  make  a  great  man,  and  especially  in  dignity  and 
fortitude  in  the  endurance  of  misfortune. 

The  second  peace  of  Paris,  or  definitive  treaty  between  France  and 
the  allied  powers,  was  signed  in  that  capital  on  November  20.  The 
settlement  of  Europe  was  arranged  by  the  congress  at  Vienna. 
The  emperor  of  Russia,  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  the  king  of 
Prussia  had  also  signed  what* they  called  the  "Holy  Alliance** — 
an  agreement  to  govern  on  Christian  principles ;  which  the  duke 
of  Wellington  wisely  declined  to  sign,  on  the  ground  that  it  was 
too  vague  (September  26). 

At  the  commencement  of  the  war  with  France  in  1793,  the 
English  funded  debt  had  been  a  little  under  240  miliinus.  In 
February,  1816,  the  unredeemed  debt,  funded  and  unfunded, 
amounted  to  nearly  900  millions,  entailing  an  annual  charge  of 
more  than  28  millions.  The  last  three  years  of  the  war  alone  had 
cost  the  country  very  nearly  200  millions. 

§  24.  The  triumph  of  the  nation  was  succeeded  by  a  reaction  of 
internal  distress  and  discontent.  During  the  war,  the  excitement 
of  national  feeling  and  the  natural  exultation  of  victory  had 
prevented  the  people  from  complaining,  and  it  was  not  till  the 
struggle  was  over  that  they  began  to  feel  the  burthens  occasioned 
by  it.  Trade  languished  from  the  exhaustion  of  the  continental 
nations,  and  their  consequent  inability  to  purchase  our  poods; 
while  through  unfavourable  seasons  the  price  of  wheat  rose  before 
the  end  of  1816  from  525.  to  upwards  of  100a.  a  quarter ;  and  the 
distress  was  augmented  by  the  corn-law  of  1815,  which  closed  the 
ports  to  the  importation  of  foreign  grain  till  the  price  of  wheat 
reached  8  ^8.  A  multitu<le  of  persons  were  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment through  the  depressed  state  of  trade,  and  their  numbers  were 
swelled  by  the  soldiers  and  sailors  discharged  at  the  termination  of 
the  war.  Thus  seditions  and  tumults  arose,  marked  in  the  agri- 
cultural districts  by  incendiary  fires,  in  the  manufacturing  towns 
by  the  breaking  of  those  ingenious  machines  by  which  human 
labour  has  been  to  a  great  extent  superseded.  The  subject  of 
parliamentary  reform,  previously  little  more  than  a  speculative 
question,  now  began  to  be  agitated  among  the  great  mass  of  the 
f  eople.  A  ramification  of  clubs,  called  Hampden  clubs,  was  estab- 
lished throughout  the  country,  that  of  London  being  presided  over 
by  sir  Francis  Burdett.  Other  leading  members  were  major  Cart- 
81« 


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694  OEOBOE  IIL  Ohaf.  zzzm. 

wright  and  the  demagogue  orator  Henry  Hunt.  Their  demand  for 
.  reform  embraced  aimual  parliaments  and  universal  suffrage ;  and  a 
report  of  a  secret  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  February, 
1817,  represented  these  clubs  as  meditating  nothing  short  of  a 
revolution.  In  the  preceding  December  dangerous  riots  had  taken 
place  in  Spa  Fields,  which  were  with  difficulty  put  down  through 
the  firmness  and  courage  of  sir  James  Shaw  and  of  the  lend  mayor. 

One  result  of  the  peace  was  the  suppression  of  the  Algerine  pirates. 
During  the  war  these  nests  of  robbers  had  been  connived  at ;  but 
in  1816  sir  Edward  Pellew  (lord  Exmouth)  proceeded  to  Algiers 
with  25  men-of-war,  besides  gunboats.  Being  joined  by  a  small 
Dutch  squadron  under  admiral  Van  Gapellan,  he  almost  com- 
pletely destroyed,  after  a  few  hours'  bombardment,  the  formidable 
fortificatioQs  of  Algiers  (August  27),  together  with  nine  Algerine 
frigates.  A  loss,  however,  of  818  officers  and  men  was  sustained 
by  the  British.  The  dey  of  Algiers  now  accepted  the  terms  dictated, 
and  1083  Christian  slaves,  prihcipally  Italians,  were  liberated. 

§  25.  The  general  feeling  of  discontent  among  the  lower  classes, 
and  an  outrage  committed  upon  the  prince  regent,  the  windows  of 
whose  carriage  were  broken  as  he  was  returning  from  opening  the 
parliament  (January  28,  1817),  led  to  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act  (February  28).  At  the  same  time  the  execution  of  the 
law  of  libel  was  severely  pressed,  and  numerous  ex  officio  informa- 
tions were  filed  against  political  writers.  One  of  the  most  remark- 
able of  these  prosecutions  was  that  against  William  Hone,  a 
bookseller  in  the  Old  Bailey,  for  a  pro&ne  libel,  consisting  of 
parodies  on  the  Catechism,,the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Creed.  Hone 
conducted  his  own  defence  with  considerable  ability,  and  was 
acquitted  by  the  jury,  who  seem  to  have  felt  that  it  was  the 
political  rather  than  the  profane  character  of  the  libels  that  had 
excited  the  indignation  of  the  government  (December  18). 

The  princess  Charlotte,  only  child  of  the  regent,  died  in  child- 
birth this  year  (November  6).  The  infant  was  still-bom.  She 
had  espoused  (May  16,  1816)  prince  Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg,  the 
late  king  of  the  Belgians. 

In  18.8  the  prospects  of  the  country  seemed  improving.  Trade 
was  more  active,  employment  more  constant,  and  sedition  conse- 
quently less  rampant.  In  September  a  congress  of  the  allies  was 
held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  order  to  settle  the  withdrawal  of  the 
army  of  occupation  from  France,  of  which  the  duke  of  Wellington 
was  generalissimo.  The  duke  took  leave  of  the  troope  by  an  ordw 
of  the  day  dated  at  Cambray,  November  7.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  was  appointed  master-general  of  the  ordnance,  with  a 
seat  in  the  cabinet. 


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JUX  Idl^-lSaCV  HIS  DEATH.  695 

I  26.  In  1819  was  passed  the  act,  commonly  known  as  Mr.  PeePs 
Acty  to  remove  the  Bank  restriction  passed  in  1797,  and  to  provide 
for  the  gradual  resumption  of  cash  payments.  May  1, 1823,  was 
assigned  as  the  period  for  the  payment  of  all  notes  on  demand  in 
the  current  gold  coin  of  the  realm ;  but  the  Bank  anticipated  this 
period  by  two  years,  and  began  to  pay  in  specie  on  May  1, 1821 

In  August,  1819,  Henry  Hunt,  the  demagogue,  collected  a  great 
meeting  in  St.  Peter's  Fields,  Manchester,  on  the  subject  of  parlia- 
mentary reform.  Tho  attempt  to  apprehend  him  produced  a  dis- 
turbance, in  which  about  half  a  dozen  persons  were  killed  and  a 
score  or  two  wounded.  This  aifair  obtained  among  the  *'  Radicals," 
as  the  extreme  reform  party  were  now  called,  the  name  of  the 
Manchester  Massacre,  or  '*  Peterloo."  Hunt  and  eight  or  ten  of  his 
friends  were  captured,  and,  being  tried  and  convicted  of  a  mis- 
demeanour in  the  following  spring,  were  sentenced  to  various  terms 
of  imprisonment.  Such  was  the  alarm  occasioned  in  the  public 
mind  by  these  disturbances,  that  parliament  was  opened  in 
November,  when  th«  ministers  brought  in  and  passed  six  acts: 
namely,  for  the  more  speedy  execution  of  justice  in  cases  of  mis- 
demeanour ;  to  prevent  military  training ;  to  prevent  and  punish 
blasphemous  and  seditious  libels ;  an  act  for  seizing  arms ;  a  stamp 
act,  with  the  view  of  repressing  libels ;  and  an  act  to  prevent 
seditious  meetings  and  assemblies.  But  more  effectual  means  of 
rei^ression  were  found  in  the  amendment  of  the  criminal  law,  the 
extension  of  education,  the  establishment  of  savings  banks,  and 
other  measures  of  a  similar  philanthropic  character. 

On  January  23, 1820,  died  the  duke  of  Kent,  aged  52,  leaving  an 
only  daughter,  her  present  majesty,  born  May  24,  1819.  In  less 
thwi  a  week  afterwards,  George  III.  expired  (January  29),  at  the 
ago  of  82,  and  in  the  60th  year  of  his  reign,  a  longer  period  than 
any  king  had  ever  sat  on  the  English  throne.  His  private  conduct 
had  been  always  unexceptionable ;  and  his  plain  and  unostentatious 
manner,  his  warmth  of  feeling,  and  his  attachment  to  rural  pursuits, 
had  endeared  him  to  a  large  )  ortion  of  his  subjects.  As  a  sovereign 
he  undoubtedly  had  the  honour  and  welfare  of  the  nation  at  heart 
Though  occasionally  somewhat  narrow  and  contracted  in  his  views, 
these  defects  are  rather  to  be  attributed  to  his  early  training  than 
to  any  want  of  natural  good  sense.  To  the  opinions  he  had  once 
adopted  he  was  apt  to  cling  with  a  firmness  nothing  could  shake. 
Unpopular  at  the  outset  of  his  reign,  and  surrounded  by  those  who 
either  were  unable  to  advise,  or  unwilling  to  conciliate,  he  succeeded, 
long  before  his  death,  in  gaining  the  affection  and  esteem  of  hii 
fubjects.    Queen  Charlotte  had  died  in  November,  IPia 


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CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

OBOBOE   lY.,   AND   WILLIAM  IV.      A.D.  1820-1837. 

§  1.  Accession  of  George  IV.-  Cato-8tre«t  conspiracy.  Prosccation  and 
death  of  queen  Caroline.  §  2.  Ministerial  changes.  Commerdal  panic. 
§  3.  The  catholic  question.  0*Connell  and  the  Catholic  Assodation. 
Canning's  ministry  and  death.  §  4.  Battle  of  Nararino.  Kingdom  of 
Greece.  The  duke  of  Wellington  premier.  Repeal  of  the  Test  and 
Corporation  Acts.  §  5.  Catholic  emancipation.  §  6.  Death  and  cha- 
racter of  George  IV.  §  7.  Accession  of  William  IV.  Earl  Grey 
Sremier.  §  8.  Parliamentary  Reform  Bill  Rejected  by  the  lords. 
iots  at  Bristol,  etc.  §  9.  Proposed  creation  of  peers.  Reform  Bill 
carried.  Irish  Coercion  Bill.  §  10.  Abolition  of  slavery.  Lord  Mel- 
bourne prime  minister.  Sir  Robert  Peel  prime  minister.  Lord  Mel- 
bourne's second  administration.  §  11.  Municipal  Reform  BilL  Death 
of  William  IV. 

GEORGE  IV..  &.  1762 ;  r.  1820-1830. 

$  1.  Gborgb,  prince  of  Waleft,  now  ascended  the  throne,  with  the 
title  of  Geobob  IV.,  at  the  age  of  58.  As  he  had  been  regent  during 
the  last  ton  years,  while  his  father  was  in  seclusion,  his  accession 
produced  little  or  no  change  in  the  state  of  affairs. 

The  excitement  of  "  Peterloo "  was  followed  by  the  Cato-streei 
conspiracy,  so  called  because  the  conspirators  were  captured  in  a 
room  over  a  stable  in  Cato-street,  Edgeware-road  (February  23), 
They  consisted  of  some  twenty  or  thirty  persons,  headed  by  one 
Thistlewoud,  a  man  of  desperate  character ;  and  their  design  was  to 
murder  all  the  cabinet  ministers  when  they  should  be  assembled  at 
dinner  at  lord  Harrowby's.  But  they  wore  betrayed  by  one  of 
their  own  gang :  nine  of  them  wore  captured,  and  Tbistlewood  and 
four  more  of  the  ringleaders  were  executed  (May  1). 

One  of  the  first  steps  of  Gi3orge  IV.  after  his  accession  was  to 
attempt  to  procure  a  divorce  from  his  consort,  Caroline  of  Brunswick. 
The  marriage  had  never  been  a  happy  one.  It  had  boon  in  m 
manner  forced  upon  the  prince  as  a  condition  of  having  his  debts 
paid.  The  princess's  person  and  manners  were  distasteful  to  him, 
and  she  soon  became  the  object  of  his  aversion.  Though  she  bore 
him  a  daughter,  they  separated  shortly  after  their  marriage ;  and 
Caroline  went  to  live  abroad  in  1814.  Her  conduct  in  England  bad 
already  excited  some  scandal,  and  in  1818  a  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  watch  her  conduct  and  collect  evidence.  Our  ambassa- 
dors abroad  were  instructed  not  to  recognize  her;  apd  when  the 
king  came  to  the  throne  her  name  was  omittod  from  the  liturgy. 


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A.i>.  1820-1822.  PROSECUTION   OF  QUEEN  CAROLINE.      697 

Sho  determined  on  returning  to  England,  and  arrived  (June  6, 1820) 
the  very  day  on  which  lord  Liverpool  had  opened  an  inquiry  into 
her  conduct  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In  July  a  bill  of  pains  and 
penalties  was  brought  in,  to  deprive  her  of  her  rights  and  privileges 
as  queen,  and  to  dissolve  the  marriage.  In  the  trial  which  ensued 
Mr.  Brougham  and  Mr.  Denman  acted  as  her  attorney  and  solicitor 
general.  She  was  charged  in  particular  with  adultery  w.th  one 
Bergami,  a  menial  servant.  Several  Italian  witnesses  were  examined, 
and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  her  conduct  in  Italy  had  gone  far 
beyond  the  bounds  of  discretion ;  but  the  witnesses  were  of  a  low 
class,  and  frequently  equivocated :  and  there  was  naturally  a  popu- 
lar feeling  in  favour  of  a  woman  whose  case  assumed  somewhat  the 
aspect  of  "persecution.  At  the  third  reading  of  the  bill,  the  majority 
in  its  favour  in  the  House  of  Lords  had  fallen  to  nine ;  and,  as  the 
bill  had  still  to  pass  the  commons,  the  ministers  determined  to 
abandon  it.  The  popular  feeling  wad  expressed  by  a  general  illumi- 
nation. In  the  following  session  the  commons  voted  the  queen  an 
annuity  of  50,000/. 

The  king's  coronation  having  been  fixed  for  July  19, 1821,  queen 
Caroline  insisted  on  being  crowned  with  him,  and  on  having  her 
name  inserted  in  the  liturgy.  This  was  refused;  and  when  she 
repaired  to  the  abbey  to  view  the  coronation  as  a  spectator,  she 
was  turned  back  from  the  door.  This  disappointment,  added  to 
the  excitement  she  had  already  undergone,  was  her  deathblow. 
She  expired  of  internal  inflammation  (August  7),  at  the  age  of  52. 
Her  funeral  was  attended  with  riots.  The  mob  compelled  the  pro- 
cession to  pass  through  the  city,  and  two  persons  were  shot  by  the 
milit£kry.  Her  remains  were  then  taken  to  Harwich  to  be  conveyed 
to  Brunswick. 

§  2.  In  1822  lord  Sidmouth  retired  from  the  home  office,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Mr.  Peel.  In  August  the  suicide  of  lord  Londonderry 
(formerly  lord  Castlereagh)  created  another  vacancy  in  the  ministry. 
Mr.  Canning  was  now  the  leading  man  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
but  he  had  incurred  the  king's  displeasure  by  refusing  to  take  any 
part  in  the  proceedings  against  queen  Caroline,  and  had  therefore 
been  passed  over  on  the  preceding  occasion.  His  great  talents, 
however,  could  not  be  entirely  overlooked,  and  the  East  India  Com- 
pany had  offered  him  the  govemor-genernlship  of  India,  lor  which 
he  was  preparing  to  depart.  But,  as  his  services  in  England  were 
indispensable,  the  king  was  forced  to  waive  his  antipathy,  and 
Canning  became  foreign  secretary  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. His  discharge  of  that  office  was  marked  by  a  more  libera) 
policy  than  had  prevailed  under  his  predecessor. 

As  the  disciple  of  Pitt,  Canning  followed  Pitfs  principles  of 


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698  GCOBOE  ly.  Obaf.  zzxit. 

commerdal  freedom  and  financial  refonn,  Tbeee  wore  adopted  in 
practice  by  HuskisBon,  who  became  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
in  1823,  and  taxation  was  rapidly  reduced.  The  prosperity  of  the 
country  went  on  increasing ;  but  towards  the  end  of  1825  the  reck- 
less spirit  of  speculation  produced  a  pauic,  which  was  f[>llowed  by 
much  distress  and  alarm.  Upwards  of  60  banks  stopped  payment 
in  December,  1825,  and  the  following  month.  The  evil  was  attri- 
buted in  a  great  degree  to  the  over-issue  of  paper  money,  and 
measures  were  taken  to  restrict  the  issue  of  small  notes  by  country 
bankers,  as  well  as  by  the  Bank  of  England ;  and  branches  of  the 
latter  were  established  in  several  of  the  larger  trading  towns.  Joint 
stock  banks  were  legalized  the  next  year.  An  extensive  system  of 
emigration  was  adopted  to  relieve  the  distress  of  the  nation,  and  its 
superintendence  was  intrusted  to  the  colonial  office. 

§  3.  About  this  time  Daniel  O'Connell  began  to  make  himself 
conspicuous  as  the  advocate  of  the  claims  of  the  Irish  Roman  catho- 
lics. Oeorge  III.  had  declared  that  he  would  never  consent  to  the 
admission  of  catholics  to  parliament,  and  his  illness  has  been  attri- 
buted to  the  subject  having  l)een  forced  upon  his  attention  by  Mr. 
Pitt.  During  the  life  of  that  sovereign,  therefore;  the  catholics  had 
abandoned  all  hope  of  relief;  but  the  case  was  different  on  the 
accession  of  George  IV.  After  the  death  of  Mr.  Perceval,  in  1812, 
the  catholic  question  became  an  open  one  in  the  cabinet.  Canning 
distinguished  himself  as  an  advocate  of  relief,  and  the  subject  was 
frequently  debated  in  parliament,  but  nothing  Mras  done.  In  this 
state  of  things  0*Connell,  supported  by  a  reni  levied  in  Ireland, 
organized  the  Catholic  Association  in  the  beginning  of  1824.  In 
1825  a  relief  bill,  introduced  by  sir  Francis  Burdett,  passed  the 
commons ;  upon  which  the  duke  of  York  went  down  to  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  took  a  solemn  oath  that  in  case  he  should  succeed  to 
the  crown  he  would  pemiit  no  change.  The  bill  was  rejected  by 
the  lords ;  but  the  duke  died  soon  afterwards  (January  5, 1827). 

In  February,  1 827,  lord  Liverpool  was  seized  with  paralysis ;  and, 
as  it  was  evident  that  he  would  never  again  be  able  to  attend  to 
business,  the  king  was  reluctantly  compelled  to  send  for  Mr. 
Canning  (April  II),  who  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  The  duke  of  Wellington,  Mr.  Peel, 
lord  Eldon,  and  eome  others  resigned ;  and  sir  John  Copley,  now 
created  lord  Lyndhurst,  became  lord  chancellor.  Nothing  of  im- 
portance, however,  was  done  in  Mr.  Canning's  short  administration. 
By  many  of  the  aristocracy  he  was  regarded  as  an  adventurer.  He 
had  to  endure  various  personal  attacks  ;  and  anxiety  and  vexation 
of  mind,  added  to  a  violent  illness  contracted  at  the  duke  of  York's 
funeral,  brought  him  to  the  grave  (August  8).    He  was  privately 

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AJ>.  1827-1838.        MINISTERIAL  CHANGES.  699 

buried  in  WestminBter  Abbey,  and  a  peerage  was  conferred  by  the 
king  on  his  widow.  YiBCOont  Goderioh*  (Mr.  Bobinson)  succeeded 
Canning  as  premier. 

§  4.  The  new  administration,  like  the  preceding,  lasted  only  a  few 
months,  and  the  sole  important  event  Uiat  occurred  while  it  held 
office  was  the  battle  of  Navarino,  followed  by  the  establishment  of 
Greek  independence.  The  cause  of  Greece  was  supported,  from 
different  motives,  by  Russia,  France,  and  England.  These  powers 
had  their  squadrons  in  the  Levant,  the  English  being  under  the  com- 
mand of  sir  Edward  Codrington.  War  had  not  yet  been  declared : 
the  Turkish  and  Egyptian  fleet,  under  Ibrahim  Pasha,  lay  in  the  bay 
of  Navarino ;  and  there  was  an  understanding  that  it  should  remain 
there  till  the  affairs  of  Greece  were  arranged.  As  the  Turks  at- 
tempted to  violate  this  agreement,  a  general  engagement  ensued, 
and  the  Turkish  and  Egyptian  fleets  were  completely  destroyed 
in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  (October  20,  1827).  By  this  impolitic 
act  England  and  France  played  into  the  hands  of  Russia,  who 
was  anxious  to  weaken  the  power  of  Turkey ;  and  thus  they  gave 
some  help  towards  the  long-cherished  object  of  her  ambition — the 
possession  of  Constantinople.  Next  year  a  Russian  army  marched 
into  Tm'key  and  dictated  peace  at  Adrianople.  By  this  treaty  the 
freedom  of  Greece  was  recognized  by  the  sultan  (September  14 
1829).  The  three  powers  decided  that  Greece  should  be  erected 
into  a  separate  kingdom ;  and  the  crown,  after  having  been  declined 
by  prince  John  of  Saxony  and  prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  was 
eventually  conferred,  in  1832,  on  prince  Otho,  a  younger  son  of  the 
king  of  Bavaria.  Otho  was  deposed  in  1862 ;  the  people  soon  after 
elected  a  Danish  prince,  brother  of  the  princess  of  Wales,  as 
'*  George  L  king  of  the  Hellenes ; "  and  England  gave  up  the  Ionian 
islands  to  Greece  (June,  1864). 

In  January,  1828,  another  change  of  ministry  occurred.  Lord 
Goderich  having  resigned,  the  duke  of  Wellington  became  premier ; 
when  Mr.  GK>ulbum  was  made  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Mr. 
Peel  home  secretary,  and  lord  Palmerston  secretary  at  war.  Most 
of  the  other  ministers  retained  their  offices.  In  this  session  was 
passed  the  repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  established  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  If.  It  was  moved  by  lord  John  Russell,  and 
opposed  at  first  by  Mr.  Peel ;  but  the  ministers,  having  been  left  in  a 
minority,  subsequently  withdrew  their  opposition.  For  the  sacra- 
mental test  there  was  now  substituted  a  declaration,  if  required  by 
the  crown,  by  which  the  person  entering  upon  any  office  pledged 
himself  not  to  use  its  influence  as  a  means  for  subverting  the  estab- 
lished church.  On  the  motion  of  the  bishop  «  f  Llandaff  the  words 
*  He  w«8  cTMted  earl  of  Ripoo  in  1833;  hli  ton  was  made  marqaeea  of  Ripon  in  18tl. 


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700  GEORGE  IV.  Chap.  nmr. 

*'  on  the  true  faith  of  a  Christian "  were  Inserted  In  the  declaratioD : 
a  clause  which,  though  not  so  designed,  had  the  effoct  of  excluding 
the  Jews  from  parliament  till  the  year  1858.  This  measure  was 
naturally  regarded  as  the  forerunner  of  catholic  emancipation. 

§  5.  It  was  evident  that  the  duke  of  Wellington  was  prepared, 
with  characteristic  good  sense,  to  yield  to  public  opinion.  He  had, 
indeed,  announced  his  intention  at  the  same  time  of  opposing  the 
catholic  claims,  but  with  the  qualification,  unless  he  saw  some 
great  change ;  and  this  contingency  soon  afterwards  occurred. 

In  the  course  of  the  year  Mr.  Huskisson  resigned  office  in  con- 
sequence of  being  opposed  to  bis  colleagues  on  an  election  question. 
He  was  followed  by  lord  Palmerston,  lord  Dudley,  Mr.  Lamb,  and 
Mr.  Grant,  the  "Canning"  portion  of  the  cabinet  Mr.  Vezey 
Fitzgerald,  who  sat  for  the  county  of  Clare,  having  become  one  of 
the  new  ministers,  was  now  of  course  obliged  to  vacate  his  seat 
and  appear  again  before  his  constituents,  and,  being  an  advocate 
of  catholic  emancipation,  he  considered  his  re-election  sure.  But 
O'Connell  presented  himself,  and  was  returned,  affirming  that  he 
should  be  able  to  take  his  seat,  which,  however,  he  did  not  attempt 
to  do  during  the  remainder  of  the  session.  This  event  brought 
matters  to  a  crisis.  The  ministers  perceived  that  it  would  bo  impos- 
sible any  longer  to  withhold  emancipation,  without  creating  great 
diHturbanccs,  and  in  the  king's  speech  on  opening  the  session  of  1829 
a  measure  of  relief  was  announced.  The  Catholic  Association  was 
first  of  all  to  be  dissolved ;  but  while  a  bill  for  that  purpose  was  in 
progress  the  association  dissolved  itself.  Mr.  Peel  had  for  many 
years  been  the  ablest  opponent  of  the  admission  of  catholics  to 
parliament  Session  after  session,  he  had  distinguished  himself 
by  his  eloquent  speeches  against  the  measure,  and  had  gained  the 
affection  and  confidence  of  the  higli  church  and  tory  party.  Great 
was  their  indignation  on  finding  that  their  fiivourite  leader  was  now 
preiMircd  suddenly  to  desert  them,  and  to  propose  in  the  commons 
the  very  measure  which  he  had  so  frequently  denounced  as  fraught 
with  ruin  to  the  best  interests  of  the  empire.  Having  felt  himself 
bound  in  honour  to  vacate  his  seat  for  the  University  of  Oxf<»d, 
upon  again  presenting  himself  as  a  candidate,  he  was  beaten  by  sir 
Robert  Inglis.  He  was,  however,  retiuned  for  Westbury,  and  intro- 
duced the  Catholic  Relief  Bill.  By  this  measure  a  different  form 
of  oath  was  substituted  for  the  oath  of  supremacy,  and  there  were 
no  offices  from  which  Roman  catholics  were  now  excluded  except 
those  of  regent,  of  lord  chancellor  of  England  and  of  Ireland,  and 
of  viceroy  of  Ireland.*      By  way  of  security  the  franchise  in 

•  The  special  oath  for  catholics  waa  supenedad  hj  *  fHMnl  o«th  of  alkgiaiwe 
ia  18»8,  which  was  further  simplified  in  I8S8. 


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A  n.  1818-1880.       CATHOUC   EMANCIPATION.  701 

Ireland  was  tl.  ..d  from  40».  to  10^.,  and  certain  regulations  were 
made  respecting  the  exercise  of  the  Roman  catholic  religion.  The 
bill  was  finally  carried  in  the  House  of  Lords  (April  10),  having 
passed  through  both  houses  with  considerable  majorities. 

This  measure  produced  a  schism  in  the  tory  party,  the  effects  of 
which  lasted  for  some  years.  One  of  its  consequences  was  a  duel 
between  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  the  earl  of  Wiiichelsea,  but 
without  injury  to  either  party.  The  Catholic  Relief  Bill  was  not, 
however,  attended  with  all  the  beneficial  consequences  anticipated  by 
its  supporters.  It  averted  the  immediate  danger  of  a  civil  war  in 
Ireland,  but  it  failed  to  convert  the  Irish  catholics  into  peaceable 
subjects,  and  they  soon  proceeded  to  use  the  new  political  power 
which  they  had  obtained  more  for  the  interests  of  their  own  religion 
than  for  the  good  of  the  empire. 

§  6.  The  Roman  Catholic  Relief  Bill  was  the  last  act  of  George  IV. 
He  had  been  for  some  time  in  a  declining  state  of  health,  and  had 
become  so  nervous  and  irritable  that  he  almost  entirely  secluded 
himself  from  public  view.  There  had  been  considerable  difficulty 
in  obtaining  his  consent  to  the  bill,  and  after  he  had  giveii  it  he 
was  filled  with  alarm  for  the  consequences.  He  died  on  June  26, 
1830,  in  the  68th  year  of  his  age  and  the  11th  year  of  his 
reign.  Though  his  manners  were  elegant  and  his  taste  refined, 
he  had  not  the  qualities  calculated  to  win  popularity.  With 
George  IV.  expired  the  habits  and  prejudices  of  the  preceding 
century,  and  a  new  era  now  set  in  of  rapid  popular  improvement 
Railways  had  come  into  use  at  Stockton  and  Darlington  in  1825  ; 
but  their  effectiveness  for  locomotion  was  not  fully  recognized  until 
the  opening  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  line  in  1830. 

WILLLAM  IV.,  h.  1765;  r.  1830-1837. 

§  7.  On  the  death  of  George  IV.,  the  duke  of  Clarence,  his 
next   surviving  brother,  then  in  his  65th   year,  was  proclaimed 
king,  by  the  title  of  William  IV.    His  political  opinions  were 
supposed  to  be  more  liberal  than  those  of  his  predecessor,  but  no 
change  was  made  in  the  ministry.    The  march  of  events,  howev 
the  repeal  of  the  Test  Act,  the  carrying  of  catholic  eniancipat: 
by  a  tory  ministry,  and  in  this  summer  the   revolution  wh 
occurred  in  France — by  which  Charles  X.  was   hurled   from 
throne  in  consequence  of  his  attempts  on  the  constitution  and 
the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  Louis  Philippe  became  king  of 
French — prepared   the  minds  of  men  for  further   progress,    J 
especially  for  some  measure  of  parliamentary  reform,  a  subject  t 
had  long  occupied  the  attention  and  excited  the  passions  of 


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702  WILLIAM  IT.  Ca4P.  xxxiy. 

nation.  The  restilt  of  these  feelings  was  manifested  in  the  new 
parliament,  which  contained  a  great  proportion  of  liberal  members. 
Bat  the  state  of  disturbance  which  prevailed,  both  on  the  continent 
and  at  home,  where  there  had  been  many  incendiary  fires  in  the 
rural  districts,  instead  of  inclining  the  duke  and  his  ministry  to 
concession,  had  detennined  them  not  to  yield  anything  to  popular 
clamour.  The  king^s  opening  speech  was  firm  and  uncompromising, 
and  in  the  debates  which  ensued  the  duke  of  Wellington  expressed 
his  determination  to  oppose  any  measure  of  parliamentary  reform 
(November  2, 1830).  The  impopularity  excited  by  this  declaraticm 
was  increased  by  the  ministers  advising  the  king  to  decline  an 
invitation  to  dine  with  the  lord  mayor  on  November  9.  Thi»  step 
was  taken  in  consequence  of  a  communication  from  alderman  Key, 
the  lord  mayor  elect,  who  had  warned  the  duke  to  come  with 
a  strong  escort.  London  was  in  consequence  struck  with  a  panic ; 
the  country  was  thought  to  be  on  the  eve  of  a  revolution  ;  and  the 
Funds  fell  three  per  cent  The  ministers,  however,  were  soon  released 
from  responsibility.  Sir  H.  Pamell  having,  in  the  debate  on  the 
civil  list,  carried  a  motion  for  a  committee  of  enquiry  (November 
15),  the  ministers  resigned  the  following  morning.  The  king  now 
sent  for  earl  Grey,  the  leader  of  the  whig  party,  under  whose  auspices 
as  prime  minister  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  on  the  avowed  principle 
of  parliamentary  reform.  It  comprehended  lord  Brougham,  now 
raised  to  the  peerage,  as  lord  chancellor,  lord  Althorp  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  lord  Lansdowne  pre:iident  of  the  council,  lord  Palmerston 
foreign  secretary,  lord  Melbourne  home  secretary,  lord  Chxlerich 
colonial  secretary,  and,  among  others,  lord  John  Russell  as  pay- 
master of  the  forces,  and  Mr.  Stanley,  grandson  of  the  earl  of  Derby, 
as  secretary  for  Ireland. 

§  8.  On  March  1,  1831,  a  bill  for  parliamentary  reform  was 
introduced  into  the  House  ojf  Commons  by  lord  John  RiisselL  The 
alterations  proposed  were  much  more  extensive  than  bad  been  an- 
ticipated, and  were  received  by  the  house  with  shouts  of  derision. 
The  second  reading  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  one ;  but  ministers, 
having  been  twice  defeated  in  committee,  resolved  on  summoning 
a  new  parliament,  though  the  present  one  had  existed  only  a  few 
months.  The  elections  were  attended  with  great  excitement.  The 
tories  were  denounced  as  enemies  of  both  king  and  people.  In 
some  places,  especially  in  Scotland,  serious  riots  occurred,  and 
lives  were  even  lost ;  and  in  most  of  the  considerable  towns  only 
those  candidates  dared  to  show  themselves  who  would  engage  to 
vote  for  "  the  bill,  the  whole  bill,  and  nothing  but  the  bill.**  The 
populace  had  been  led  by  demagogues  to  regard  the  measure  as  an 
immediate  panacea  for  all  their  ills ;  and  thus  a  great  and  neoes- 


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U>.  1880-1883.  REFORM  BILL.  703 

sary  constitutional  reform  was  carried  by  popular  heat  and  clamour, 
and  with  the  excitement  of  expectations  that  could  never  be 
realized.  The  House  of  Commons,  which  assembled  June  14,  con- 
tained a  large  majority  of  reformers.  The  bill  was  again  intro- 
duced by  lord  John  Russell  (June  24),  and  was  carried  by  decisive 
majorities.  It  was  still,  however,  violently  opposed  by  a  powerful 
party,  who  regarded  it  as  an  attack  upon  property;  for  it  was 
notorious  that  estates  commanding  the  nomination  of  a  member  of 
parliament  fetched  a  price  very  far  above  their  intrinsic  value. 
When  the  bill  was  brought  up  to  the  House  of  Lords,  it  was  re- 
jected, after  five  nights*  debate,  by  a  majority  of  41  (October  7). 
This  step  was  followed  by  disgraceful  riots.  In  London  the  popu- 
lace, controlled  by  the  admirable  organization  of  the  new  police, 
established  by  sir  Robert  Peel,  contented  themselves  with  breaking 
the  windows  of  obnoxious  anti-reformers ;  but  in  several  of  the 
provincial  towns  fearful  disturbances  ensued.  At  Nottingham  the 
ancient  castle,  the  residence  of  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  was  burnt ; 
at  Derby  the  jail  was  forced  and  the  prisoners  liberated ;  at  Bristol, 
where  the  riots  lasted  several  days,  many  of  the  public  buildings 
and  a  great  part  of  Queen's-square  were  destroyed,  and  about  100 
persons  were  killed  or  wounded.  Ireland  also  was  in  a  most  dis- 
turbed state.  After  the  emancipation  of  the  catholics,  O^Connell 
had  raised  the  cry  for  the  repeal  of  the  Union,  and  the  most 
frightful  nocturnal  disorders,  and  even  mid-day  murders,  became 
frequent.  To  add  to  the  misery  and  confusion,  England  was 
visited  this  autumn  for  the  first  time  by  the  Asiatic  cholera. 

§  9.  The  parliament,  after  its  prorogation  (October  20),  reassem- 
bled in  December,  and  in  March,  1832,  the  Reform  Bill,  introduced 
by  lord  John  Russell,  again  passed  the  commons.  The  peers  now 
displayed  more  disposition  to  yield  ;  but,  as  it  was  evident  that  the 
bill  would  be  mutilated  in  committee,  lord  Grey  proposed  to  the 
king  the  creation  of  a  suflBcient  number  of  peers  to  insure  its 
success.  As  the  king  demurred,  the  ministers  resigned ;  but,  the 
duke  of  Wellington  and  lord  Lyndhurst  having  failed  to  construct 
a  tory  administration,  the  king  was  obliged  to  yield  at  discretion, 
and  recal  his  former  ministers.  The  extreme  measure  of  a  large 
creation  was  avoided  by  the  good  sense  of  the  peers.  The  duke  of 
Wellington,  and  about  100  others,  agreed  to  absent  themselves; 
whereupon  the  bill  was  carried  and  received  the  royal  assent 
(June  1, 1832). 

It  was  the  main  principle  of  the  Reform  Bill,  that  boroughs  having 
a  less  population  than  2000  should  cease  to  return  members, 
and  that  those  having  a  less  population  than  4000  should  not 
return  more  than  one  member.     By  this  arrangement  56  boroughs 


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704}  WILLIAM  IV.  Chap.  uznr. 

were  totally  disfranchised,  and  31  more  lost  one  of  their  members. 
Thus,  143  seats  were  transferred  to  several  large  towns,  such  as 
Birminghanj,  Manchester,  and  Leeds,  which  had  grown  into  im- 
portance during  the  last  century.  Between  40  and  50  new  boroughs 
were  created,  including  the  four  metropolitan  boroughs  of  Maryle- 
bone,  Finsbury,  the  Tower  Hamlets,  and  Lambeth ;  each  of  the  last 
returning  two  members.  An  aristocratic  coimterpoise  seemed  in 
some  degree  to  be  established  by  the  additions  to  the  county  mem- 
bers. The  larger  counties  were  divided  into  districts ;  and  while  pre- 
viously there  had  been  o'2  constituencies,  returning  94  members, 
there  were  now  82  constituencies,  returning  169  members.  On  the 
other  hand,  both  the  county  and  borough  franchises  were  extended 
In  the  counties  the  old  40*.  freeholders  were  retained,  and  three 
new  classes  of  voters  were  introduced: — 1.  copyholders  of  10?.  per 
annum ;  2.  leaseholders  of  the  annual  value  of  102.  for  a  term  of  60 
years,  or  of  the  annual  value  of  501.  for  a  term  of  20  years;  and  3. 
occupying  tenants  paying  an  annual  rental  of  501.  In  boroughs 
the  franchise  was  given  to  all  10/.  resident  householders,  subject 
to  certain  conditions.  Such  were  the  main  features  of  the  bili, 
which  undoubtedly  involved  the  greatest  revolution  the  country 
had  experienced  since  1688. 

There  were  also  important  provisions  for  regulating  and  shorten- 
ing elections,  and  for  the  registration  of  voters.  Similar  bills  were 
passed  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  but  with  some  difference  in  their 
details,  especially  as  to  the  amount  of  the  Irish  franchise.  The 
parliamentary  constitution  thus  created  lasted  36  years,  till  the  new 
Reform  Acts  of  1867  and  1868  (see  p.  726).  The  chief  alterations 
meanwhile  were  the  extension  of  the  Irish  franchise,  and  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  "property  qualification"  for  members.  The  two 
boroughs  of  Sudbury  and  St  AJhauB  were  disfranchised  for  corrup- 
tion ;  and  their  four  seats  were  given,  in  1861,  one  to  Birkenhead, 
one  to  South  Lancashire,  and  two  to  the  southern  division  of  the 
West  Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  making  the  composition  of  the  last 
reformed  parliament,  that  elected  in  1865,  as  follows : — 


EkigUnd. 

Wales. 

Irebad. 

Sootkn 

Goimties      147 

16 

64 

80 

Universities            ...        4 

0 

2 

0 

Cities  and  Boroughs      320 

14 

39 

28 

Totals      ...     471  29  106  58 

The  disturbances  in  Ireland  had  now  reached  a  frightful  pitch. 
It  had  become  impossible  to  collect  tithe :  the  collectors  were  mur^ 
dered  or  mutilated ;  there  were  regular  engagements  between  th* 


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A.D.  1833-1884.       ABOLITION  OF  SLAVERY.  705 

police  and  the  peasantry ;  and  the  protestant  clergy  were  reduced 
to  starvation.  To  put  a  stop  to  this  state  of  things  the  government 
carried  a  Coercion  Bill  (April  2),  which,  while  it  provided  a  remedy 
for  many  of  the  grievances  complained  of,  enabled  the  lord-lieu- 
tenant to  prevent  all  public  meetings  of  a  dangerous  character,  and 
to  place  disturbed  districts  under  martial  law. 

§  10.  Parliament  was  dissolved  on  December  3,  and  the  first  reformed 
House  of  Commons  assembled  on  February  5,  1833.  The  refon^iers 
had  an  overwhelming  majority,  and  fears  began  to  be  entertained 
that  the  church,  the  aristocracy,  and  all  the  older  institutions 
would  be  swept  away.  But  a  strong  conservative  spirit  still  existed 
in  the  nation.  Sir  Robert  Peel,  whom  the  tories  had  now  forgiven, 
and  again  treated  as  their  leader,  revived  their  desponding  spirits. 
He  introduced  an  admirable  organization  into  the  party,  and 
pointed  out  that  a  return  to  political  power  was  still  far  from 
impossible.  Dropping  the  name  of  Tory,  they  now  called  them- 
selves Conservatives. 

The  abolition  of  slavery  and  the  amendment  of  the  poor-law  were 
two  of  the  principal  questions  which  occupied  the  attention  of  par- 
liament. While  the  question  of  negro  freedom  was  agitated  in 
public  meetings  in  England  a  dangerous  insurrection  had  broken 
out  among  the  slaves  in  Jamaica,  which  was  with  difficulty 
suppressed.  A  rising  had  also  occurred  in  the  Mauritius.  Under 
these  circumstances,  ministers  brought  in  and  carried  a  bill  for  the 
total  abolition  of  slavery,  which  had  been  so  long  advocated  by 
Wilberforce,  Fowell  Buxton,  and  their  party.  The  sum  of 
20,000,000?.  was  voted  as  compensation  to  the  slave-owners.  But 
as  a  great  part  of  this  sum  was  in  reality  never  applied,  and  the 
rate  of  compensation  was  in  some  islands  about  20Z.  per  negro — 
not  a  quarter  of  what  they  had  cost  the  proprietor — the  owner  of 
an  estate  with  100  negroes  received  about  2000?.,  but  found  his 
property  utterly  mined  from  the  unwillingness  of  the  emancii>ated 
negro  to  work.  In  this  session  (1833)  an  act  was  passed  for  re- 
distributing the  property  of  the  Irish  church,  and  reducing  the 
number  of  its  bishops  from  22  to  12.  The  charter  of  the  Bank  of 
England  was  renewed,  as  was  also  that  of  the  East  India  Conipa"^ 
on  condition  of  its  giving  up  its  commercial  monopoly,  and 
trade  with  China  was  consequently  thrown  open.  The  poor- 
question  was  reserved  for  another  administration. 

As  a  considerable  portion  of  his  cabinet  had  resigned,  principi 
on  account  of  a  proposed  extension  of  the  Irish  Coercion  Bill,  ] 
Grey  was  obliged  to  retire  (July  9,  1834).  Lord  Melbourne  i 
became  prime  minister,  and  lord  Althorp  resumed  his  former  ] 
of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.    A  new  poor-law  was  passed. 


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706  WILLIAM  IV.  Ghap.  zxxit 

muD  feature  of  which  was  to  abolish  local  boanls  and  to  establish 
a  central  board  of  commissioners.  Poor-law  unions  were  formed,  and 
the  system  of  outdo(»r  relief  was  diminished  in  a  considerable 
degree. 

§  II.  The  conservatiye  reaction  had,  within  the  last  two  years, 
become  so  marked,  that  the  king,  in  the  autumn  of  1834,  availed 
himself  of  the  death  of  earl  (spencer  and  the  consequent  elevation 
to  the  House  of  Lords  of  his  son  lord  Althorp,  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  to  dismiss  lord  Melbourne  and  his  colleagues, and  intrusted 
sir  Robert  Peel  with  the  formation  of  a  conservative  administration 
(November  14).  But  the  country  was  not  yet  ripe  for  the  change. 
Upon  the  dissolution  of  parliament,  the  conservatives  obtained  a 
great  accession  to  their  niunbers  in  the  House  of  Commons,  but  they 
were  still  left  in  a  minority.  Accordingly,  sir  Robert  Peel,  after 
holding  office  for  a  few  months,  was  obliged  to  retire,  and  the  Mel- 
bourne administration  resumed  office  in  April,  1835,  with  a  few 
changes,  the  most  remarkable  being  that  lord  Brougham  was  passed 
over  and  the  great  seal  placed  in  commission,  till  lord  Gottenham 
(Pepys)  was  made  chancellor.  The  new  ministers  were  dependent 
on  the  support  of  O'Connell,  with  whom  they  had  now  allied 
themselves.  The  chief  measure  which  they  carried  this  session 
was  the  reform  of  municipal  corporations  on  the  principle  of  popular 
election.  In  the  next  year  (1836)  they  passed  a  bill  to  allow 
dissenters  to  marry  in  their  own  chapels,  and  another  for  a 
"  general  registration  of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages."  In  thie 
year  also  the  Tithe  Commutation  Act  was  passed,  and  also  an  act 
incorporating  the  ecclesiastical  commission  issued  the  year  before, 
for  the  management  of  episcopal  and  cathedral  revenues.  It  made 
an  arrangement  by  which  two  old  sees  were  consolidated  into  one, 
Gloucester  being  united  with  Bristol,  and  two  new  ones  were 
created — Ripon  (183G)  and  Manchester  (1847).* 

In  May,  I83V,  the  king  was  seized  with  a  dangerous  illness,  and 
«*xpired  on  June  20 

•  The  episcopate  hu  been  farther  in-  I   nnder  all  these  extensions  no  increase  Is 

creased  by  acts  of  the  reign  of  Victoria.  made  to  the  number  of  bishops  in  the 

New    sees   have   been   founded   at   St.  House  of  Lords ;  the  Junior  bishops  (ex- 

Albans  (1876)  and  Truro  (1877),  and  an  oeptof  London,  Winchester,  and  Durham) 

act  of  1878  authorises  the  endowment  of  having  to  wait  for  vacancies  In  rotaHoo. 

four  new  bishoprics  at  Liverpool,  New-  The  office  of  sulbagan  bishop  has  alas 

OMtle,  Wakefield,  and  SouthwelL    But  be 


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CHAPTER  XXXV. 

qmoEK  YioTORiA,  b.  1819.    A.i>.  1837-1871. 

§  1.  Accession  of  queen  Victoria.  Insurrection  in  Canada.  Obartists. 
Anti-Com-Law  League.  §  2.  The  queen's  marriage.  Sir  Robert  Peel 
prime  minister.  Graduated  corn-law.  Agitation  m  Ireland.  Conviction 
and  fall  of  CConnell.  §  3.  Irish  famine,  and  abolition  of  the  corn-laws. 
Fall  of  the  ministry.  Lord  John  Russell  premier.  §  4.  O'Brien's  re- 
bellion. French  revolution.  Death  of  sir  R.  Peel.  §  5.  Fall  of  lord 
John  Russell's  ministry.  Lord  Derby  premier.  Death  of  the  duke  of 
Wellington.  Napoleon  III.  emperor  of  the  French.  Lord  Aberdeen's 
ministry.  §  6.  War  with  Russii^  Campaign  in  the  Crimea  and  siege 
of  Sevastopol.  §  7.  Lord  Palmerston  prime  minister.  Sevastopol  taken. 
Peace  of  Paris.  §  8.  War  with  China.  New  parliament.  Review  of 
Indian  history  from  the  time  of  Warren  Hastings.  The  first  Afghan 
war.  §  9.  Occupation  of  Scinde.  Annexation  of  Oude.  Mutiny  of  the 
Bengal  army.     §  10.  Fall  of  lord  Palmerston's  ministry.     Lord  Derby 

5 rime  minister  a  second  time.  Transfer  of  India  to  the  crown.  §  11. 
ewish  emancipation.  Fall  of  lord  Derby's  second  ministry.  War  be- 
tween France,  Italy,  and  Austria.  Establishment  of  the  new  kingdom  of 
Italy.  §  12.  Lord  Palmerston's  second  ministry.  £nd  of  the  Chinese  war. 
Capture  of  Pekin.  $  13.  Death  of  the  prince  consort.  §  14.  Civil 
war  in  America.  §  15.  Affairs  in  Italy.  Danish  war  about  Schleswig- 
Holstein.  §  16.  Death  of  lord  Palmerston.  Review  of  his  second 
administration.  §  17.  Second  ministry  of  earl  Russell.  The  Reform 
BilL  Third  premiership  of  lord  Derby.  §  18.  War  between  Austria 
and  Prussia.  Battle  of  Sadowa.  §  19.  Second  Reform  Acts.  Abyssinian 
expedition.  The  Irish  Fenians.  §  20.  Resignation  of  lord  Derby  and 
first  premiership  of  Mr.  Disraeli.  Ministry  of  Mr.  Gladstone.  Dis- 
establishment of  the  Irish  church.  Irish  Land  Act.  §  21.  War  between 
France  and  Germany.  Deposition  of  Napoleon  III.  The  "  Alabama " 
arbitration.  §  22.  The  ballot.  Judicature  Act.  Ashantee  war. 
§  23.  Second  premiership  of  Mr.  Disraeli  (lord  Beaconsfield.)  §  24. 
The  prince  of  Wales  visits  India.  The  queen  proclaimed  Empress  of 
I:\dia.  §  25.  War  between  Turkey  and  Russia.  Treaty  of  Berlin. 
Anglo-Turkish  treaty.  Occupation  of  Cyprus.  Second  Afghan  war. 
§  26.  Review  of  the  period  from  the  Revolution.  Progress  of  the  con- 
stitution. Growth  of  England  as  a  European  power.  Colonial  and  Indian 
empire.  §  27.  Progress  of  English  manufactures,  trade,  population,  etc. 
National  debt.  §  28.  View  of  the  moral  condition  of  the  people. 
Religion  and  missions.  §  29.  Criminal  law,  education,  etc  §  30. 
Literatm*e  and  art. 

§  1.  Upon  the  death  of  her  uncle  William  IV.,  our  present 
gracious  sovereign,  queen  Victoria,  the  only  child  (»f  the  duke  of 
Kent,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  She  had  just  completed  her 
eighteenth  year,  which  had  been  fixed  as  her  legal  majority.  As 
ths  succession  to  the  crown  of  Hanover  had  been  settled  only  in 
the  male  line,  that  country  was  now  separated  from  the  crown  ol 


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708  VICTORIA.  Chap.  xxxt. 

Great  Britain,  and  became  the  inhmitanoe  of  EmeBt,  duke  of 
Cumberland,  the  eldest  surviving  son  of  George  III. 

The  first  year  of  queen  Victoria's  reign  waa  marked  by  insurrec- 
tions in  Canada,  which,  though  assisted  by  bodies  of  adventurers 
from  the  United  States,  were  put  down  without  much  trouble 
This  led  to  the  union  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  (1840).  At  a 
later  period  the  British  provinces  in  North  America,  firom  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  were  united,  as  "  The  Dominion  of  Canada," 
under  a  viceroy  and  a  free  parliament  (1867).  As  the  harvests  of 
1837  and  1838  proved  on&vourable,  much  distress  occurred  among 
the  lower  classes,  and  the  opportunity  was  seized  by  the  seditious 
to  excite  riots  and  disorders.  There  had  now  arisen  a  considerable 
body,  who  called  themselves  Chartists;  that  is,  they  demanded 
what  they  called  a  new  charter,  or  thorough  reorganization  of  the 
lower  house  of  parliament  on  the  following  five  principles,  styled 
the  five  points  of  "  the  people's  charter," — ^namely,  universal  suf- 
frage, vote  by  ballot,  annual  parliaments,  the  remuneration  of  mem- 
bers, and  the  abolition  of  the  property  qualification.  In  the  autumn 
of  1838  many  large  meetings  of  chartists  were  held  in  the  ncnthem 
counties,  and  as  winter  approached  they  assembled  by  torchlight. 
At  one  of  these,  held  at  Kersal  Moor,  near  Manchester,  it  was  com- 
puted that  200,000  persons  were  present  In  1839  a  National 
Convention  was  formed  in  London  of  delegates  from  the  working 
classes,  and  a  petition,  as  large  in  duuneter  as  a  coach-wheel, 
had  to  be  rolled  into  the  House  of  Conmions.  A  motion  for  a 
committee  to  consider  it  having  been  lost  by  a  large  majority, 
chartist  riots  ensued  in  several  of  the  princiiMd  provincial  towns, 
and  especially  at  Newport,  Monmouthshire,  where  one  Frost,  a 
magistrate  of  the  borough,  played  a  principal  part.  The  disturb- 
ance was  put  down,  with  the  loss  of  about  twenty  lives,  by  the 
energetic  proceedings  of  sir  Thomas  Phillippe,  and  Frost,  Jones,  and 
Williams,  the  ringleaders,  were  convicted  and  transported.  At  the 
same  time  a  more  orderly  and  intelligent  agitation  was  proceeding 
to  remove  the  chief  cause  of  these  disturbances.  This  was  the  Anti- 
Corn-Law  League,  formed  at  Manchester  in  September,  1838,  to 
procure  the  abolition  of  the  corn-laws,  and  for  the  promotion  of  free- 
trade  principles.  The  most  distinguished  advocate  of  the  league 
was  Mr.  Richard  Cobden,  who  rapidly  acquired  great  influence  in 
the  country. 

§  2.  On  February  10,  1840,  her  majesty  was  united  in  marriagt 
to  her  cousin  Albert,  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha,  who  was 
about  three  months  her  junior.  The  parliament  voted  the  prince 
(afterwards,  in  1857,  styled  prince  consort)  an  annuity  of  SOfiOOL 
for  life,  and  passed  a  bill  for  his  naturalization. 


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▲J>.  1841-1844.      MINISTRY   OF  SIR  ROBERT  PEEL.  70i) 

The  commencement  of  the  queen's  reign  was  distinguished  by 
measures  of  signal  importance ;  among  others,  a  committee  of  the 
pnvy  council  was  appointed  to  superintend  the  education  of  the 
country,  and  the  penny  postage  was  brought  into  operation.  The 
Melbourne  ministry  had  never  been  very  strong,  and  their  close 
alliance  with  O'Connell  and  his  "tail,**  as  his  score  or  two  of 
adherents  in  parliament  were  called,  had  degraded  them  in  the  eyes 
of  the  nation.  They  had  also  failed  in  their  financial  measure^ 
having  every  year  a  deficient  revenue.  In  the  spring  of  1841  sir 
Robert  Peel  carried  against  them  a  vote  of  want  of  confidence,  upon 
which  they  dissolved  parliament.  The  ministry  intimated  their 
intention  of  proposing  a  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  and  substituting  a 
fixed  duty  of  8«.  a  quarter  upon  com ;  but  they  did  not  meet  with 
a  popular  response.  The  landed  interest  strained  every  nerve  to 
defeat  their  candidates,  and  when  the  new  parliament  met  the  con* 
servative  majority  was  estimated  at  nearly  80.  An  amendment  was 
carried  on  the  address ;  ministers  resigned,  and  sir  Robert  Peel  be- 
came premier  fur  the  second  time.  The  other  principal  members  of 
the  government  were  lord  Lyndhurst  chancellor,  Mr.  Goulbum  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer ;  sir  James  Graham  held  the  home  oflBce,  lord 
Aberdeen  the  foreign,  lord  Stanley  war  and  the  colonies,  lord  Ellen- 
borough  the  board  of  control  The  duke  of  Wellington  accepted 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet  without  office.  In  the  session  of  1842  sir 
Robert  Peel  introduced  and  carried  a  new  corn-law  on  the  principle 
of  a  graduated  scale ;  and,  in  order  at  once  to  supply  the  constantly 
deficient  revenue  and  to  effect  great  fiscal  reforms,  a  property  and 
income  tax  of  sevenpence  in  the  pound  was  imposed  on  all  incomes 
above  1501,  A  customs  act  was  passed,  either  repealing,  or  con- 
siderably reducing,  such  duties  as  pressed  most  heavily  on  manu- 
facturing industry  ;  thus  approximating  to  free  trade,  and  adopting 
Pitt's  policy. 

The  influence  of  O'Connell  was  now  at  its  height  in  Ireland. 
Weekly  meetings  were  held  in  a  building  called  Conciliation  Hall, 
and  large  sums  were  collected  for  the  "agitator."  Other  expedients 
of  sedition  were  the  "  monster  meetings  "  held  at  Tara  and  other 
places ;  but  that  at  Clontarf  proved  a  trap  for  the  agitator  himselt 
In  consequence  of  the  regulations  issued  for  the  meeting,  as  well  as 
some  seditious  expressions  used  at  an  assembling  of  the  Repeal  Asso- 
ciation, O'Connell  was  arrested  (October  14,  1843),  and  condemned, 
together  with  some  of  his  coadjutors,  to  imprisonment  for  conspiracy 
and  sedition,  by  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench  in  Dublin  (February  12, 
1844).  The  judgment  was  afterwards  reversed  by  the  House  of  Lords 
(September  4).  Peel,  in  the  mean  time,  had  attempted  to  con- 
ciliate; the  Irish  by  endowing  their  college  at  Maynooth,  and  estab- 
32 


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710  VICTOBIA,  Ohap.  xxxt. 

lishing  the  Qoeen's  Colleges  at  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Qalway  (1845). 
But  the  blow  was  irreooyerable ;  and  O'Connell  never  regained  his 
former  influence.  His  health  began  visibly  to  decline,  and  he  died 
at  Genoa  (May  15,  1847),  on  his  way  to  Rome  with  the  double 
»bject  of  benefiting  his  health  and  asking  the  pope^s  blessing. 

§  3.  The  question  which  now  principally  occupied  the  attention 
of  the  public  was  that  of  the  corn-laws ;  and  this  was  now  approach, 
ing  its  solution  through  an  unexpected  dispensation  of  Providence 
The  summer  of  1846  was  wet  and  cold;  it  was  plain  that  the 
harvest  would  be  deficient  not  only  in  England  but  throughout 
Europe.  In  addition  to  this  calamity  another  appeared,  hitherto 
unknown.  Disease  had  invaded  the  potato-crops,  and  the  root 
became  unfit  to  eat.  A  famine  in  Ireland,  where  the  potato  formed 
the  staple  food,  was  now  imminent.  The  Anti-Com-Law  League 
redoubled  its  agitation,  and  vast  sums  were  subscribed  in  all 
quarters  in  aid  of  its  objects.  Lord  Morpeth  joined  it ;  lord  John 
Russell  addressed  a  letter  to  his  constituents  in  London,  in  which, 
amid  taunts  directed  against  sir  Robert  Peel,  he  abandoned  his 
scheme  of  a  fixed  duty  on  com,  and  declared  himself  the  advocate 
of  free  trade.  Peel  himself,  however,  had  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  a  duty  on  corn  could  no  longer  be  upheld,  and  he  had  brought 
over  the  majority  of  the  cabinet  to  the  same  opinion ;  but  he  felt 
that  he  and  his  colleagues  were  not  the  persons  to  carry  a  measure 
which  they  had  always  opposed.  On  December  11  the  ministers 
resigned ;  and  Peel  announced  to  the  queen  his  intention  to 
support,  in  his  private  capacity,  any  minister  she  might  appoint 
who  should  propose  to  repeal  the  corn-laws.  Lord  John  Russell 
was  now  sent  for  by  the  queen ;  but  he  failed  in  forming  a  ministry, 
and  the  previous  one  was  restored.  In  January,  1846,  Peel  brought 
in  a  bill  by  which  the  duty  on  wheat  was  entirely  abolished  at 
the  end  of  three  years,  while  in  the  interval  it  was  reduced  to  45. 
per  quarter  when  the  price  was  at  and  above  53«.,  and  buck- 
wheat and  Indian  corn  were  immediately  admitted  duty  free.  By 
another  bill  the  customs  duties  on  silk,  cotton  manufactures,  foreign 
spirits,  and  other  articles,  were  reduced,  and  those  on  animal  food, 
live  animals,  vegetables,  and  the  like,  were  abolished.  The  measures 
were  carried  through  both  houses  by  considerable  majorities. 

The  re|)eal  of  the  corn-laws  broke  up  the  powerful  conservative 
party.  A  large  section  not  only  refused  to  follow  sir  Robert  Peel  in 
his  recent  change  of  opinion,  but  regarded  him  as  an  apostate  and 
a  traitor.  Sir  Robert  Peel  had  changed  his  opinions  from  honest 
conviction ;  but  it  was  unfortunate  for  his  reputation  that  a  second 
time  in  his  political  career  his  sense  of  duty  compelled  him  to  desert 
the  party  which  had  raised  him  to  power.     This  party,  which  was 


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AJO.  18ift-1860.     MINISTRY   OF   LORD  JOHN   RUSSELL.      711 

now  known  by  the  name  of  "  protectionists,"  looked  up  to  lord 
Stanley  as  their  leader — the  only  distinguished  member  of  sir 
Robert  Peel's  administration  who  had  opposed  the  repeal  of  the 
corn-laws ;  and  Mr.  Disraeli  was  its  chief  champion  in  the  commons. 
As  Ireland  was  still  in  a  very  disturbed  state,  sir  Robert  Peel 
brought  in  a  bill  for  the  better  protection  of  life  in  that  country, 
whereupon  the  protectionists  joined  the  whigs  in  defeating  it.  The 
ministry  resigned,  and  lord  John  Russell  became  premier  (July  6, 
1846). 

§  4.  The  year  1847  was  also  marked  by  great  distress  both  in 
England  and  Ireland.  The  potato-crop  again  failed ;  there  was  a 
famine  in  Ireland  ;  and,  though  the  British  parliament  voted  several 
millions  to  buy  food  for  the  starving  Irish,  they  nevertheless  rose  in 
rebellion.  O'Connell  had  now  vanished  from  the  scene ;  and  Mr. 
Smith  O'Brien  had  not  the  requisite  qualities  for  leading  the 
"young  Ireland"  party,  which  aimed  at  a  revolution  by  open  force. 
His  attempt  to  excite  a  rebellion  in  1848  proved  a  ridiculous 
failure :  he  was  captured  in  a  cabbage-garden,  convicted  of  high 
treason,  and  sentenced  to  death,  but  transported.  The  Irish,  being 
deprived  of  their  principal  agitators,  by  degrees  settled  down  into  a 
more  tranquil  state.  Copious  emigration,  the  introduction  of  a  more 
extended  com  cultivation,  the  sale  of  encumbered  estates,  and  the 
investment  of  a  large  amount  of  English  capital,  have  since  then 
much  improved  the  condition  of  the  country ;  and  thus  the  potato- 
rot,  which  at  first  appeared  a  curse  upon  Ireland,  eventually  turned 
out  a  blessing. 

The  revolution  by  which  Louis  Philippe  was  expelled  from  the 
French  throne,  in  February,  1848,  was  felt  throughout  Europe.  It 
had  fostered  rebellion  in  Ireland.  It  had  also  produced  a  slight 
effect  in  England,  where,  however,  the  materials  of  sedition  were 
happily  not  very  formidable.  The  London  chartists  took  occasion 
to  display  their  force  by  a  procession  (April  10),  and  mustered  on 
Kennington  Common  to  the  number  of  about  20,000 ;  but  no  fewer 
than  150,000  citizens  had  enrolled  themselves  as  special  constables, 
the  duke  of  Wellington  had  taken  the  necessary  military  precautions, 
and  this  ridiculous  display  ended  without  any  breach  of  the  peace. 

In  1849  a  further  advance  was  made  in  the  principles  of  free 
trade,  by  the  partial  repeal  of  the  navigation  laws.*  The  prosperity 
of  the  country  went  on  rapidly  increasing ;  and  sir  Robert  Peel  was 
gratified  with  beholding  the  success  of  his  measures,  when  his  life 
was  suddenly  terminated  by  a  fall  from  his  horse  (1850).  ITius 
prematurely  perished  a  great  minister  who  understood  the  commercial 
interests  of  this  country  better  than  any  man  who  had  ever  governed 
•  8m  Kotat  and  Illoatrationt  (C). 


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712  VICTORIA.  Chap. 

it.  If  he  lacked  something  of  that  cni^nal  and  commanding  genius 
which  forestals  events  and  anticipates  futurity,  he  was  neyertheless 
well  qualified  to  discern  and  provide  for  the  exigencies  of  the  time. 
His  career  throughout  was  noble  and  disinterested,  no  less  honour- 
able to  himself  than  beneficial  to  his  country. 

Since  the  repeal  of  the  catholic  disabilities  in  1829,  the  papal  party 
had  pursued  an  aggressive  policy  in  this  country,  and  the  pupe  now 
ventured  to  divide  the  whole  of  England  into  Roman  catholic  sees, 
nominating  cardinal  Wiseman  archbishop  of  Westminster,  and 
designating  other  Roman  catholic  prelates  by  similar  territorial 
titles  (1860).  To  put  a  stop  to  these  proceedings  the  ministers  in- 
troduced the  Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill,  which  was  carried  with  some 
diflBculty,  was  never  enforced,  and  was  afterwards  repealed  (1871). 

§  5.  The  beginning  of  a  new  half-century,  amidst  renewed  pro- 
sperity, was  marked  by  the  Great  Exhibition  of  the  Industry  of  All 
Nations  in  the  "  Crystal  Palace"  in  Hyde  Park,  which  was  zealously 
promoted  by  prince  Albert,  and  was  opened  by  the  queen  (May  1, 
1851).*  Enthusiastic  believers  in  social  progress  were  hailing  the 
pledge  of  peace  secured  by  commerce,  when  another  change  in 
France  prepared  a  new  series  of  troubles  and  wars.  The  republic 
proved  a  failure,  and  the  popular  veneration  for  Napoleon's  memoiy 
secured  the  election  as  president  of  his  reputed  nephew,  Charles 
Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  son  of  Hortense,  the  wife  of  Louis, 
king  of  Holland.  By  a  sudden  act  of  violence  (coup  <retat\  he 
overthrew  the  constitution  (December  2,  1851),  and  was  elected 
by  universal  suffrage  as  president  for  10  years.  Lord  Palmerston, 
having  recognized  the  change,  without  the  consent  of  his  col- 
leagues or  the  authority  of  the  queen,  was  dismissed  from  the 
ofiice  of  foreign  secretary ;  but  he  soon  avenged  the  affront  by 
defeating  the  government  on  the  Militia  Bill  (Mai-ch,  1852). 
Lord  John  Russell  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  earl  of 
Derby  (formerly  lord  Stanley)  as  premier,  with  Mr.  Disraeli  as 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  In  September  the  duke  of  Welling- 
ton expired  somewhat  suddenly  at  Walmer  Castle,  in  his  84th 
year — ^a  man  who  had  filled  a  larger  space  in  the  history  of 
his  country  than  has  perhaps  been  allotted  to  any  subject.  A 
magnificent  funeral  was  conferred  upon  him  at  the  public  expense. 
On  November  18,  1852,  his  mortal  remains  were  carried  to  their 
resting-place  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  accompanied  with  military 
pomp,  passinjg;  slowly  through  the  streets,  which  were  lined  with 
myriads  of  his  admiring  and  sorrowing  countrymen.  As  if  his 
departure  had  given  the  signal  for  restoring  the  Bonaparte  dynasty 
in  France,  Louis  Napoleon,  elected  emperor  by  universal  suffrage, 
*  The  site  Is  marked  bj  the  memorUd  to  prince  Albert. 


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A.D.  1858-1854.     MINISTRT  OF  LOBD  ABEBDEEN.  718 

was  proclaimed  as  Nafolbon  III.,  on  the  anniversary  of  Austerlitz 
and  of  his  uncle's  coronation  (December  2, 1852), 

The  same  month  saw  the  fall  of  the  new  ministry  in  England. 
Though  lord  Derby  had  dissolved  parliament,  and  sacrificed  the 
principles  of  protection,  he  was  left  in  a  minority  in  the  new 
House  of  (commons  ;  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  was  com- 
pelled to  resign.  He  was  succeeded  by  a  coalition  ministry  under 
lord  Aberdeen,  consisting  of  the  more  distinguished  friends  of 
sir  Robert  Peel,  the  great  leaders  of  the  whig  party,  and  a  few 
radicals.  In  the  session  of  1853  Mr.  .Gladstone,  as  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  produced  his  memorable  budget,  on  the  principles 
of  sir  Robert  Peel ;  establishing  a  duty  on  the  succession  to  real 
as  well  as  personal  property,  and  making  large  reductions  of  tax- 
ation; but  the  pleasing  prospect  of  the  cessation  of  the  income- 
•tax  in  1860,  and  of  the  gradual  conversion  of  the  national  debt  into 
a  2}  per  cent  stock,  was  overclouded  by  a  series  of  new  wars  in 
every  quarter  of  the  world.  The  Russian  csars  had  long  looked 
with  a  covetous  eye  on  Constantinople,  and  had  long  waited  for 
a  favourable  opportunity  to  seize  it.  Religion,  so  often  the  pretext 
of  secular  ambition,  was  made  the  ground  of  strife;  and  an 
obscure  quarrel  of  some  Greek  and  Latin  monks  about  the  holy 
places  of  Palestine,  with  which  the  Turks  had  not  meddled,  served 
to  excuse  the  attempt  to  appropriate  an  empire.  The  emperor 
Nicholas  demanded  on  this  ground  the  control  over  all  members 
of  the  Greek  church  residing  in  the  Turkish  dominions — a  de- 
mand that  was  naturally  rejected  by  the  Porte.  In  consequence  of 
this  refusal,  Russian  troops  crossed  the  Pruth  in  July,  and  took 
possesion  of  the  principalities  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  but 
were  defeated  by  Omar  Pasha  at  the  battle  of  Oltenitza ;  whilst  in 
November,  1853,  their  fleet,  sallying  from  Sevastopol,  utterly 
destroyed  the  Turkish  navy  at  Sinope. 

§  6.  War  was  now  fairly  kindled  between  Russia  and  the  Porte. 
For  the  success  of  his  plans  the  emperor  Nicholas  calculated  on  the 
subservience  of  (Jerraany,  the  disturbed  state  of  France,  and  the 
connivance  of  England,  to  which  he  ofifered  Egypt  as  her  share  of 
*'  the  sick  man's  "  inheritance.  But  England  was  not  ambitious  d 
further  acquisitions,  and  least  of  all  by  such  means ;  Turkey  claimed 
her  assistance  on  the  faith  of  treaties ;  and  Napoleon  HI.  hoped  to 
establish  his  new  throne  by  cordially  uniting  with  Great  Britain 
to  repress  the  ambition  of  Russia.  Austria  and  Prussia  stood 
aloof,  but  a  combined  English  and  French  fleet  proceeded  to  the 
Black  Sea,  and  shut  up  the  Russians  in  the  harbour  of  Sevastopol. 

As  nes^ociations  with  Russia  during  the  winter  proved  ineffectual, 
war  was  daolared  against  her  by  England  and  France  in  the  spring 


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714  yiOTORIA.  Ohaf^  xxxt. 

(1854).  A  French  army  under  marshal  St.  Amaud,  and  an  Eng- 
lish one  under  lord  Raglan  (Fitzroy  Somerset),  assembled  at  Yama 
in  Turkey,  whilst  an  English  fleet  under  sir  Charles  Kapier  was 
despatched  to  the  Baltic.  This  force  kept  the  Russian  fleet 
shut  up  behind  the  guns  of  Eronstadt,  and,  being  reinforced  by 
a  French  squadron,  captured  the  fortress  of  Bomarsund.  The 
English  and  French,  who  had  been  so  often  arrayed  against 
each  other,  were  now  seen  fighting  side  by  side  against  a 
common  enemy.  The  gallant  defence  of  the  Turks  on  the  banks 
of  the  Danube  having  dissipated  all  alarm  in  that  quarter^  it 
was  determined,  towards  the  end  of  summer,  to  transport  the 
allied  army  from  Varna  to  the  Crimea,  and  to  attack  Sevastopol. 
They  landed  without  opposition  (September  14)  at  Eupatoria,  on 
the  west  coast  of  the  Crimea.  Prince  MenschikofT,  the  commandant 
of  Sevastopol,  had  taken  post  with  a  force  of  about  60,000  men  on  the 
heights  which  crown  the  left  bank  of  the  little  river  Alma,  in  cider 
to  oppose  their  advance  on  that  fortress.  As  he  had  fortified  this 
naturally  strong  position  with  great  care,  he  confidently  reckoned 
on  holding  it  at  least  three  weeks ;  but  it  was  carried  after  a  few 
hours*  fighting  by  the  allied  armies,  though  with  considerable  !•  ss 
(September  20).  The  Russians  flung  away  their  arms  and  fled ; 
many  of  their  guns  were  captured,  together  with  MenschikofTs 
carriage  and  despatches ;  and  nothing  saved  their  army  from  anni> 
hilation  but  the  want  of  cavalry  to  pursue  it.  Had  the  allies  been 
in  a  condition  to  move  forward  immediately,  it  is  probable  that  they 
might  have  entered  Sevastopol  along  with  the  flying  enemy ;  but 
the  care  of  the  wounded  and  the  internment  of  the  dead  occasioned 
delay.  The  march  was  then  directed  towards  the  harbour  of  Bala- 
klava,  the  ancient  Portus  Symbolon,  to  the  south  of  Sevastopol, 
which  enabled  the  array  to  derive  its  supplies  from  the  sea.  The 
heights  south  of  Sevastopol  were  occupied,  and  preparations  were 
made  for  commencing  a  siege.  This  was  rendered  diflicult  by  the 
rocky  nature  of  the  soil,  and  it  was  not  till  October  17  that  the 
allies  were  able  to  open  their  fire  upon  the  place.  The  Russians 
had  availed  themselves  of  the  interval  to  fortify  it  with  great  skill, 
and  the  large  fleet  shut  up  in  the  harbour  assisted  them  with  the 
means  of  defence. 

This  siege  lasted  nearly  a  twelvemonth,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  memorable  in  history.  Soon  after  its  commencement,  a  Rus- 
sian army  of  30,000  men,  under  Liprandi,  endeavoured  to  raise  it 
by  an  attack  upon  our  position  at  Balaklava  (October  25),  but  after 
a  severe  struggle  they  were  repulsed.  This  battle  is  chiefly  memo- 
rable for  the  charge  of  the  light  cavalry  brigade  under  the  earl  of 
Cardigan,  when,  by  some  confusion  in  the  orders,  a  body  of  600  or 


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AJ>.  18M-18S6.       SIBGE  OF  SEVASTOPOL.  716 

700  men  charged  the  whole  Bu88ir,n  army,  got  possession  for  a  little 
while  of  their  artillery,  and  cut  their  way  back  through  a  body  ol 
5000  horse,  leaving  however  more  than  two-thirds  of  their  number 
dead  upon  the  field ! 

On  November  5  the  Bussians,  having  been  reinforced,  again 
attempted  our  position  at  Inkermann.  Advancing  early  in  the 
morning  under  cover  of  a  fog,  they  took  our  men  somewhat  by 
sur|irise ;  but,  though  outnumbered  by  ten  to  one,  the  British  troope 
held  their  ground  with  unflinching  heroism,  till  general  Canrobert, 
who  had  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  French  army  after  the 
death  of  general  St.  Amaud,  sent  a  division  to  their  assistance. 
The  Bussianswere  now  hurled  down  the  heights,  while  the  artillery 
made  terrible  havoc  in  their  serried  ranks.  Their  loss  is  said  to 
have  been  as  many  as  the  whole  number  of  allies  with  whom  they 
were  engaged.  General  Pennefather's  division,  and  the  brigade  of 
guards  under  the  duke  of  Cambridge,  were  the  troops  principally 
engaged  upon  this  occasion.  After  this  terrible  lesson  the  Biissians 
were  cautious  of  venturing  on  another  battle;  but  the  defence  of 
the  town  was  carried  on  with  skill  and  obstinacy,  and  many 
desperate  sorties  took  place.  Attempts  were  made  by  the  flcot 
under  admirals  Dundas  and  Lyons  upon  the  seaward  batteries,  but 
they  were  found  to  be  impregnable.  During  the  winter  the  army 
suffered  more  from  excessive  fatigue  and  the  weather  on  those 
exposed  and  stormy  heights,  than  from  the  enemy ;  and  their 
sufierings  were  increased  by  the  defective  and  disorganized  state  of 
the  commissariat  department.  An  English  lady,  named  Florence 
Nightingale,  devoted  herself,  during  the  siege,  to  the  alleviation 
of  these  sufierings ;  and,  proceeding  with  a  stafi*  of  nurses  to  the 
army  hospitals  at  Scutari,  undertook  the  most  repulsive  offices  in 
tending  the  sick  and  wounded. 

§  7.  The  ministry  had  become  unpopular  in  consequence  of  the 
sufferings  of  the  army,  and  a  motion  carried  in  the  commons  for  an 
inquiry  into  their  management  of  the  war  (January,  1855)  caused 
the  resignation  of  lord  Aberdeen,  who  was  succeeded  by  lord 
Palmerston.  The  remaining  **  Peelites,"  Mr.  Gladstone,  sir  James 
Graham,  and  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert,  soon  left  the  ministry.  It  was 
expected  that  the  death  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  which  took  place 
suddenly  (March  2),  would  have  led  to  the  re-establishment  of 
peace;  but  the  war  was  continued  under  his  son  and  successor 
Alexander  II.  Its  interest  was  principally  concentrated  on  Sevas- 
topol. In  the  Baltic,  admiral  Dundas  was  able  to  do  little  more 
than  his  predecessor,  but  the  Black  Sea  fleet  was  more  succeccfiiL 
A  squadron  under  sir  Edmund  Lyons  proceeded  into  the  Sea  of 
Azov,  captured  Kertch,  Yenikale,  and  other  towns,  destroying  vast 


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716  VICTOBIA.  Chap.  xixv. 

granaries  whence  the  Russians  chiefly  derived  their  supplies,  and 
thus  hastened  the  fiBkll  of  SevastopoL 

While  Prussia  stood  selfishly  aloof,  Austria  joined  the  allies,  but 
took  little  part  in  the  war.  Her  occupation  of  the  principalities, 
however,  set  free  the  Turkish  aJrmy  to  act  in  the  Crimea.  The 
Sardinians,  with  British  aid,  despatched  to  the  scene  of  action 
a  well-equipped  little  army,  under  general  de  la  Marmora,  which 
proved  of  considerable  service.  In  June  lord  Raglan  was  carried 
oflF  by  cholera,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  command  by  general 
Simpson.  Marshal  St.  Arnaud  had  died  some  time  before,  and 
now  the  French  commander,  general  Ganrobert,  was  superseded  by 
general  P^lissier.  Soon  after  the  arrival  of  the  latter,  the  French 
took  an  outwork  called  the  Mamelon ;  and  on  the  5th  September 
the  general  and  final  bombardment  took  place.  On  the  8th  an 
assault  was  deemed  practicable,  and  the  French  effected  a  lodg- 
ment in  the  fort  or  .tower  called  the  Malakoff.  The  English 
storming  party  also  succeeded  in  gaining  possession  of  the  fort 
called  the  Redan ;  but  were  obliged  ultimately  to  retire,  from  want 
of  proper  support.  The  possession  of  the  Malakoff,  however,  which 
commanded  the  town,  decided  its  fate,  and  in  the  course  of  the 
night  the  Russians  evacuated  the  town,  and  retired  to  the  forts  on 
the  north  side  of  the  harbour  (September  10). 

After  the  fall  of  Sevastopol  the  war  was  virtually  at  an  end ; 
but  the  heroic  defence  of  Kars,  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  by  general 
Williams,  who  commanded  the  Turkish  garrison,  deserves  to  be 
noticed.  Time  after  time  the  Russians,  who  rushed  to  the  assault 
with  vastly  superior  numbers,  were  driven  back  with  terrible  loss; 
and  when  at  length  a  capitulation  became  necessary,  the  conqueror, 
Mouraviev,  dismissed  general  Williams  with  all  the  honours  of 
war,  and  expressions  of  the  highest  admiration  for  his  bravery 
(November  28, 1855). 

The  allied  armies  established  their  winter  quarters  amidst  the 
ruins  of  Sevastopol,  and,  had  the  war  continued,  there  can  be  little 
question  that  the  whole  of  the  Crimea  would  have  fallen  into  their 
hands ;  but  negociations  for  peace,  begun  under  the  mediation  of 
Austria,  were  brought  to  a  successful  but  somewhat  premature 
conclusion  in  January,  1856.  The  Russian  protectorate  in  the 
Danubian  principalities  was  abolished,  the  freedom  of  the  Danube 
and  its  mouths  was  established,  both  Russian  and  Turkish  ships  of 
war  were  banished  from  the  Black  Sea,*  except  a  few  small  vessels 
necessary  as  a  maritime  police,  and  the  Christian  subjects  of  the 
Porte  were  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  contracting  powers. 

•  lliii  stipalaiion  waa  aoouUed  in  I  BMtern  question  was  made  1^  Uia  Tnaty 
Itll  t  •od  a  new  settlement  of  the  whole  |  of  Berlin  In  1878  (^  page  735). 


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A.D.  179a-18(».     BEVIEW  OF  AFFAIRS  IN  INDU.  717 

On  these  bases  a  definitiye  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Paris  by 
England,  France,  Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  Sardinia,  and  Turkey 
(March  30,  1866).  A  separate  treaty  was  made  between  England, 
France,  and  Austria,  fbr  the  defence  of  the  independence  and 
integrity  of  the  Turkish  empire.  The  congress  did  not  separate 
without  coming  to  an  agreement  on  the  long -disputed  questions  of 
maritime  warfare,  by  which  the  rights  of  neutrals  were  enlarged  and 
inivateering  was  henceforth  to  be  abolished  ;  but  America  refused 
to  accede  to  this  arrangement.  An  omen  of  the  next  European 
question  to  be  brought  to  the  arbitrament  of  war  was  given  by  the 
presence  of  count  Gavour,as  plenipotentiary  for  Sardinia  at  the 
congress  of  Paris. 

§  8.  Meanwhile  commercial  relations  had  been  established  with 
Japan ;  and  now  a  new  war  with  China  gave  occasion  for  the  defeat 
of  lord  Palmerston  by  the  combined  vote  of  the  old  whigs,  under  lord 
John  Russell,  the  Peelites,  and  the  "peace  party,**  with  the  c(m« 
servatives  (1857).  An  appeal  to  the  country  returned  a  new  par- 
liament devoted  to  lord  Palmerston,  whose  name  became  henceforth 
the  watchword  of  the  moderate  liberals.  Amidst  the  enthusiasm 
.  of  foreign  and  political  victory,  the  blessings  of  peace  and  a  glorious 
summer,  it  was  remembered  that  our  Indian  empire  had  reached 
its  hundredth  year ;  and  a  proposal  had  boen  made  to  celebrate  the 
centenary  of  Plassey,  when  the  news  came  of  a  mutiny  of  the  sepoys, 
threatening  our  expulsion  from  the  peninsula. 

We  followed  the  history  of  our  Indinn  empire  to  the  governor- 
generalship  of  lord  Comwnllis  (p.  641),  who  reduced  Tippoo  Sahib, 
sultan  of  Mysore,  to  obedience  (1792).  Under  the  weak  govern- 
ment of  his  successor,  sir  John  Shore,  Tippoo  again  rose  and  endea- 
voured to  form  an  alliance  against  us  with  the  French.  The 
attempt  was  put  down  imder  the  vigorous  administration  of  lord 
Momington  (marquess  Wellesley),  when,  under  the  conduct  of 
general  Harris,  Tippoo*8  capital,  Seringapatam,  was  captured  by 
general  Baird,  and  Tippoo  was  piain  (May,  1799).  Soon  after- 
wards Arthur  Wellesley,  brother  of  the  governor-general,  began 
to  distinguish  himself  in  India,  lliree  Mahratta  chieftains — 
Holkar,  Scindiah,  and  the  rajah  of  Berar— encouraged  by  French 
intrigues,  having  combined  against  their  sovereign  the  Peishwah, 
residing  at  Poonah,  in  the  Deccan,  the  governor-general  despatched 
two  armies  against  them,  one  commanded  by  his  brother,  the  other 
by  general  Lake.  The  former  invaded  the  territories  of  the  rajah  of 
Berar,  took  Ahmednnggur,  and  defeated  the  rajah  and  Scindiah  at 
Assaye,  although  they  had  30,000  men  and  a  numerous  artillery, 
commanded  by  French  officers,  whilst  Wellesley's  force  was  not 
above  a  sixth  of  that  number  (September  23, 1803).  The  Mahratta 
S2* 


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718  VICTORIA.  Chap. 

chiefs  were  again  defeated  at  Argaum  (Noyember  29),  and  oompelled 
to  sue  for  peace  and  to  cede  large  tracts  of  valuable  territory.  Lake 
was  equally  successful  in  northern  India.  He  defeated  a  large  native 
force  under  the  French  general  Perron,  stormed  and  took  Alighur, 
and  then  advanced  against  Delhi,  where  the  cause  of  Scindiah  was 
supported  by  another  French  officer  named  Bourguien.  After  his 
defeat  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna,  Delhi,  the  capital  of  Hindostan, 
and  the  residence  of  Shah  Alum,  the  last  Mogul  emperor,  easily  fell 
into  Lake's  hands.  Soon  afterwards  the  capture  of  Agra,  and  the  final 
defeat  of  the  remnant  of  Scindiah's  forces  at  Laswari,  annihilated 
his  power  in  that  district.  By  these  victories  French  influence  in 
India  was  abolished,  and  a  great  accession  of  power  and  territory 
accrued  to  the  company. 

In  1805  the  marquess  Wellesley  returned  home,  and  lord  Oom- 
wallis  again  assumed  the  government.  He  was  soon  succeeded  by 
lord  Minto,  but  neither  of  them  effected  much  for  our  Indian  domi- 
nion. In  18 1 3  lord  Moira  (afterwards  marquess  of  Hastings)  became 
governor-general ;  and  under  his  auspices,  and  chiefly  by  the  courage 
and  abilities  of  sir  John  Malcolm,  the  Mahrattas,  and  their  allies  the 
Pindarees,  were  reduced  to  obedience.  Hastings  held  the  government 
till  1822,  and  was  succeeded  by  lord  William  Bentinck.  A  war 
with  the  Burmese,  who  had  annoyed  Bengal,  ended  in  their  cession 
of  Arracan  (1826).  In  January  of  that  year  lord  Combermere 
reduced  Bhurtpore,  which  had  resisted  the  arms  of  Lake,  and  was 
esteemed  the  strongest  fortress  in  India.  During  the  administration 
of  lord  Auckland,  Soojah,  the  expelled  usurper  of  Gabul,  was  replaced 
on  the  throne  by  the  English  arms,  led  by  sir  John  Keane  (1839) ; 
but  in  November,  1841,  the  Afghan  insurrection  broke  out  in  that 
city,  and  the  English  were  obliged  to  evacuate  the  country.  They 
endured  the  most  dreadful  sufferings  in  their  winter  retreat,  both 
from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  and  the  attacks  of  the  Afghans. 
In  the  Kurd  Cabul  Pass  alone,  no  fewer  than  3000  men  are  said  to 
have  fallen ;  and  ultimately,  of  the  whole  retreating  army  of  4500 
men  (with  no  less  than  12,000  camp-followers),  a  few  only  survived. 
It  was  the  greatest  disaster  that  the  English  arms  had  ever  ex- 
perienced in  India.  Lord  Auckland  was  superseded  in  1841  by  lord 
Ellenborough,  who  took  vigorous  measures  to  avenge  the  diraster. 
General  Sale  was  still  holding  out  at  Jellalabad. '  He  was  relieved  by 
general  Pollock,  who  then,  in  conjunction  with  general  Nott, 
advanced  against  Cabul,  and  recovered  that  city  (September,  1842). 
Cabul  was  again  evacuated,  after  this  signal  proof  that  it  was  not 
done  as  a  matter  of  necessity. 

§  9.  This  first  Afghan  war  was  followed*  by  the  occupation  of 
Scinde,  the  region  on  the  lower  Indus,  wh^re  our  disasters  at  OabuJ 


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AJ).  18CT.  THE  INDIAN  MUTINY.  719 

had  encouraged  a  confederacy  of  the  Ameers,  or  princes,  against  ub. 
The  conquest  was  effected  by  sir  Charles  Napier,  a  Peninsular 
veteran,  who  in  this  war  displayed  feats  of  the  most  daring  bold- 
ness. In  the  battle  of  Meeanee  (February  17,  1843)  he  defeated 
between  30,000  and  40,000  men  with  a  force  of  only  about  2000. 
He  next  took  Hyderabad,  the  capital  of  Sciude ;  and  by  another 
victory  near  that  town  reduced  the  whole  country,  which  was 
annexed  by  lord  EUenborough  to  the  company's  dominions.  In 
the  same  year  the  district  of  Gwalior  was  reduced  by  generals 
Gough  and  Grey. 

In  1844  lord  EUenborough  was  succeeded  by  sir  Henry  Hardinge. 
In  December,  1846,  the  Sikhs  of  the  Punjab,  or  Lahore  territory, 
declared  war  upon  us,  and,  crossing  the  Sutlej,  advanced  on  Feroze- 
pore.  They  were  the  most  warlike  enemies  we  had  yet  encountered 
in  India.  The  governor-general  himself,  an  experienced  officer,  and 
sir  Hugh  Gough,  the  commander-in-chief,  advanced  against  them. 
Several  obstinate  engagements  followed,  till  at  length  the  victories 
of  Aliwal  and  Sobraon  (1846)  put  an  end  to  the  campaign,  and 
secured  our  influence  in  that  country.  In  1848,  however,  the  city 
of  Mooltan  rose  in  revolt ;  and,  though  the  courage  of  lieutenant 
Edwardes  prevented  any  serious  consequences,  it  held  out  fpr  some 
months.  Thus  encouraged,  other  Sikh  princes  made  a  stand  against 
lord  Gough  at  ChiUianwallah,  inflicting  upon  us  great  loss  (January 
13,  1849);  but  in  the  following  month  they  were  defeated  and 
subdued  at  Goojerat,  when  lord  Dalhousie,  now  governor-general, 
annexed  the  Punjab  to  the  British  possessions. 

The  whole  of  the  Indian  peninsula  was  now  subject  to  our> 
empire,  from  Cape  Comorin  to  the  Himalaya  mountains  and  the 
Indus.  Not  indeed  that  all  the  states  were  annexed,  yet  even 
those  that  remained  under  their  native  princes  owed  us  allegiance, 
and  were  subject  to  our  superintendence.  The  last  great  acquisi- 
tion was  made  by  the  annexation  of  Oude  in  1856.  Our  empire 
seemed  too  firmly  established  to  be  shaken,  yet  already  for  some 
years  the  elements  of  mutiny  had  been  fermenting  in  the  Bengal 
army.  Symptoms  of  discontent  had  been  obsei*ved  as  early  as  1824, 
and  many  other  instances  subsequently  occurred,  which  were  treated 
with  too  much  leniency  and  forbearance.  At  length  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Enfield  rifle  necessitated  the  use  of  greased  car- 
tridges. The  grease  was  mutton  fat  and  wax,  but  it  was  whispered 
among  the  discontented  that  it  consisted  of  the  fat  of  swine  and 
cows,  abominations  both  to  the  Hindoo  and  the  Mahomedan, 
and  it  was  asserted  that  the  intention  was  to  deprive  the  Brahmin 
sepoys  of  their  caste.  Symptoms  of  insubordination  and  violence 
b^an  to  appear  early  in  1857.     In  May  many  regiments  of  the 


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720  VICTOaiA.  Ohap.  XXXV. 

Bengal  army  were  in  open  mutiny.  In  that  month  Delhi,  the 
ancient  capital  of  India,  and  still  the  residence  of  the  representa- 
tive of  the  Moguls,  was  seized  by  the  insurgents,  with  all  its 
immense  military  stores.  Although  it  was  the  great  arsenal  of 
our  artillery,  it  had  been  left  without  the  protection  of  a  British 
force:  such  was  the  blind  confidence  reposed  in  the  sepoys.  The 
capture  of  Delhi  was  followed  by  the  revolt  of  the  remaining 
Bengal  regiments.  Fortunately  the  Madras  and  Bombay  armies, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  remained  faithful;  but  almost  the  whole 
of  Bengal  was  lost  for  a  time,  and  many,  both  in  this  country  and 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  believed  that  the  English  would  be 
driven  entirely  out  of  India. 

Into  the  horrors  of  this  rebellion,  and  the  determined  energy  and 
courage  vrith  which  it  was  met,  our  space  will  not  permit  us  to 
enter.  It  served  to  bring  out  British  valour  in  high  relief,  and  the 
names  of  Lawrence,  of  Havelock,  and  the  other  numerous  officers 
who  distinguished  themselves  at  this  trying  and  difllicnlt  conjunc- 
ture, will  not  soon  be  effaced  from  the  memory  of  their  countrymen. 
The  rebellion  received  a  decisive  blow  by  the  re-capture  of  Delhi 
by  general  Wilson  on  September  21,  1867;  and  the  subsequent 
victories  of  sir  Colin  Campbell,  afterwards  lord  Clyde,  who  went 
out  to  India  as  commander-in-chief,  brought  the  contest  to  a  close. 

§  10.  The  mutiny  of  the  Bengal  army  proved  the  death-blow 
of  the  East  India  Company.  This  celebrated  comjiany,  originally 
an  association  of  merchants  for  the  purpose  of  trading  to  the  Eas»t, 
had  been  deprived  of  its  exclusive  commercial  privileges  upon 
the  renewal  of  its  charter  in  1833 ;  but  the  Court  of  Directors, 
elected  by  the  proprietors  of  East  India  Stock,  still  continued  to 
govern  India,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Board  of  Control, 
originally  instituted  by  Mr.  Pitt.  Upon  the  meeting  of  pariia- 
ment  at  the  beginning  of  1858,  the  prime  minister,  lord  Palmcrston, 
introduced  a  bill  lor  placing  the  government  of  India  in  the  hands 
of  tlie  crown,  and  dissolving  the  East  India  Company.  But  before 
this  bill  passed  into  a  law,  the  Palmerston  ministry  was  overthrown. 

While  count  Cavour,  who  had  become  foreign  minister  of  Sardinia 
on  January  11,  1855,  was  maturing  his  schemes  for  Italian  unity 
the  conspiracy  of  Orsini  to  assassinate  the  emperor  of  the  French 
led  to  unexpected  results  (January  14,  1858).  The  menaces  of 
certain  French  officers  against  England,  as  the  asylum  of  con- 
spirators, were  answered  by  the  revival  of  the  volunteer  movement 
of  1804 ;  and  a  permanent  reserve  was  thus  added  to  our  military 
forces.  To  assure  France  that  this  meant  "not  defiance  bot 
defence,"  lord  Palmerston  proposed  to  raise  the  crime  of  conspiring 
lu  England  against  the  life  of  a  foreign  sovereign  from  a  mis- 


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A.D.  1859.         LORD  derby's  SECOND  MINISTRY.  721 

demeanour  to  a  felony.  But  the  national  jealousy  for  Britain 
as  the  sanctuary  of  political  exiles  took  alaim,  and  the  hill 
was  rejected.  Lord  Palmerston  thereupon  resigned  office,  and 
lord  Derhy  hecame  prime  minister  a  second  time,  with  Mr.  Dis- 
raeli as  leader  in  the  commons  (February  20).  The  new  ministry 
introduced  another  India  hill,  which  p^sed  through  loth  houses 
of  parliament  and  received  the  assent  of  the  crown ,  and  on  Septemher 
1, 1858,  the  East  India  Company,  which  had  founded  and  governed 
a  mighty  empire  with  pre-eminent  ability  and  success,  ceased  to  rule 
India,  and  the  company  itself  was  dissolved  on  January  1, 1874. 
The  queen  was  proclaimed  in  India  on  November  1,  1858,  and  the 
governor-general,  lord  Canning,  became  the  first  viceroy.  India  is 
now  governed  by  a  secretary  of  state,*  assisted  by  a  council  of  1 1 
members ;  and  the  millions  of  that  vast  country  acknowledge  queen 
Victoria  as  their  only  sovereign  and  empress  (see  p.  732). 

§  11.  The  only  other  legislative  measure  of  this  session  which 
requires  notice  is  the  admission  of  the  Jews  to  parliament  In 
the  following  session  a  single  oath  was  substituted  for  the  oaths 
of  allegiance,  supremacy,  and  abjuration,  required  of  members  of 
parliament  (April  8, 1859) ;  and  this  form  has  since  been  further 
amended  by  the  omission  of  the  words  objected  to  by  Roman 
catholics,  who  are  no  longer  required  to  take  a  separate  oath 
(April  30, 1866).  But  the  attempt  of  the  government  to  settle  the 
question  of  further  reform  in  parliament,  which  had  been  agitated 
for  several  years,  ended  in  their  defeat  by  330  votes  a  ainst  291 
(March  31,  1859),  and  was  followed  by  a  dissolution  (April  19). 
The  sixth  jparlinment  of  queen  Vict<jria  was  opened  on  the  3l8t  of 
May ;  and,  in  reply  to  the  speech  from  the  throne,  a  vote  of  want 
of  confidence  was  carried  against  the  ministry  by  323  to  310. 
Lord  Derby  resigned  office,  and  lord  Palmerston  became  prime 
minister  a  second  time  (June  18, 1859). 

The  fall  of  lord  Derby's  second  government  was  hastened  by  his 
supposed  want  of  sympathy  with  the  cause  of  Italy.  A  scheme  for 
the  liberation  of  Italy  from  the  Austrian  dominion  in  the  north, 
and  Austrian  infiuence  throughout  the  peninsula,  had  been  con- 
certed between  Napoleon  111.  and  count  Cavour,  who  secretly 
promised  the  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France.  An  ominous 
speech  of  the  emperor  to  the  Austrian  ambassador,  at  the  usual 
diplomatic  reception  on  New  Year's  Day,  1859,  sounded  the  alarm 


*  There  are  now  fire  secretaries  of 
slate :  one  for  home  allktrs,  a  second  for 
foreign  afiaira,  a  third  for  the  colonies,  a 
fourth  for  war,  and  a  fUth  fbr  India. 
Previously  there  had  been  only  three 
secretaries:  one  for  home,  a  second  for 


foreign  aflWrs,  and  a  third  for  war  and 
the  colonies.  The  lost  office  was  divided 
at  the  time  of  the  Crimean  war,  when 
thp  subordinate  office  of  secretary  at  war 
was  merged  In  the  secretaryship /w  war. 


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722  VICTORIA,  Chap.  xxxv. 

through  Europe;  and,  after  fruitless  negodationit,  the  signal  for 
war  was  given  hy  a  summons  from  Austria  to  Sardinia  to 
disarm  (April  19),  whereupon  the  French  armies  entered  Italy. 
On  the  29th  of  April  the  Austrians  crossed  the  Ticino,  but  their 
defeats  at  Montebello  (May  20)  and  Magenta  (June  4)  were 
followed  on  the  24  th  by  the  decisive  victory  of  the  French  at 
Sol  ferine ;  and,  at  a  personal  interview  at  Yilla&anca  (July  II), 
Napoleon  and  Francis  Joseph  agreed  on  the  terms  afterwards 
embodied  in  the  treaty  concluded  at  Zurich  (November  11).  Lom- 
bardy  was  ceded  to  France,  in  order  to  be  handed  over  to  Sardinia. 
The  other  arrangements  were  scattered  to  the  winds  by  the  action 
of  the  people,  who,  in  Tuscany,  Modena^  Parma,  smd  the  Roman 
Legations  of  Ferrara  and  Bologna  (otherwise  called  the  Romagna), 
annexed  themselves  by  public  votes  to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia, 
which  thus  included  all  the  ancient  territory  of  Cisalpine  Gkiul, 
excepting  Venetia,  but  with  Tuscany  added.  Nor  did  the  move- 
ment stop  here.  Giuseppe  Graribaldi — who,  with  Mazzini  and 
Saffi,  had  governed  Rome  and  defended  it  against  the  French  in 
1849 — ^landed  with  a  body  of  volunteers  at  Marsala  in  Sicily 
(May  11,  1860),  and  won  the  island,  except  the  citadel  of  Messina. 
Crossing  the  straits,  Oaribaldi  entered  Naples  amidst  the  cheers 
both  of  soldiers  and  civilians  (September  8).  Francis  II.  had  fled 
the  day  before  to  Gaeta,  the  defence  of  which  was  protracted,  chiefly 
by  the  heroism  of  queen  Caroline,  to  the  13th  of  February,  1861. 
The  capitulation  of  Messina  on  that  day  month  finished  the  re- 
duction of  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies,  the  people  of  which  had 
meanwhile  voted  their  union  to  the  other  liberated  states.  On  the 
following  day  (March  14),  Victor  Emmanuel  accepted  the  title  of 
King  of  Italy,  which  was  recognized  by  England,  in  spite  of  the 
protest  of  pope  Pius  IX.,  who  was  still  maintained  in  Rome  and 
in  the  patrimony  of  St.  Peter  by  the  French  army  of  occupation. 

§  12.  Meanwhile,  at  home,  lord  Palmerston's  second  ministry, 
strengthened  by  a  reconciliation  with  the  Peelites  and  with  lord 
John  Russell,  who  accepted  the  office  of  foreign  secretary,  had  a 
prosperous  beginning.  In  the  year  1860,  about  2,000,0(XW.  were 
struck  off  the  annual  charge  of  the  national  debt  by  the  falling  in 
of  the  "  long  annuities ;"  and  now  the  recovery  from  the  financial 
pressure  of  seven  troubled  years,  and  the  vast  expansion  of  our 
commerce  in  consequence  of  free  trade  and  of  the  gold  discoveries 
in  California,  Australia,  and  Columbia,  enabled  Mr.  Gladstone  to 
complete  the  work  begun  by  sir  Robert  Peel.  Richard  Cobden,  the 
advocate  of  free  trade,  fitly  shared  the  work  by  negociating  a  treaty 
of  commerce  with  the  emperor  Napoleon.  By  this  treaty  the  winee 
and  other  productions  of  France  were  admitted  in  exchange  for  our 


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iLD.  ISeS.  DKITH  or  THB  PRINCE  COKSOBT.  728 

maniifiicturBB,  at  the  apparent  cost  of  a  mutual  Bacrifice  of  impoets. 
The  year  was  further  marked  by  the  oloee  of  the  wars  with  China, 
which  had  occurred  at  intervals  during  twenty  years.  The  allied 
armies  of  England  and  France  stormed  Pekin  (October  12,  1860), 
and  lord  Elgin  negociated  a  treaty  with  a  minister  who  seemed  at 
length  to  haye  disoovered  some  of  the  advantages  of  foreign 
commerce. 

§  13.  The  second  deocDnial  Exhibition  of  Industry  opened  in 
London  on  May  1,  1862,  but  was  deprived  of  the  presence  of  prince 
Albert,  who  has  been  carried  off  by  fever  at  Windsor  (Saturday, 
December  14, 1881).  He  had  evinced  great  interest  in  all  schemes 
for  social  improvement.  His  speeches  on  such  occasions  have  been 
collected  into  a  volume  by  her  Majesty's  command,  and  memorials 
of  his  life  have  been  composed  and  published  under  her  direction. 

§  14.  Among  the  most  momentous  events  of  the  period  was  the 
civil  war  which  raged  in  North  America,  fh)m  1861  to  1865, 
between  the  Northern  and  Southern  States  of  the  Union,  ending  in 
the  victory  of  the  Northern  States.  The  threatened  paralysis  of  our 
most  extensive  branch  of  industry,  throu<;h  the  dearth  of  cotton, 
produced  great  sufferings  in  the  manufacturing  districts,  which 
were  alleviated  not  less  by  the  patient  endurance  of  the  sufferers 
themselves,  than  by  the  liberality  of  the  rich.    (Sup.  N.  XXXII.) 

§  16.  While  the  federal  principle  was  subjected  to  so  rude  a  test 
in  the  Ne^/  World,  the  Old  seemed  to  be  mustering  its  forces  for  a 
contest  not  less  great,  upon  the  principle  of  **  nationalities."  The 
people  of  Germany  awaited  the  revival  of  the  hopes  that  had  been 
crushed  in  1849;  while  Italy  avowedly  held  the  attitude  of  an 
armed  truce  towards  Austria  till  Venetia  should  be  hers,  and  refused 
to  gratify  Napoleon  by  resigning  her  claims  on  Rome.  The  emperor 
generously  chose  the  moment  of  count  Cavour's  death  to  recognize 
the  new  kingdom  (June,  1861).  The  impatient  enterprise  of 
Ghiribaldi  for  the  recovery  of  Rome  was  put  down  by  the  troops  of 
Victor  Emmanuel  at  Aspromonte,  in  Calabria  (August  29,  1862). 
Two  years  later  (September  16,  1864)  a  convention  was  made 
between  Napoleon  III.  and  the  king  of  Italy,  for  the  evacuation  of 
Rome  by  the  French  trooops  before  the  end  of  186»i.  The  capital 
of  Italy  was,  by  this  treaty,  transferred  to  Florence,  and  the  further 
progress  of  Italian  liberation  was  apparently  suspended  for  two  years. 
It  could  scarcely  have  been  supposed  that  the  peace  concluded  about 
the  same  time  by  Denmark  with  Austria  and  Prussia  would  be  the 
prelude  to  another  act  of  the  same  drama. 

Holstein  was  a  purely  G^erman  state,  a  member  of  the  Oermanic 
Confederation,  and  governed  by  the  king  of  Denmark  only  as  its 
duke.     Schleswig  had  only  a  personal  union  with  the  kingdom; 


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724  VICTOEIA.  Ohap.  xxxt. 

but  its  population  contained  a  large  Danish  element,  and  it  did  not 
belong  to  the  Germanic  Confederation.  To  avoid  the  dismemberment 
of  the  Danish  monarchy,  the  great  powers  framed  an  agreement, 
securing  the  succession  both  of  Denmark  and  the  duchies  to  prince 
Christian  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Gliicksberg-Sonderburg  (May  8, 
1852).  But  a  fresh  crisis  was  prepared  ^hen  Frederick  YIL, 
shortly  before  his  death,  promul^ted  a  new  constitution,  which 
virtually  incorporated  Schleswig  with  the  kingdom  of  Denmark 
(March  30,  1863). 

When  Frederick  YII.  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Christian  IX. 
as  king  of  Denmark  (November  15,  1863),  the  estates  of  Holstein 
at  once  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance ;  and  prince  Frederick, 
son  of  the  duke  of  Augustenburg,  asserted  his  right  to  the  duchies, 
in  spite  of  his  father's  renunciation.  His  claim  was  allowed  by 
the  diet  at  Frankfort,  and  the  troops  of  Saxony  and  Hanover 
marched  into  Altona  to  carry  out  the  federal  execution  threatened 
against  the  late  king  (December  24).  But  when  the  diet  rejected 
the  joint  proposal  of  Austria  and  Prussia  to  confine  the  federal 
occupation  to  Holstein,  these  two  powers  came  forward  as  parties 
to  the  treaty  of  1852,  demanded  of  Denmark  the  revocation  of 
the  constitution  of  March  30,  and  followed  up  the  demand  by  war 
(January  21,  1864).  The  gallant  resistance  of  the  Danes  was 
of  no  avail  against  overwhelming  force ;  and  a  conference  of  the 
great  powers  at  London  having  proved  fruitless,  Denmark  yielded, 
and  the  duchies  of  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg,  were  ceded 
to  Austria  and  Prussia  (October  30,  1864).  The  victors  made  a 
provisional  arrangement  by  the  convention  of  Gastein  for  the 
occupation  of  Holstein  by  Austria,  and  of  Schleswig  by  Prussia,  the 
latter  power  receiving  Lauenburg  as  her  own,  or  rather  (as  Count 
Bismarck  declared)  as  the  king's  domain  (August  14, 1865).  But  it 
was  now  evident  that  the  position  of  the  two  powers  in  the  duchies, 
and  their  relations  to  the  Frankfort  diet,  would  bring  to  a  crisis 
their  long-suspended  rivalry  for  supremacy  in  Germany. 

§  16.  It  was  during  the  brief  period  of  suspense,  that  the  £nglish 
statesman,  who^e  untiring  devotion  to  foreign  politics,  from  a  time 
before  the  congress  of  Vienna,  had  made  his  name  the  admiration 
or  terror  of  all  Europe,  closed  his  public  career  of  threescore  years. 
Henry  Temple,  viscount  Palmerston  in  the  Irish  peerage,  died  at 
Brocket  Hall,  in  Hertfordshire,  at  the  age  of  81,  on  the  18th  of 
October,  1865,  and  was  laid  beside  Pitt  and  Fox  in  Westminster 
Abbey  on  the  27th.  Since  his  return  to  power  in  1859,  he  had 
ruled  in  the  character  of  a  mediator  between  the  two  great  parties 
of  the  state ;  the  whigs  accepted  him  as  their  head,  and  the  tories 
trusted  his  conservatism.     Amidst  the  changes  in  Italy,  the  French 


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AJX 1866.         LORD  derby's  THIRD  MINISTRY.  725 

commercial  treaty,  and  Mr.  Gladstone's  financial  measures,  the  war 
with  China,  and  a  resolution  to  fortify  our  shores  afresh,  the  House 
of  Commons  had  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  proposals  for  organic  change. 
The  new  Reform  Bill  introduced  hy  lord  John  Russell,  in  aocird- 
ance  with  a  vote  by  which  the  late  government  fell,  having  boen 
encountered  by  repeated  postponements  and  amendments,  was  with- 
drawn on  the  anniversary  of  lord  Derby's  resignation  (June  11 
1860).  Next  year,  lord  John  was  called  to  the  House  of  Peers  by 
the  title  of  earl  Russell,  still  retaining  the  foreign  secretaryship 
(July  30,  1861).  The  session  of  1861  was  not  marked  by  any 
party  struggles.  The  queen's  bereavement,  the  sufferings  of  our 
industrial  classes,  the  constant  danger  to  peace  from  the  great 
American  war,  followed  by  the  troubles  in  Poland  and  Denmark, 
created  a  dislike  for  any  change  of  administration.  The  prosperity 
of  the  country  enabled  Mr.  Gladstone  to  carry  out  his  financial 
policy  by  large  remissions  of  taxation  in  the  years  1861  to  1865. 
Meanwhile  the  government  was  personally  weakened  by  the  suc- 
cesnve  deaths  of  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert,  shortly  after  his  elevation  to 
the  peerage  as  lord  Herbert  of  Lea  (August  2,  1861),  of  sir  George 
Comewall  Lewis  (April  13,  1803),  and  of  the  duke  of  Newcastle 
(April  26,  1864);  while  the  earl  of  Elgin,  like  his  predecessors, 
the  marquess  of  Dalhousie  and  earl  Canning,  only  returned  from  his 
government  of  India  to  die  (November  20,  1863).  The  parliament 
elected  in  1859  was  dissolved  at  the  end  of  the  session  of  1865. 
in  anticipation  of  its  natural  decease  under  the  Septennial  Act, 
which  would  have  taken  place  in  the  middle  of  the  ensuing  session 
Besides  the  praise  due  to  its  commercial  legislation,  it  had  sanctioned 
works  of  public  improvement,  eminently  conductive  to  public  health 
and  comfort.  Chief  among  these  were  the  drainage  of  London  and 
the  embanking  of  the  Thames. 

§  17.  On  the  death  of  lord  Palmerston,  the  premiership  was 
intrusted,  for  the  second  time,  to  earl  Russell,  ^vith  Mr.  Gladstone 
as  leader  in  the  House  of  ('ommons.  The  queen  opened  her  seventh 
parliament  (February  6,  1866)  in  person,  for  the  first  time  since 
the  prince  consort's  death.  On  Monday,  the  12th  of  March,  Mr. 
Gladstone  brought  forward  the  government  scheme  of  reform,  pro- 
posing to  extend  the  franchise  to  occupiers  of  houses  and  land  to 
the  annual  value  of  14/.  in  counties,  and  71.  in  boroughs.  But  the 
opposition  of  the  moderate  liberals  proved  fatal ;  and,  after  a  defeat 
in  committee  (Monday,  June  18),  the  government  of  earl  Russell 
resigned,  and  lord  Derby  became  premier  for  the  third  time.* 

f  18.  At  the  same  moment  the  questions  of  Schleswig-Holstein 
and  of  the  supremacy  in  Germany  were  settled  by  the  vigorous 
•  Eftri  Russell  died  Hay  38, 1878,  aged  8«. 


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726  VICTORIA.  Chap.  zzxt. 

policy  of  count  Binnarok.  Italy,  seizing  her  oppcTtiinity,  formed 
a  secret  alliance  with  Pnisda  a^dnst  Austria.  A  campaign  of  a 
few  weeks'  duration  ended  in  the  decisive  defeat  of  the  Austnans 
by  the  Prussiaos  at  Sadowa  (July  3,  1866).  Its  result,  settled 
in  the  Treaty  of  Prague,  was  the  exclusion  of  Austria  from  the 
Qerman  Confederation,  the  league  of  Northern  Qermany  under 
Prussia  (which  annexed  Schleswig-HolsteiD,  Hanover,  Nassau, 
Hesse-Cassel,  and  the  city  of  Frankfort) ;  besides  the  union  of 
Venetia  to  the  Italian  kingdom,  in  the  autumn  of  1866. 

§  19.  The  parliamentary  session  of  1867  opened  with  a  deda- 
ratioQ  by  the  governmeut  of  the  necessity  for  a  measure  of  reform, 
which  ultimately  took  the  shape  of  household  sufirage  in  towns, 
conditional  upon  the  pa3nnent  of  rates.  Votes  were  also  given  to 
lodgers,  and  the  county  franchise  was  reduced  to  12/.*  The  measures 
of  reform  were  completed  for  the  present,  in  the  next  sessioh  (1868), 
by  the  passing  of  Reform  Bills  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  an  act 
for  the  better  trial  of  controverted  elections. 

At  the  close  of  1867  an  expedition  was  sent  to  Abyssinia  to 
obtain  the  release  of  British  and  other  captives  detained  by  the 
tyrant  Theodore.  After  storming  the  hill  fortress  of  Magdala, 
where  Theodore  fell  by  his  own  hands  (April  13,  1868),  otu:  troops 
retired  without  the  loss  of  a  single  man  in  battle,  and  their 
commander,  sir  Robert  Napier,  was  created  lord  Napier  of  Magdala. 

For  some  years  past,  Ireland  had  been  subject  to  renewed  agita- 
tion. A  more  determined  opposition  was  shown  to  the  connection 
with  Ghreat  Britain  by  a  party  who  assumed  the  name  of  Fenians. 
It  found  desperate  leaders  in  men  who  had  been  engaged  in  the 
American  civil  war,  and  who  held  out  hopes  of  aid  from  the  Trans- 
atlantic republic.  Their  violence  induced  earl  Russell  to  propose 
a  bill  for  suspending  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  which  was  passed 
through  all  its  stages  in  one  day  (February  17, 1866).  Various 
arrests  ensued.  In  Manchester  a  police  officer  was  shot  In 
London,  to  effect  the  escape  of  a  Fenian  prisoner,  the  wall  of 
Clerkenwell  prison  was  blown  down  by  a  barrel  of  powder  in  open 
day,  with  the  destruction  of  many  neighbouring  houses  and  several 
lives  (December  13, 1867).  The  execution  of  the  one  man  convicted 
of  this  offence  is  memorable  as  the  last  public  execution,  an  act 
having  received  the  royal  assent  for  carrying  out  capital  sentenoea 
within  the  prison  walls  (May  29,  1868). 

§  20.  Scarcely  had  {larliament  reassembled  in  1868,  when  theeaii 
of  Derby  retired  through  ill  health,t  ^i^d  was  succeeded  in  the 
premiership  by  Mr.  Disraeli 

Meanwhile  lord  Stanley,  the  foreign  secretary,  had  declared  thai 
•  see  Notw  tnd  lUuBtrttionB  (E).    f  The  24th  earl  of  Derby  <Med  In  October.  Ittf. 


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A.D.  1868-1870.      MINISTRY  OF  MR.   GLADSTONE.  727 

'* Ireland  was  the  question  of  the  day;"  and  the  government 
announced  to  parliament  a  policy  based  on  what  was  familiarly 
called  the  principle  of  **  leyelling  up,"  that  is,  raising  the  Roman 
catholics  and  protestant  dissenters,  by  educational  (and  perhaps 
religious)  endowments,  to  something  of  the  same  position  as  that 
of  the  established  church.  lu  opposition  to  this  policy,  Mr.  Glad- 
stone proclaimed  that  the  time  was  come  for  the  disestablishment 
and  disendowment  of  the  Irish  church,  and  carried  a  series  of 
resolutions  to  that  effect  in  the  commons  (April  30,  1868).  The 
elections  in  November,  imder  the  new  Reform  Act,  were  virtually 
an  appeal  to  the  people  on  this  question ;  and  the  result  was  so 
decisive,  that  Mr.  Disraeli  resigned  without  waiting  for  the  meeting 
of  parliament  (December  2),  and  Mr.  Gladstone  became  prime 
minister  (December  9). 

In  the  eighth  parliament  of  queen  Victoria  (the  20th  of  the  United 
Kingdom),  which  met  next  day,  the  ministry  had  a  majority  of 
more  than  100.  In  July,  1869,  an  act  was  passed,  dissolving  the 
connection  between  the  churches  of  England  and  Ireland  from 
January  1, 1871.  The  latter  was  disestablished  and  disendowed,  its 
temporalities  being  vested  in  thi-ee  commissioners,  with  reservation 
of  existing  interests.  A  large  sum  was  granted  to  the  Roman 
catholic  college  of  Maynooth,  and  to  such  of  the  protestant  dis- 
senters as  were  recipients  of  the  regium  donum.  Any  surplus  was 
to  be  applied  to  education,  and  a  part  of  the  funds  was  thus 
appropriated  under  the  Irish  Education  Act  of  1877.  In  the  same 
session  of  1869,  imprisonment  for  debt  (except  as  a  means  of 
enforcipg  the  judgments  of  county  courts)  was  abolished  in  the 
United  Kingdom ;  and  three  years  later  in  Ireland. 

In  1870  Mr.  Gladstone  took  the  second  step  in  his  Irish  policy 
by  the  Land  Act,  which  provided  for  the  compensation  of  outgoing 
tenants,  and  for  loans  both  to  landlords  for  improvements  and  to 
tenants  desiring  to  pm^hase  their  holdings.  Courts  of  arbitration 
were  established  for  the  settlement  of  all  claims  ;  and  the  freedom 
of  contract  between  landlord  and  tenant  was  so  far  limited  as  to 
nullify  all  agreements  in  contravention  of  the  purpose  of  the  act. 
The  same  session  is  memorable  for  the  establishment  of  a  system  of 
national  education,  by  means  of  elective  school  l)oards.  In  these 
schools  all  religious  creeds  were  forbidden.  A  similar  measure  was 
passed  for  Scotland  in  1872.  In  187  U  all  religious  tests  for  degrees 
and  offices  (except  those  of  an  ecclesiastical  nature)  in  the  English 
universities  were  abolished.     (Supplement,  Note  XXXllI.) 

§  21.  On  July  19, 1870,  the  emperor  Napoleon  declared  war  against 
Phissia,  and  joined  his  army  at  Metz  on  the  28th.  All  Germany 
took  fart  in  the  war  on  the  Pide  of  Prussia.     The  young  prince 


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728  VICTORIA,  Chap,  xxxy 

imperial  was  present  at  the  first  action  at  Saarbrtiok  on  August  2  ;* 
and  on  the  18th,  after  the  battle  of  Qrayelotte,  the  French  Army 
of  the  Rhine,  under  marshal  Bazaine,  was  shut  up  in  Metz. 
The  Army  of  Ch&lons,  adyancing  to  its  relief  along  the  Belgium 
frontier,  under  marshal  MacMahon,  was  utterly  defeated  at  Sedan 
(September  1),  and  100,000  men  became  prisoners  of  war,  with  the 
emperor  Napoleon  himself  (September  2).  The  immediate  result  was 
a  revolution  at  Paris,  in  which  the  Second  Empire  was  overthrown, 
and  a  provisional  government  was  formed  (September  4).  On  the 
20th  of  the  month  the  Oerman  armies  invested  Paris ;  Strassburg 
surrendered  on  the  28th,  the  anniversary  of  its  treacherous  seizure  by 
Louis  XIY.  in  1681 ;  and  Bazame  capitulated  at  Metz,  with  173,000 
men,  including  3  marshals  of  France,  60  generals,  and  6000  ofiBcers 
(October  28).  At  length  a  Government  of  National  Defence  was 
established  in  Paris,  and,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  an  armistice  was 
concluded  (January  26, 1871),  and  a  National  Assembly  was  elected, 
which  met  at  Versailles  (February  13),  in  order  to  conclude  a  peace. 
On  the  last  day  of  February,  M.  Thiers,  the  new  "  head  of  the 
executive  power,"  signed  the  Peace  of  Versailles  with  king  William, 
who  had  been  elected  German  'Emperor^  by  all  the  G(erman 
states,  and  was  inaugurated  as  the  emperor  William  L  in  the  hall  of 
Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles,  on  January  18,  the  anniversary  of  the  day 
( »n  which  his  ancestor  was  proclaimed  king  of  Prussia  ( 1 701).  France 
surrendered  the  old  German  province  of  Alsace  (treacherously  seized 
by  Louis  XIV.)  with  part  of  Lorraine,  including  the  old  imperial 
fortress  of  Metz,  and  thus  lost  the  portion  she  already  possessed 
of  the  coveted  frontier  of  the  Rhine.  She  agreed  to  pay  a  war 
indemnity  of  five  milliards  of  francs,  or  200  millions  sterling,  within 
three  years,  a  penalty  as  unprecedented  in  magnitude  as  was  the 
promptitude  with  which  it  was  discharged  before  the  appointed 
time.  The  ex-emperor  retired  to  Chiselhurst,  in  Kent,  where  I  e 
died  on  January  9,  1873.  On  May  24  of  the  same  year  the  govern- 
ment of  M.  Thiers  was  overthrown  by  a  vote  of  the  National 
Assembly,  and  marshal  MacMahon  was  chosen  president  for  seven 
years.  Attempts  to  restore  the  monarchy,  under  "Henry  V.," 
based  on  an  agreement  between  the  Bourbon  and  Orleans  families, 
failed  through  the  obstinacy  of  the  count  of  Ghambord.  In  1875 
the  Assembly  laid  the  bases  of  a  definitive  republical  constitution. 


*  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  ion  of  Napo- 
leon III.  and  the  Empress  Engenle,  was 
born  March  16,  1856,  lived  In  England 
from  1870,  stuiiied  the  military  profession 
at  Woolwich,  and  went  with  the  British 


t  This  title  must  not  be  oonfooiMled 
with  the  old  title  of  Emperor  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire.  The  new  German  em- 
pire is  a  federation  of  Gennan  ttatflB, 
quite  distinct  lu  nature  from  the  andent 


army  to  South  Africa,  where  he  was  killed  t  imporUl  union  of  western  Christendom, 
hy  the  Zulus  (June  1.  1879). 


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A.0. 1870-1873.    ILLNESS  OF  THE  PBINCE  OF  WALES.     729 

with  an  elective  senate  as  well  as  a  chamber  of  deputies ;  and,  at 
the  dose  of  1878,  the  Republic  was  considered  to  be  more  firmly 
settled  by  the  returu  of  a  republican  majority  in  the  senate, 
followed  by  the  resignation  of  marshal  MacMabon,  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  M.  Gr^vy. 

The  only  part  taken  by  England  in  the  war  was  that  of  minis- 
tering, by  voluntary  efforts,  to  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  to  the 
starving  population  of  besieged  Paris.  But  the  revelation  of  designs 
entertained  against  Belgium  led  to  new  treaties  being  made  by 
England  with  France  and  Prussia  severally,  for  the  further  security  of 
her  independence  and  neutrality  (August,  1870).  The  interest  taken 
in  the  war,  and  the  extraordinary  success  of  the  German  army,  called 
attention  to  the  reorganization  of  our  army.  Tlie  purchase  of  com-, 
missions  was  abolished  by  a  royal  warrant,  and  the  commons  voted 
funds  for  compensation  to  officers  (1871).  Another  consequence  of 
the  war  was  that  Russia,  supported  by  prince  Bismarck,  denonnced 
the  clause  of  the  treaty  of  1856  which  forbad  her  keeping  a  fleet  in 
the  Black  Sea.  A  conference  of  the  great  powers  at  London,  while 
releasing  Russia  from  that  engagement,  placed  on  record,  as  an 
essential  principle  of  the  law  of  nations,  that  no  power  can  liberate 
itself  from  the  engagements  of  a  treaty,  nor  modify  its  stipulations, 
without  the  consent  of  the  contracting  parties  (January,  1871).  A 
difference  with  the  United  States,  about  injuries  caused  by  alleged 
breaches  of  neutrality  during  the  civil  war,  was  referred  to  the 
arbitration  of  a  court  which  met  at  Geneva  (1872),  and  awarded 
164  millions  of  dollars  (about  3,230,000?.)  to  be  paid  by  England 
on  account  of  the  "  Alabama  claims."  *  The  general  dissatisfaction 
with  this  result,  and  with  the  decision  of  the  German  emperor 
against  England  on  the  long-disputed  question  of  the  boundary 
oi  the  two  nations  in  the  estuary  of  San  Juan,  tended  to  throw 
discredit  on  the  principle  of  arbitration  as  a  means  of  preventing  war. 

§  22.  On  February  27, 1872,  a  service  of  public  thanksgiving  was 
celebrated  at  St.  Paul's,  attended  by  the  queen  and  royal  family, 
for  the  recovery  of  the  prince  of  Wales  from  a  daugerous  illness  in 
December,  1871.  The  sympathy  expressed  by  all  classes  on  this 
occasion  was  so  decided  a  proof  in  favour  of  hereditary  monarchy, 
that  it  served  as  a  timely  check  on  some  rash  exhibitions  of 
theoretical  republicanism.  The  secret  ballot,  so  long  advocated  by 
the  radical  paity,  in  parliamentary  elections,  was  adopted  in  the 
same  year.    On  the  reassembling  of  parliament  in  1873,  Mr.  Glad- 


•  So  called  because  of  the  Injnrica  in- 
flicted on  American  commerce  by  the 
funoos  Conf(Mlerate  cruiser  Akibawia. 
The  court  was  composed  of  fire  memben. 


appointed  respecttrely  by  Bagland,  the 
United  States,  Italj,  Braiil.  and  Switiei^ 


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730  VICTORIA.  Chap. 

stone  introduced  Ids  measure  for  destroying  the  third  branch  of 
what  he  had  called  the  upas  tree  that  overshadowed  Ireland.  But 
his  Irish  University  Bill  failed  to  conciliate  the  catholics,  and  was 
defeated  by  287  to  284  on  the  second  reading  (March  11).  The 
Qladstone  ministry  resigned ;  but  they  returned  to  office  on  the 
20th,  as  Mr.  Disraeli  declined  to  imdertake  the  government  with 
the  existing  House  of  Commons.  The  attempt  at  Irish  university 
reform  was  not  renewed ;  but  religious  tests  were  abolished  in  the 
Trinity  College  and  University  of  Dublin  (May),  Mr.  Lowe's  last 
budget  reduced  the  income-tax  to  threepence  in  the  pound;  but 
the  great  act  of  the  session  was  the  constitution  of  a  Supreme 
Court  of  Judicature,  which  came  into  effect  (with  some  subsequent 
alterations)  on  November  1, 1875.  On  that  date  the  ancient  CV>urt8 
of  Queen's  Bench,  Common  Pleas,  and  Exchequer,  as  well  as  those 
of  Chancery,  of  Admiralty,  of  Probate  and  Divorce,  and  the  ecclesi- 
astical Court  of  Arches,  ceased  to  exist  as  separate  tribunals,  but 
their  names  were  retained  as  those  of  divisions  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  One  of  the  chief  objects  in  view  in  this  alteration  was  the 
fusion  of  the  principles  of  law  and  equity.  By  a  subsequent  act, 
the  House  of  Lords  retained  its  ancient  prerogative  as  the  ultimate 
court  of  appeal,  but  in  the  new  form  of  a  court  composed  of  the 
lord  chancellor,  two  lords  of  appeal,  created  peers  for  life,  and 
such  peers  as  are  or  have  been  lawyers  (1876). 

In  the  autumn  of  1873  the  country  was  engaged  in  a  war  with 
the  Ashantees  in  West  Africa,  in  consequence  of  misunderstandings 
resulting  from  the  sale  to  England  of  the  Dutch  colonies  on  the 
Gold  Coast.  Under  the  skilful  conduct  of  sir  Ghimet  Wolseley,  the 
king  of  Ashantee  was  defeated ;  his  capital,  Coomassie,  taken  and 
burnt ;  and  he  accepted  peace,  consenting  to  abolish  human  sacrifices 
(February  6, 1874). 

§  23.  During  this  session  the  ministry  was  greatly  weakened,  and 
there  were  manifest  proofs  of  a  conservative  reaction.  The  proro- 
gation of  parliament  (August  7)  was  followed  by  important  changes 
in  the  ministry,  Mr.  Gladstone  resuming  the  chancellorship  of 
the  exchequer  (September  9).  On  January  23, 1874,  he  suddenly 
decided  on  dissolving  parliament ;  and,  in  his  address  to  his  consti- 
tuents at  Greenwich,  he  announced  that,  with  the  sure  prospect  of 
a  surplus  of  five  millions,  and  by  certain  readjustments  of  taxation, 
he  should  be  in  a  position  both  to  abolish  the  income-tax  and  remove 
part  of  the  burthens  of  local  taxation.  But  the  elections,  under  the 
joint  operation  of  the  late  Beform  Act  and  vote  by  ballot,  gave  the 
conservatives  a  great  majority.  Following  Mr.  Disraeli's  example 
in  1868,  Mr.  Gladstone's  ministry  resigned  without  waiting  to 
meet  parliament  (February  17);  and  Mr.  Disraeli  formed  a  govem- 


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A.D- 1875-1876.    PRINCE  OF  WALES  VISITS  INDIA.  731 

ment  which  induded  the  marquess  of  Salisbury  and  the  earl  of 
Camarvon,  who  had  separated  from  him  on  the  reform  question 
in  1867 :  the  earl  of  Derby  was  again  foreign  secretary,  and  sir 
Stafford  Northoote  (a  financial  disciple  of  Mr.  Gladstone)  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer.  The  queen's  ninth  parliament  met  on  March  5. 
The  most  important  measures  of  the  session  were  the  budget, 
which  abolished  the  sugar  duties  and  reduced  the  income-tax 
to  twopence  in  the  pound,*  and  the  act  for  the  regulation  of 
public  worship,  which  provided  simpler  means  of  bringing  disputes 
on  ritual  observances  to  a  judicial  decision.  By  this  time  it  was 
apparent  that  the  country  desired  a  rest  from  organic  changes,  and 
the  ensuing  year  was  mainly  occupied  with  measures  of  legal, 
social,  and  sanitary  improvement 

In  September,  1874,  the  annexation  of  the  Fiji  Islands,  by  the 
desire  of  the  inhabitants,  secured  a  station  in  the  Pacific  of  great 
importance  for  communication  with  Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

§  24.  On  January  15, 1875,  Mr.  Gladstone  publicly  announced  his 
determination  to  retire  from  the  leadership  of  the  liberal  party ; 
and  at  a  meeting  of  the  liberals  (February  3),  the  marquess  of 
Hartington  was  requested  to  accept  the  vacant  post.  Sir  Stafford 
Northcote's  budget  was  marked  by  an  effort  to  reduce  the  national 
debt  by  means  of  a  new  sinking  fund,  providing  for  the  regular 
annual  appropriation  of  28,000,000/.  to  the  charge  of  the  debt,  which 
was  sanctioned  by  parliament  (August  10).  In  the  autumn 
the  prince  of  Wales  set  out  on  a  visit  to  India  (October  11), 
towards  the  expenses  of  which  the  House  of  Commons  had  voted 
a  grant,  of  60,000?.  He  arrived  at  Bombay  (November  8), 
and  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  the  native  princes.  On  the 
19th  he  proceeded  on  a  visit  to  the  Guicowar  at  Baroda.  On 
December  2  he  landed  at  Colombo,  and  on  the  10th  at  Madras, 
arriving  at  Calcutta  on  the  23rd.  Here  he  held  a  chapter  of  the 
Order  of  the  Star  of  India  (January  1, 1876),  which  was  numerously 
attended  by  the  native  princes  and  their  suites  in  the  gorgeous 
equipage  of  their  several  provinces.  On  the  11th  he  visited 
Delhi ;  and,  after  a  tour  in  her  majesty's  Indian  dominions,  with 
a  splendour  and  popularity  unexampled  in  the  history  of  any 


*  This  was  the  lowest  scale  of  the  in- 
come-tax daring  the  period  of  one  genera- 
tion (33  years)  since  its  imposition  by  sir 
Bobert  Peel.  Its  growing  produce  in 
that  time  fomishes  a  remarlcable  measure 


1874-75  the  tax  of  twopence  in  the  pound 
yielded  4,306,00(M.  The  produce  of  each 
penny  in  1844  was  471.6562. ;  in  1878, 
1,900,000{.  The  estimated  Income  of  the 
country  in  1875  was  74,921,872i.     The 


of  the  increased  wealth  of  the  country.  |  scale  of  the  tax  has  risen  since  the  tima 

In  the  first  complete  year  of  its  collection  in  question;  and  the  tendency  to  rewit 

(1843-44)  the  tax  of  sevenpenoe  in  the  I  to  it  when  fresh  revenue  is  wanted  is  a 

pound  yielded  5,191,597{. ;   in  the  year  |  question  much  discussed. 


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732  VICTORIA.  Ohap.  XXXV. 

Earopean  prince,  he  returned  to  Bombay  (March  11),  and  embarked 
for  England.  In  the  mean  time  lord  Northbrook  had  resigned  the 
office  of  viceroy,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  lord  Lytton,  son  of  tlie 
&mou8  novelist  (April  12). 

In  commemoration  of  the  princess  visit,  and  as  a  sign  of  the 
imperial  relation  of  the  British  power  to  all  India,  [larliament  gave 
the  queen  authority  to  assume  the  title  of  Empress  of  India^ 
which  was  proclaimed  in  London  on  April  28,  187H,  and  in  India, 
with  great  solemnities,  on  January  1, 1877. 

In  November,  1875,  Mr.  Disraeli  had  proposed  to  purchase  the 
Khedive's  share  of  the  Suez  Canal,  at  the  price  of  four  millions; 
and  the  proposal  was  unanimously  sanctioned  by  the  House  of 
Commons  (February  21,  1876).  At  the  close  of  this  sesmon,  Mr. 
Disraeli,  who  was  70  years  of  age,  and  had  borne  for  30  years  the 
•train  of  leading  his  party  in  the  commons,  was  removed  to  the 
House  of  Lords  with  the  title  of  earl  of  Beaconsfield. 
.  §  25.  Meanwhile  the  attention  of  the  nation  had  been  drawn  to  the 
misgovemment  of  Turkey,  and  the  atrocities  perpetrated  under  its 
feeble  and  inefficient  rule,  in  consequence  of  count  Andrassy's  note, 
presented  to  the  Porte  by  the  Austrian,  Russian,  and  German 
ambassadors  (January  31, 1876).  The  Turkish  sultan,  Abdul  Aziz, 
was  deposed  (May  30),  and  committed  suicide  five  days  after.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Murad  V.  But  the  change  of  rulers  produced 
no  alteration  in  the  sentiments  of  Europe.  The  odium  into  which 
the  Turkish  government  had  fallen  was  an  encouragement  for  the 
neighbouring  and  dependent  provinces  to  rebel.  On  July  1  and  2 
the  Servians  and  Montenegrins  declared  war  and  crossed  the 
Turkish  frontier.  A  great  battle  ensued  between  the  former  and 
the  Turks  at  Alexinatz  (August  20),  which  resulted  in  the  defeat 
of  the  Servians  eight  days  after.  On  August  31,  Murad  was 
deposed  and  Abdul  Hamid  II.  was  proclaimed  sultan.  During 
the  recess  popular  indignation  was  stirred  to  the  uttermost  by 
the  Turkish  atrocities  in  Bulgaria.  The  war  with  Servia  still  con- 
tinued, in  spite  of  the  friendly  intervention  of  the  great  European 
ix)wers,  until  the  Servians  were  totally  defeated  (October  29),  and 
Djunis  captured. 

The  embarrassment  of  Turkey  was  the  opportunity  of  Ru^ia, 
which  now  interfered,  ostensibly  in  behalf  of  the  Christian  subjects 
living  imder  the  sultan.  But  her  designs  of  self-aggrandizement 
were  ill  concealed  imder  her  professions  of  philanthropy,  and  were 
regarded  with  uneasiness  by  this  country.  On  November  7,  the 
maiquess  of  Salisbury  was  appointed  by  her  majesty  as  her  special 
ambassador,  to  attend  a  conference  of  the  great  powers  at  Con- 
stantino* 1p.  In  order  to  settle  the  Eastern  question.    The  conference 


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AJ>.  187«-1877.  WAB  BETWEEN  TURKEY  AND  RUSSIA.      738 

opoied  on  December  23,  but  its  proposftls  were  rejected  by  the  Porte, 
and  counter  terms  were  presented  by  the  Turkish  delegates  in 
reference  to  the  settlement  of  Seryia  and  Montenegro.  As  the 
appointment  of  provisional  goyemors  for  five  yi  ars,  for  the  three 
dinffected  provinces,  was  entirely  ignored  by  the  Porte,  the  con- 
ference came  to  a  standstill.  In  the  declaration  of  the  marquess  of 
Salisbury  that  '*  no  common  basis  for  discussion  remained,"  general 
Ignatiev  concurred,  and  the  conference  ended  (January  20,  1877). 

Dissatisfied  on  its  own  part  with  the  failure  of  the  conference, 
from  which  it  had  expected  more  favourable  results,  the  Porte 
issued  a  manifesto,  contesting  the  right  of  the  powers  to  interfere 
with  its  subjects  and  its  internal  administration  (February  5). 
Its  remonstrances  were  met  by  a  protocol,  signed  at  London  by 
the  six  European  powers,  asserting  the  necessity  of  reforms,  and 
providing  for  mutual  disarmament  on  certain  conditions  (Murch  31). 
On  the  determination  of  the  Porte  to  listen  to  no  such  proposals 
(April  12),  Russia  prepared  for  war,  whilst  the  other  great  powers 
determined  to  observe  a  strict  neutrality.  Russia  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Roumania,  which  not  long  after  proclaimed  its  independence. 
It  prompted  Servia  and  Montenegro  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
opportunity  and  secure  their  independence.  An  engagement  took 
place  near  Batoum,  a  port  on  the  south-east  coast  of  the  Black  Sea, 
long  coveted  by  Russia  (April  26),  when  the  Turks  defeated  their 
enemy  and  inflicted  a  loss  of  800  men.  This,  and  other  unexpected 
successes  of  the  Turks  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  campaign,  against 
a  foe  so  vastly  superior  in  numbers  and  the  munitions  of  war,  entirelj^ 
obliterated  the  opinion  previously  entertained  of  their  weakness 
and  incompetence.  The  expectations  of  all  parties  were  raised 
still  more  when,  after  various  alternations  of  success,  in  which  the 
Turks  displayed  great  military  capacity  and  courage,  the  Russians, 
in  July,  were  repulsed  with  great  loss  before  Plevna,  which  was 
occupied  and  defended  by  Osman  Pasha.  They  made  a  second  at- 
tempt (September  1 1),  but  with  no  better  success.  They  now  deter- 
mined to  invest  and  starve  the  garrison  to  surrender.  The  works  were 
completed,  but  Osman  Pasha,  though  isolated  from  all  help,  still 
held  his  post  with  unflinching  resolution.  Finding  that  no  aid  was 
at  hand,  he  resolved,  on  December  10,  to  force  his  way  through 
the  Russian  entrenchments.  But  the  attempt  was  unsuccessful. 
He  was  wounded  and  driven  back,  and  compelled  to  surrender. 
This  disastrous  event  cost  the  Turks  30,000  prisoners  and  400 
guns.  It  was  still  more  ruinous  to  their  cause,  as  in  the  previous 
month  the  Russians  had  taken  Kars  by  assault,  inflicting  on  the 
Turks  the  loss  of  12,000  men  killed  and  wounded,  and  30 )  guns 
(November  18).  Meanwhile,  the  Russian  advanced  force  crossed 
the  Balkans,  defeated  the  Turks,  and  to<»k  Sofia. 
8 

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784  VICTORIA.  Chaf.  xxxt. 

Such  heavy  loeses  following  in  rapid  succession  conTinced  the 
Porte  that  all  further  attempts  at  continuing  the  war  were  hopeless. 
In  the  last  da}  s  of  the  year,  the  sultan  requested  the  roediation  of 
England ;  but  the  request,  which  our  goyemment  merely  consented 
to  forward,  was  refused  by  Russia  (December  31, 1877).  The  Porte 
decided  to  sue  for  an  armistice,  while  the  Russian  forces  penetrated 
the  Balkans  by  the  Trojan  Pass,  and,  surrounding  the  Turkish 
army,  which  had  for  many  months  clung  to  the  Sbipka  Pass 
when  its  presence  in  Bulgaria  might  have  turned  the  scale,  forced 
about  32,000  men  to  lay  down  their  arms  (January  8-10, 1878). 
While  the  Turkish  envoys  set  out  for  the  camp  of  the  grand-duke 
Nicholas,  their  last  army  in  Koumelia,  under  Suleiman  Pasha,  was 
totally  defeated  by  general  Qourko,  and  driven  off  to  the  coast  of 
the  iflgean  (January  16, 17),  whence  its  remains  were  transported 
by  sea  for  the  defence  of  Constantinople,  and  Adrianople  was 
yielded  up  without  a  blow  (January  19,  20). 

In  England  the  feeling  roused  by  these  events  united  the  great 
majority  of  the  people  in  the  resolve  to  check  what  now  seemed  the 
manifest  designs  of  Russia  on  Constantinople,  and  the  threatened 
danger  to  our  communications  with  India.  After  the  failure  of  the 
attempt  to  settle  the  question  by  the  influence  of  the  European 
powers,  Great  Britain  had  announced  her  fixed  ix>licy  of  conditional 
neutrality,  that  is,  so  long  as  her  interests  were  not  endangered. 
But,  when  the  Turkish  defence  was  breaking  down,  parliament  was 
summoned  before  the  usual  time,  in  the  prospect  (said  the  queen's 
speech)  that  '*  should  hostilities  be  prolonged,  some  unexpected 
occurrence  may  render  it  incumbent  on  me  to  adopt  measures  of 
precaution  "  (January  17).  Tiie  proposal  to  send  up  the  British 
fleet  within  the  Dardanelles  was  opposed  in  the  cabinet  by  the  earls 
of  Carnarvon  and  Derby,  and  the  former  resigned  the  seals  of  the 
colonies  (January  24).  But  when  the  news  arrived  that  the 
Russians  were  threatening  Gallipoli  and  the  Dardanelles,  and  had 
advanced  within  30  miles  of  Constantinople,  the  liberals  withdrew 
their  opposition  to  the  vote  of  6,000,000?.  demanded  by  government 
for  military  preparations,  and  lord  Derby  announced  that  the  fleet 
had  been  ordered  to  enter  the  Sea  of  Marmora  (February  8).  On 
the  same  day,  the  severe  terms  exacted  by  Russia  for  an  armistice 
became  known,  and  the  Turks  yielded  up  the  outer  lines  command- 
ing Constantinople.  On  the  24th  the  grand-duke  Nicholas  fixed 
his  head-quarters  at  San  Stefano  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  close  to 
Constantinople ;  and  here  a  preliminary  treaty  was  signed,  by  which 
Roumania,  Scrvin,  and  Montenegro  were  to  be  independent  states; 
a  tributary  but  self-governing  principality  of  Bulgaria  was  to  be 
erected,  reaching  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  .£gean,  and  leaving  to 


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A.D.  1878.  THE  TREATY  OF  BERLIN.  785 

Turkey  only  a  nanew  territory  about  Constantinople,  the  Sea  of 
Marmora,  and  the  straits ;  Russia  was  to  receive  back  the  part  of 
Bessarabia  which  had  been  taken  from  her  in  1856  to  cut  her  off 
from  the  Danube,  her  Roumanian  allies  being  compensated  for  the 
spoliation  by  the  Dobrudja  (the  marshy  tract  south  of  the  delta  of 
the  Danube).  In  Asia,  Russia  was  to  gain  most  of  Armenia,  includ- 
ing Batoum,  Ears,  and  Erzeroum ;  and  Turkey  was  to  pay  a  huge 
indemnity,  under  the  penalty  of  further  territorial  loss  in  case  of 
default.  The  long-contested  protectorate  of  Turkish  Christians  was 
to  be  yielded  to  Russia,  and  the  opening  of  the  straits  was  reserved 
for  the  decision  of  Europe  (March  3). 

So  manifest  a  reversal  of  the  treaty  of  1856  rused  questions 
which  concerned  all  Europe,  and  Russia  did  not  deny  that  they  ought 
to  be  settled  in  a  congress ;  but  she  held  out  against  the  firm  demand 
of  Great  Britain,  that  the  treaty  as  a  whole  should  be  laid  before 
the  congress.  In  the  midst  of  preparations  for  the  possibility  of 
war,  with  the  clear  approval  of  the  great  majority  of  the  British 
people.  Lord  Derby  announced  that  he  had  resigned  rather  than  take 
part  in  the  measures  of  the  cabinet  (March  28).  These  proved  to 
be  the  calling  out  of  the  army  reserves,  and  the  bringing  a  force  of 
7000  Indian  troops  to  be  in  readiness  at  Malta.  The  marquess  of 
Salisbury,  succeeding  lord  Derby  at  the  foreign  office,  issued  a 
circular  despatch,  vigorously  criticizing  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano. 
While  acutely  analyzing  its  terms,  he  proved  that  it  would  establish 
the  complete  supremacy  of  Russia  over  Turkey,  not  so  much  by  any 
single  article  as  by  ^  the  operation  of  the  instrument  as  a  whole." 
This  remarkable  state  paper  produced  a  most  striking  effect  on  the 
powers  of  Europe,  who  now  saw  for  the  first  time  that  England 
was  in  earnest.  Austria,  cold  and  dubious  before,  now  threw  in  her 
lot  with  England,  and  prince  Bismarck  advised  Russia  to  listen  to 
reason.  Still,  as  is  now  well  known,  the  two  nations  were  on  the 
brink  of  a  war  which  would  have  become  general ;  and  Russia  was 
preparing  an  army  in  Central  Asia  to  attack  India  through  Afghan- 
istan, while  her  princes  promoted  subscriptions  for  fitting  out 
American  privateers.  But  the  Russian  ambassador,  count  Schou- 
valov,  laboured  earnestly  in  conjunction  with  our  government  for 
peace,  and  their  secret  negociations  resulted  in  a  written  agreement 
(May  30)  as  to  the  chief  points  that  should  be  yielded  or  insisted 
on  at  the  congress,  which  prince  Bismarck  invited  to  meet  at 
Berlin  on  June  13.  England  was  represented  by  lords  Beaconsfield 
and  Salisbury,  by  whose  ability  and  the  proof  of  earnestness  given 
by  the  presence  of  her  prime  minister  (a  very  unusual  step  on  suoh 
occasions),  as*  well  as  by  prince  Bismarck's  resolution,  the  congress 
was  brought  to  a  successful  issue,  and  the  Trwty  qf  Berlin  was 
signed  (July  13, 1878). 


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736  nCTOMA.  Ohap.  mlxt. 

The  Independence  of  Boitmania,  Servia^  and  Mcnienegro  was 
confirmed  :  the  two  latter  states  gained  new  frontiers*  and  Monte- 
negro the  long-desired  outlet  to  the  sea  in  the  port  of  Antiyari ; 
while  the  hrave  Roumanians,  like  the  dwarf  who  fought  beside  the 
giant,  had  to  give  u[)  the  territory  which  brought  Russia  back  to 
the  Danube^  receiving  the  Dobrudja  in  exchange  at  the  expense  of 
the  Bulgarians ;  but  new  stipulations  were  made  for  the  free  naviga- 
tion of  the  Danube,  and  the  fortresses  on  its  banks  were  to  be  rased. 
The  people  of  Bosnia  and  the  Herzgovinn,  who  had  begun  the  war 
for  liberation,  were  handed  over  to  Austria,  under  the  name  of  an 
occupation,  which  had  to  be  enforced  by  a  brief  war.  But  the  great 
modification  of  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano  consisted  in  the  division 
of  general  Ignatiev*s  huge  Bulgaria.  The  old  province  known  by 
that  name,  between  the  Danube  and  the  Balkans,  was  placed  on  the 
same  footing  of  virtual  indcp.  ndence  1  eld  hitherto  by  8erria  and 
Roumauia,  as  a  principality  iributary  to  the  Porte,  but  self-governed 
("  autonomous  "),  under  a  prince  to  be  elected  by  the  people  and 
approved  by  the  sultan  and  the  powers.*  That  part  of  Rouraelia 
(the  region  south  of  the  Balkans)  in  which  a  Bulgarian  population 
predominated  (though  mingled  with  Turks  and  Greeks)  was 
constituted  the  new  province  of  Eastern  Roumelia^  under  the  direct 
political  and  military  authority  of  the  sultan,  but  with  a  certun 
degree  of  self-government  ("administrative  autonomy"),  and  imder  a 
Chriatian  governor-general  to  be  named  by  the  Porte,  with  the  assent 
of  the  powers,  for  five  years :  its  internal  order  to  be  miuntained  by 
a  native  gendarmerie,  but  with  the  sultan's  right  to  maintain  mili- 
tary posts  on  the  frontiers,  by  sea  and  land,  including  the  Balkans. 
The  Sublime  Porte  undertook  to  carry  out  reforms  under  the  super- 
intendence of  the  powers,  and  to  establish  religious  liberty,  abolishing 
all  civil  and  political  disqualifications  on  religious  grounds,  Chiis- 
tians  being  under  the  protection  of  the  consular  aud  diplomatic 
agents  of  the  powers ;  but  no  sanction  was  given  to  the  spedal 
claim  of  Russia  in  this  respect ;  nor  was  any  alteration  made  as  to 
the  navigation  of  the  straits.  The  organic  law  granted  to  Crete  was 
confirmed,  and  made  an  example  for  reforms  to  be  introduced  in 
other  provinces.  An  aiticle  of  the  treaty  reserved  the  right  of  the 
powers  to  mediate  between  Turkey  and  Greece,  if  they  should  be 
unable  to  agree  on  the  rectification  of  the  frontier,  to  the  advantage 
of  Greece,  suggested  by  them  to  the  Porte  in  a  separate  protocoL 
In  Asia,  Russia  had  to  give  back  Erzeroum,  retaining  Kara  and 

*  An  Assembly  of  Notables  held  in  the  ,  nephew  of  the  empran  of  RoMia.  Abo«t 
•pring  of  1879  seitled  the  new  constitn-  i  the  same  time  the  nltan  appointed  Aleko 
tlon  of  Bulgaria,  and  elected  as  their  ,  Pasha,  a  Bulgarian  Christian,  govwnor  gf 
prinoa  Alexander  Battenberg  of  Hesse,  a  '  Eastern  Romndla. 


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^ 


-» 

1^ 


Jamaica 
1<65 


IVmilnlcm* 


1769 


^ 


South  Sbcflud  It.  't      •• 


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A.D.  187a-1879.       THE   SECOND  AFOHAN  WAB.  737 

gaining  Batoum,  which  the  czar  declared  hiB  intenticm  of  making  a 
free  port ;  Turkey  giving  up  also  some  frontier  territory  to  Persia* 
The  treaties  of  1856  and  1871  were  maintidned  in  all  points  not 
itbrogated  or  modified  by  the  present  treaty  ;  while  the  remaining 
points  in  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano  (the  most  important  being  the 
war  indemnity)  were  left  to  be  settled  between  Russia  and  Turkey, 
who  concluded  a  new  treaty  early  in  1879.  Such  was  the  settle- 
ment of  the  great  Eastern  question,  which  virtually  replaced  the 
treaty  of  Paris  after  a  lapse  of  22  years. 

But  in  assenting  to  those  gains  in  Ada,  which  some  who  knew 
Russia  well  believed  to  be  her.chief  object  in  the  war,  England  had 
resolved  to  take  a  new  security  against  possible  dangers  to  her 
interests  in  the  far  east,  and  especially  )o  her  communications  with 
India.  Ten  days  before  the  congress  assembled,  a  convention  of 
defensive  alliance  between  Great  Britain  and  Turkey  had  been 
signed  at  Constantinople  (June  4, 1878),  to  take  effect  conditionally 
on  Russians  obtaining  those  very  gains  in  Asia ;  and  accordingly  tlie 
convention  was  laid  before  parliament  on  the  same  day  on  which 
the  treaty  of  Berlin  was  signed.  England  engaged  to  join  Turkey 
in  defending  the  territories  left  to  her  in  Asia  against  any  future 
attempts  at  conquest  by  Russia ;  while,  in  return,  the  sultan  promised 
to  introduce  reforms  to  be  hereafter  agreed  on,  and,  as  a  provision 
for  executing  these  engagements,  he  assigned  the  island  of  Cyprus 
to  be  occupied  and  administered  by  England.  That  *'  place  of  arms  " 
was  chosen  as  commanding  the  chief  access  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  Syria  and  the  Euphrates  valley,  and  well  placed  for  the  defence 
of  the  Suez  Canal.  Without  anticipating  the  verdict  of  history, 
it  is  but  fair  to  |  lace  on  record  the  claim  of  lord  Beacon sfield  that 
he  had  brought  back  to  his  country  "  peace  with  honour." 

The  storm  in  Europe  had  an  afterclap  in  further  Asia,  which 
revealed  much  more  of  the  danger  that  had  been  narrowly  averted. 
The  continued  conquests  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia  had  raised  into 
a  question  of  the  first  moment  the  position  of  Afghanistan,  the 
mountain  territory  on  the  north-west  of  India,  commanding  the 
passes  of  the  Hindu  Kush  and  the  Suleiman  range,  between  Central 
Asia  and  the  Punjab.  Since  the  chequered  events  of  the  first 
Afghan  war  (1839-1842),  it  had  been  our  settled  policy  to  maintain 
a  friendly  influence  with  the  independence  of  Afghanistan.  But 
now  the  reigning  ameer,  Shere  All  (son  of  Dost  Mohammed),  had 
shown  the  resolution  to  place  himself  in  the  hands  of  Russia, 
receiving  her  envoy  at  Cabul,  while  he  turned  back  a  British  envoy 
on  the  frontier.  To  avenge  an  insult  which  threatened  our  whole 
influence  in  Asia,  and  to  secure  a  new  safe  frontier  by  the  posses- 
sion of  the  passes  commanding  the  Punjab,  a  British  army  entered 


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738  nCTORL/L  Chap.  xxxv. 

Afghanistan  (November,  1878),  and  speedily  accomplished  its 
military  object,  while  Shere  Ali  fled,  in  the  vain  hope  of  help  from 
Russia,  and  died  early  in  1879.  His  son  and  successor,  Yakub 
Khan,  after  some  delay,  sought  an  interview  with  the  British 
general,  and  agreed  to  a  treaty  securing  the  new  frontier  required, 
and  admitting  a  British  resident  at  Gabul  (May,  1879). 

For  the  present  our  history  finds  its  resting-place  at  the  close  of 
the  year  1878,  darkened  by  a  long  and  severe  depression  of  trade, 
and  under  the  cloud  of  the  first  gap  made  by  death  among  the 
children  of  the  queen.  On  the  seventeenth  anniversary  of  the 
prince  consort's  death,  and  the  seventh  since  the  recovery  of  the 
prince  of  Wales  from  death's  door,  the  devoted  daughter  and  sister 
who  had  lovingly  tended  both,  princess  Alice  Maud  Mary,  grand- 
duchess  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  died  at  Darmstadt  of  diphtheria, 
received  through  "the  kiss  of  death"  while  again  tending  her 
suffering  children  (December  14, 1878) ;  but  she  left  her  memory 
as  an  undying  honour  to  her  mother's  reign. 


§  26.  On  casting  a  retrospective  glance  at  the  period  comprised 
in  this  Book,  our  attention  is  chiefly  arrested  by  the  progress  of  the 
country  in  material  wealth  and  power.  The  principal  steps  taken 
for  the  advance  or  security  of  our  political  rights  may  be  simimed 
up  in  a  few  words :  they  are — the  passing  of  the  Bill  of  Bights  and 
Act  of  Settlement,  and  the  securing  of  the  independence  of  the 
judges  and  the  liberty  of  the  press,  in  the  reign  of  William  III. ;  the 
abolition  of  general  warrants  in  that  of  GiM>rge  III. ;  the  repeal 
of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  and  the  emancipation  of  the 
Roman  catholics,  imder  George  IV. ;  and  the  reform  of  parliament 
under  William  IV.  and  Victoria.  The  events  under  the  Stuart 
dynasty  had  left  little  to  be  done  for  our  constitutional  freedom, 
but  everything  to  be  achieved  for  our  national  greatness.  The 
union  with  Scotland,  and  subsequently  that  with  Ireland,  combined 
the  three  kingdoms  into  an  imperial  whole.  The  position  >f 
England  as  a  European  power  was  extended  by  the  wars  of 
William  and  Anne,  and  by  the  military  genius  of  Marlborough. 
But  it  was  in  the  wars  with  the  French  republic  and  empire 
that  all  the  energy  and  resources  of  the  nation  were  displayed, 
and  Great  Britain  became  the  leading  power  in  Europe.  During 
the  same  period,  owing  to  our  maritime  supremacy,  our  colonial 
empire  received  a  vast  extension.  Oiur  colonies  in  North  America 
were  lost  imder  George  III.,  but  were  more  than  replaced  by  the 
subjugation  of  India,  and  the  establishment  of  a  new  colonial  empire 
in  the  South.     The  Canadas,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Newfoundland,  with 


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AO*.  168^1878.      PROGRESS  OF  THE  NATION.  739 

several  of  onr  sugar  colonies,  were  either  retained  or  newly  acquired. 
In  Eorope  the  acquisition  of  Gibraltar,  Malta,  and  Cyprus,  have 
secured  us  the  command  of  the  Mediterranean ;  in  Africa  the  Gape 
of  Good  Hope  affords  valuable  assistance  to  our  Indian  commerce. 
In  the  other  hemisphere,  at  our  very  antipodes,  Australia  and  its 
dependencies  will  form  eventually  a  new  British  world;  and  an 
ever-increasing  portion  of  the  habitable  world  is  peopled  by  a  race 
of  Anglo-Saxon  origin.  Compared  with  these  results,  the  con- 
quests of  the  Romans  shrink  into  insigniticance.  Their  settle- 
ments were  for  the  most  part  mere  military  occupations — ^provinces, 
not  colonies. 

§  27.  During  the  period  imder  review,  the  trade,  wealth,  and 
population  of  Great  Britain  have  been  rapidly  augmented.  They 
received  a  considerable  impulse  during  the  long  and  peaceful  ad- 
ministration of  sir  Robert  Walpole;  but  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  George  III.  is  the  epoch  of  the  great  increase  of  our 
trade  and  manu&ctures.  The  potteries '  began  a  new  course  of 
prosperity  under  Wedgwood  (1762) ;  the  cotton  manufactures 
were  developed  in  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire.  In  1775  James 
Watt  procured  an  act  vesting  in  him  **  the  sole  use  and  property 
of  certain  steam-engines,  commonly  called  fire-enginesy  of  his 
invention.*'  About  the  same  time  Arkwright  began  to  spin  by 
rollers ;  James  Hargreaves,  a  poor  weaver,  invented  the  spinning- 
jenny;  Samuel  Crompton  introduced  the  mule  in  1779.  In 
consequence  of  these  inventions  the  cotton  manufactures  of  Man- 
chester and  the  North  increased  a  hundredfold.  In  order  to 
convey  them,  and  to  facilitate  internal  traffic,  a  network  of 
canals  was  constructed,  and  highways  were  improved ;  whilst 
ultimately  both  these  means  of  conveyance  have  been  in  some 
degree  superseded  by  the  invention  of  railways.  The  origin  of 
English  canals  may  be  dated  from  the  act  of  1755.  The  duke 
of  Bridge  water  obtained  his  first  act  in  1759.  The  length  of  the 
canals  in  England  now  exceeds  2200  miles.  Even  till  towards  the 
end  of  the  last  centtury  the  roads  in  many  parts  of  England  were 
impassable  in  bad  weather.  The  best  coaches  on  a  long  journey 
travelled  no  more  than  four  or  five  miles  an  hour.  After  the  peace, 
roads  were  improved  by  the  use  of  broken  stones  and  granite 
introduced  by  Mac  Adam,  and  the  pace  was  in  many  instances 
accelerated  to  eight  or  ten  miles  an  hour.  Great  as  this  seemed 
then,  it  is  as  nothing  compared  with  the  speed  of  modem  railways. 
The  first  act  for  a  public  railway  was  passed  in  1801.  It  was  not 
intended  for  passengers.  Even  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  line 
was  principally  constructed  with  a  view  to  the  conveyance  of  goods ; 
and  it  was  not  anticipated  that  passengers  would  venture  to  avail 


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T40  PBOGRESS  OF  THE  NATION.  Chap.  xxx^. 

themflelves  of  it  io  any  great  extent.  But  when  it  was  opened 
in  September,  I8d0,  it  was  found  that  its  greatest  success  would 
be  derived  from  the  number  of  persons  conveyed  by  it.  At  the 
end  of  1877  the  United  Kingdom  had  above  17,000  miles  of  rail- 
way, with  a  capital  of  674  millions  sterling,  and  the  net  receipts 
exceeded  29  millions.  One  inestimable  advantage  derived  from 
railways  is  the  facility  and  cheapness  of  postal  communication. 
Under  the  old  system,  and  in  the  days  of  mail-coaches,  a  ^gle 
letter  conveyed  400  miles  cost  Is.  People  wrote  no  more  than 
they  could  help,  and  stratagems  of  all  sorts  were  used  to  evade 
the  postage;  so  that  between  1815  and  1835  it  was  found  that 
the  post-office  revenue  had  actually  decreased,  although,  in  the 
ratio  of  the  progress  of  trade  and  population,  it  ought  to  have 
been  increased  by  half  a  million.  To  imi^ove  this  state  of  things, 
sir  Rowland  Hill's  scheme  of  postal  reform,  by  which  the  postage 
of  all  single  letters,  to  whatever  distance  carried,  was  reduced  to 
Id,,  was  adopted  by  the  ministry,  and  came  into  operation  in 
January,  1840.  Steam- vessels  ddd  not  come  into  general  use 
till  after  the  peace.  They  went  on  gradually  increasing  from 
eight  English-owned  steam-vessels  in  1815,  to  2496  in  1864, 
and  4564  in  1877.  Other  wonderful  inventions  have  been  brought 
into  public  use  during  the  last  half-century — such  as  gas  and 
electric  lighting,  steam-printing,  photography,  the  electric  telegraph, 
with  its  recent  marvellous  developments  in  the  telephone,  etc. 

The  progress  in  our  home  manufactures  and  trade  was  acoom- 
panied  with  a  corresponding  increase  in  foreign  commerce.  The 
warehousing  system,  introduced  by  Mr.  Pitt  in  1803,  by  which  Uie 
duties  on  goods,  instead  of  being  paid  immediately  on  their  landing, 
were  collected  on  their  delivery  to  the  purchaser,  proved  of  great 
service  in  extending  trade  by  husbanding  the  capital  of  our  mer- 
chants. But  above  all,  the  free-trade  measures  of  sir  Robert  Peel 
have  been  attended  with  the  greatest  benefit,  and  promise  to  augment 
our  commerce  to  an  almost  unlimited  amount. 

The  surprising  increase  in  industry  and  wealth  during  the  last 
century  has  naturally  been  attended  with  a  corresponding  increase 
of  population.  Before  the  establishment,  in  1801,  of  a  regular  census 
to  be  taken  every  10  years,  there  were  no  means  of  estimating  very 
accurately  the  number  of  the  people ;  but,  from  the  best  calculation 
that  can  be  made,  it  seems  probable  that  the  population  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  at  the  time  of  the  revolution  of  1688  did  not  much 
exceed  5^  millions.  The  whole  increase  during  the  first  four  reigns 
of  the  Stuart  dynasty  was  not  perhaps  more  than  half  a  million. 
During  the  18th  century,  and  especially  in  the  latter  half  of  that 
period,  the  population  went  on  steadily  increasing,  and  the  first 


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AJ>.  1688-1878.  THB  NATIONAL  DEBT.  741 

oensuB  of  1801  ahowed  a  population  in  England  and  Wales  of 
9372,980.  Since  that  time  the  increase  has  heen  still  more  rapid, 
the  last  census,  in  1871,  showing  a  population  of  22,712,266.  A 
corresponding  increase  has  also  taken  place  in  Scotland ;  while  in 
Ireland  an  increase  of  from  about  5,000,000,  in  1801,  to  above 
8,000,000,  in  1841,  was  followed,  through  the  famine  and  emigra- 
tion, by  a  decrease  to  about  5}  millions  in  1871.  The  total 
population  of  the  United  Kingdom  has  almost  doubled  in  the  70 
years,  from  about  16  millions  in  1801  to  nearly  32  millions  in  1871. 
In  England  and  Wales  it  has  more  than  doubled  itself.  It  is 
chiefly  among  the  portion  of  the  people  employed  in  manufactures 
and  trade  that  this  increase  has  occurred ;  for,  while  the  "persons 
engaged  in  these  occupations  have  increased  at  the  rate  of  upwards 
of  30  per  cent.,  those  employed  in  agriculture  have  increased  at  the 
rate  of  only  2^  per  cent. 

The  yast  augmentation  of  the  national  debt  during  this  period 
is  a  remarkable  feature  in  the  history  of  the  country.  At  the 
accession  of  the  house  of  Hanorer  (1714)  it  did  not  much  exceed 
36  millions,  and  it  remained  for  some  years  at  about  that  amount. 
Yet  in  1736  we  find  it  complained  of  in  the  Craftsman  as  the 
source  of  all  the  national  distress ;  and  twenty  years  afterwards  it 
was  predicted,  in  the  Letters  of  Samuel  Hannay,  that  if  it  ever 
reached  100  millions  the  nation  must  become  bankrupt.  Tet  a 
little  afterwards,  at  the  close  of  Q^orgo  11. 's  reign,  and  chiefly 
through  the  wars  of  that  monarch,  it  had  reached  upwards  of  130 
millions  without  the  occurrence  of  the  anticipated  catastrophe. 
Even  Hume,  in  the  third  volume  of  bis  History  of  England,  written 
in  1778,  when  the  debt  was  about  150  millions,  observed  that  it 
'threatened  the  very  existence  of  the  nation.*'  In  1793,  when 
the  first  war  with  revolutionary  France  broke  out,  the  amount 
of  the  debt  was  little  short  of  240  millions;  at  the  peace  of 
Amiens  in  1802  it  was  nearly  500  millions.  From  that  period 
till  1815,  during  the  portentous  struggle  with  Na|K)leon,  it  was 
increased,  as  we  have  already  said,  to  900  millions.*  The 
history  of  the  efibrts  to  reduce  the  debt  is  interesting  and  in- 
structive. Under  George  L  and  II.,  Walpole  and  Pelhara  set 
the  example  of  making  a  decided  impression  on  the  annual  charge 
(in  which  the  hulk  of  the  debt  consists),^  by  the  reduction  of  interest 


*  In  nuui7  works  the  national  debt 
t0  greatly  understated  by  recording  only 
the  amount  of  the  permanent  funded  debt, 
to  which,  however,  most  be  added  the 
floating  nnftmded  debt,  and  the  estimated 
value  of  terminable  annolties.  Including 
these  Iteme,  the  best  eatimate  of  the  debt 
33* 


at  the  cloee  of  the  great  wa&ln  1815  reaches 
the  total  of  902,264,0001. 

f  The  student  should  clearly  under* 
stand  that  the  bargain  with  the  holdei 
of  stocks  Is  to  pay  a  certain  annuity 
not  to  discharge  the  nominal  prindpil 
sum  on  which  that  annuity  is  reckone<l 


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742 


PROGBESS  OF  THE  NATION. 


Chap. 


in  times  of  cbeap  money.  But  as  to  the  capital,  the  sum  of 
the  storj  has  been — slow  and  small  reductions  in  times  of  peace 
swallowed  up  at  once  on  the  return  of  war.  In  the  forty  years 
(nearly)  of  peace  (1816-1853)  a  reduction  of  100  millions  was 
effected,  in  spite  of  the  Syrian,  Chinese,  Afghan,  and  other  minor 
wars,  and  the  new  loans  of  20  millions  for  the  West  Indian  com- 
pensation, and  10  millions  for  the  Irish  famine.  But  in  two  years 
the  Russian  war  raised  the  debt  again  from  about  800i  to  about 
831}  millions.  This  increase  was  effaced  in  ten  years  of  peace  and 
prosperity,  aided  by  the  falling  in  of  terminable  annuities  to  the 
amount  of  abore  2,000,000Z.  per  annum  in  1860  and  1867.  The 
annual  charge  on  the  permanent  debt  has  also  been  reduced  to  a 
uniform  interest  of  three  per  cent,  (with  trifling  exceptions) ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  partially  increased  by  the  policy, 
instituted  by  Mr.  Gladstone  and  followed  by  Mr.  Disraeli  and  Mr. 
Lowe,  of  converting  sums  of  perpetual  stock  into  terminable 
annuities,  which  is  really  a  disguised  {xxxiees  of  paying  o£f  portions 
of  the  capital  sum  annually  in  the  form  of  higher  interest.  The 
only  other  effective  means  of  reduction  has  been  by  the  automcUtc 
operation  of  an  act  of  (Jeorge  IV.,  by  which,  a  balance  being 
struck  every  quarter  of  income  and  expenditure  /or  the  year  then 
ending^  if  then  a  surplus  is  shown,  one-fourth  of  that  surplus  is 
applied  during  the  ensuing  quarter  to  the  reduction  of  debt  by 
the  purchase  and  cancelling  of  stock, — an  operation  most  effective 
during  the  years  of  large  surpluses  which  have  prevailed  since  the 
Russian  war.  By  such  means  a  reduction  of  more  than  20  millions 
has  been  made  in  the  last  five  years.  On  the  Ist  of  April,  1876, 
the  total  amount  of  the  national  debt  was  775,348,386/.*  At 
the  same  date  the  annual  charge  for  the  debt  was  a  little  under 
27,360,000/. ;  and  sir  Stafford  Northoote  proposed  a  plan  for  its 
reduction,  by  appropriating  a  fixed  annual  sum  of  28,000,0002. 
to  the  payment  of  the  annual  charge  and  the  cancelling  of  a 
portion  of  the  principaL  Meanwhile  the  country  seems  to  carry 
this  burthen  with  a  lighter  step  than  when  it  was  seven  times 
smaller. 
§  28.  We  turn  our  view  from  the  material  to  the  moral  condition 


*  It  it  imporUnt  to  distingntoh  the 
beads:— 

Unredeemed  fiioded  debt..  £714,797.715 
Unftinded  debt  6,239,000 
Value  of  terminable  an- 
nuities        66,311,671 


£776,348,386 
On  Mareb  31. 1879,  tbe  pennanent  ftinded 


debt  amounted  to  709,402.0001^  and  tbe 
tenninaUe  annuities  were  estimated  aft 
42,776,000{..maUngatotalof763.179.000L. 
Just  160  mUlions  leas  than  in  1816.  Tbe 
reduction  of  the  funded  debt  Is  (1879) 
proceeding  at  the  rate  of  five  milUoos 
annually,  under  the  joint  operation  td  the 
terminable  annuities  and  of  sir  StaSbcd 
Nortboote'8  sinking  ftnd  {Budget  tpmtk, 
April  3. 1879). 


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AJ).  1688-1878.     CRIMINAL  LAW  AND  EDUCATION.  743 

of  the  nation.  With  regard  to  religion,  we  maj  notice  the 
societies  that  have  sprung  up  with  a  yiew  to  the  propagation  of 
Christianity :  such  as  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Know- 
ledge, founded  in  1699;  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
(Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  established  in  1701 ;  the  London  Missionary 
and  Church  Missionary  Societies,  and  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  all  founded  in  1804 ;  besides  numerous  others.  Several 
of  these  societies  collect  a  revenue  of  upwards  of  100,0007.  The 
sect  of  the  Methodists,  founded  by  Wesley  and  Whitfield  about 
the  middle  of  last  century,  is  likcMrise  a  remarkable  growth  of  the 
age.  Other  sects  have  risen  and  enjoyed  brief  popularity.  In 
1831  rose  the  followers  of  the  celebrated  Edward  Irving,  pro- 
fessing to  be  endowed  with  the  gift  of  tongues.  In  the  present 
times  we  have  our  Mormons,  and  other  strange  sectaries. 

§  29.  One  great  symptom  of  moral  improvement  has  been  the 
mitigation  of  the  severity  of  the  criminal  law,  introduced  about  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century  by  Samuel  Romilly.  Pre- 
vious to  1808  the  offence  of  privately  stealing  5s.  from  the 
person  was  punishable  with  death,  as  well  as  a  great  many  other 
offences,  such  as  sheep-stealing,  shop-lifting,  etc. ;  and  it  was  no 
uncommon  thing  to  see  several  criminals  executed  together  at 
Newgate  on  a  Monday  morning.  At  length  the  feeling  of  juries 
began  to  revolt  against  such  exorbitant  punishments.  They  re- 
fused to  convict,  and  thus  the  laws  became  virtually  ino^terative. 
Tet  some  of  the  judges,  as  lord  Eflenborough  and  lord  Eldon, 
continued  to  support  the  old  system.  In  1833  a  Royal  Com- 
mission was  appointed  to  examine  the  state  of  the  criminal  law. 
One  of  the  first  results  of  their  report  was  the  act  passed  in 
1836  for  allowing  counsel  to  prisoners  indicted  for  criminal 
offences ;  and  in  1837  a  bill  was  passed  remitting  the  penalty  of 
death  in  21  out  of  31  cases  in  which  it  was  previously  inflicted, 
while  in  the  remaining  10  cases  it  was  considerably  restricted. 
Other  ameliorations  have  subsequently  taken  place,  and  the 
penalty  of  death  is  now  retained  only  for  wilful  murder  and  high 
treason.  A  commission  has  framed  a  Code  of  Criminal  Law,  which 
awaits  the  sanction  of  parliament 

The  present  century  has  likewise  witnessed  a  great  advance  in 
the  education  of  the  people,  especially  of  the  middle  and  lower 
orders.  Lord  Brougham's  is  the  most  conspicuous  name  at  the  head 
of  this  movement,  and  he  has  been  ably  seconded  by  a  host  of 
enlightened  men.  In  1823  the  London  Mechanics'  Institute  was 
founded,  and  was  soon  followed  by  others  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  The  e8tabli>«liment  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge  m  1826,  and  the  opening  of  the  University  of 


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744  PROGRESS  OF  THE  NATION.  Chap.  zzxt. 

London  *  in  1828,  closelj  followed  bj  King's  College,  tended  still 
further  to  promote  sound  education,  especially  among  the  middle 
classes.  To  theso  may  be  added  the  establishment  of  Sunday 
schools,  the  foundation  of  the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society 
and  the  National  Society  for  diffusing  education  among  the  poorer 
classes,  and  the  cheap  and  excellent  publications  of  the  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  and  the  Religious  Tract  Society. 
More  recent  are  the  efforts  of  the  nation  to  provide  a  system  of 
national  education,  supported  by  the  rates. 

§  30.  Literature  underwent  during  this  period  a  great  revolution. 
During  the  early  part  of  it  the  French  taste  introduced  at  the 
Restoration  continued  to  prevaiL  Style  became  more  popular  and 
more  polished  in  Anne's  reign.  In  this  respect  the  prose  of  Boling- 
broke,  Addison,  and  Swift,  and  the  versification  of  Pope,  are  ex- 
cellent. This  continued  to  be  regarded  as  the  Augustan  age  of 
our  literature  till  towards  the  close  of  last  century.  The  con- 
ventional taste  of  the  latter  period  is  exhibited  in  the  lectures  of 
Blair  and  the  criticisms  of  Dr.  Johnson.  The  great  writers  of  the 
Elizabethan  age  were  almost  ignored,  and  any  poet  before  Waller 
was  scarcely  deemed  worth  reading.  But  a  taste  for  our  older 
literature  was  beginning  to  revive,  and  was  fostered  by  the 
Percy  ballads,  and  the  editorial  cares  of  Warton,  Tyrwhitt,  and 
others.  Cowper  introduced  a  new  school  of  domestic  poetry.  The 
French  Revolution  shook  the  European  world  of  thought  to  its 
centre,  and  opened  up  fresh  veins  of  literature.  The  study  of 
German  literature  introduced  new  elements  of  thought.  The 
greatest  names  of  the  present  century — we  speak  not  of  living 
writers — are  those  of  Shelley,  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Southey, 
Scott,  Crabbe,  Campbell,  Byron,  and  Moore.  One  of  the  most 
marked  features  of  the  later  period  is  the  increase  of  periodical 
literature :  our  grandfathers  were  content  with  the  Qentieman't 
Mag'tzine,  and  one  or  two  other  reviews  and  periodicals ;  at  pre- 
sent they  may  be  counted  by  the  score. 

Ihis  period  may  be  said  to  have  witnessed  the  birth  of  a  British 
school  of  art.  In  the  last  century  we  have  sir  Joshua  Reynolds, 
Gainsborough,  and  Hogarth.  The  present  age  is  illustrated  by  the 
names  of  Wilson,  Wilkie,  Turner,  Lawrence,  and  a  long  list  of 
eminent  painters.  In  sculpture  we  may  point  with  satisfaction  to 
the  names  of  Flaxman,  Chan  trey,  Bailey,  Westmacott,  and  others. 
Architecture  has  been  less  fortunate.  The  Italian  style,  which 
culminated  in  Wren's  exquisite  sense  of  proporti<ni,  degenerated 

•  Now  Uotvereity  Oollege.  Londoo.  i  the  Crown  in  1838,  with  the  pow«r  to 
The  present  University  of  London  is  a  grant  degrees  in  Art*.  Law,  and  M^diduK 
different  body,  having  been  foonded  by  j  and  eubeequently  in  Soianca. 

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Chap. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONa 


745 


under  his  followers,  till  the  revived  study  of  pure  Greek  architec- 
ture produced  works  of  correct  classic  beauty  (such  as  those  of 
Smirke  and  Wilkins),  but  little  suited  to  our  climate  and  national 
taste.  The  ensuing  Gothic  revival  has  been  chiefly  indebted  to 
the  labours  of  Pugin,  Barry,  Gilbert  Scott,  and  Street ;  but  its 
chief  merit  consists  in  reproducing  ihe  types  of  our  genuine  old 
English  architecture  rather  than  in  any  works  of  original  genius. 


NOTES  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


A.  POOR  LAWS. 

In  the  statute  ii  Bkh.  II.  (1388)  we 
first  find  mention  of  the  **  impotent  poor," 
who  are  directed  to  remain  and  abide  in 
certain  places;  either  thoee  in  wliich  they  i 
were  at  tlM  time  of  the  proclamation  i 
of  the  atatote,  or  the  places  in  which  they 
were  bom.  Bat  no  provision  is  made  for 
their  maintenance.  Indeed,  daring  the 
Roman  catholic  times,  begging  was  al- 
lowed on  the  part  of  the  impotent  poor, 
•"••o  were  chiefly  sapported  by  the  abbeys, 
convents,  and  other  religious  establifth- 
ments.  Thus,  even  so  late  as  1530,  Just 
before  the  breach  with  Rome,  the  statute 
23  Hen.  VIII.  c  10,  which  inflicts  severe 
punishment  on  sturdy  vagabonds  and 
valiant  beggars  **  being  whole  and  mighty 
In  body,"  allows  the  aged  and  impotent 
poor  to  beg  and  live  off  alms,  provided 
they  confined  themselves  to  certain  dis- 
tricts ;  and  they  received  a  letter  autho- 
rising them  to  beg  within  thoee  limits. 
The  chief  olf}ect  in  ^  the  early  enact- 
ments upon  pauperism  was  to  restrain 
vagrancy.  The  flret  act  for  the  relief  of 
the  impotent  poor  was  passed  in  1536  (27 
Hen.  Vlir.  c.  35),  by  which  collections 
were  ordered  to  be  made  in  the  parishes 
for  their  support.  But  by  the  same 
statute  incorrigible  vagrancy  is,  on  a 
third  conviction,  made  felony,  with  the 
penalty  of  death.  The  dissolution  of  the 
religious  houses  in  that  reign  had  the 
effect  both  of  increasing  the  number  of 
vagabonds  and  beggars,  and  of  diminish- 
ing their  means  of  support.  The  increase 
of  pauperism  is  shown  by  several  severe 
statutes  on  the  sutject  pasKd  in  the  short 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  But  at  the  same 
time  provision  was  made  for  the  relief  of 
the  poor ;  and  the  voluntary  collections, 
rach  as  had  been  first  ordered  under  27 
Hen.  Vm.  0.  35,  were  by  a  long  series  of 


statutes  almost  insensibly  converted  into 
compulsory  assessments. 

At  length,  by  the  43  EUx.  c.  2  (1601), 
compulsory  assessment  for  the  relief  of 
the  poor  was  fUlly  established ;  and  this 
statute  was  till  recent  times  the  tezt-boolc 
of  the  English  poor-law.  The  overseers 
of  each  parish  were  directed  by  this 
statute  to  raise  by  taxation  the  necessary 
sums  **  for  providing  a  sufficient  stocic  of 
flax,  hemp,  wool,  and  other  ware  or  stuflf, 
U>  set  the  poor  on  work,  and  also  compe- 
tent sums  for  relief  of  lame,  blind,  old, 
and  impotent  persons,  and  for  putting  out 
children  as  apprentices."  The  Justices 
were  empowered  to  send  to  prison  all 
perBons  who  would  not  work,  and  to  assess 
all  persons  of  sufficient  means  for  the 
relief  of  their  children  and  parenta. 
Power  was  given  to  the  parish  officers  to 
build,  at  the  expense  of  the  parish  poor- 
houses  for  the  reception  of  the  impotent 
poor  only.  These  are  the  chief  provisions 
of  this  celebrated  statute.  Workhouses 
were  first  established  in  1722  by  9  Geo.  I. 
c.  7.  They  were  not  at  first  intended  so 
much  as  a  refuge  for  the  poor,  or  as  a  test 
by  which  real  destitution  might  be  dis- 
cerned, but,  as  their  name  implies,  with  a 
view  to  derive  profit  from  the  labours  of 
the  poor.  The  workhouses  were  in  fact 
a  kind  of  manufactories  carried  on  at  the 
risk  of  the  poor-rate ;  and  though  they  at 
first  diminished  the  cost  of  relief,  they 
ultimately  increased  it,  by  pauperising 
the  independent  labourer.  In  the  reign 
of  George  II.  the  amount  expended  in 
relief  was  under  three-fourths  of  a  million . 
In  1775  it  amounted  to  1,720,000{.  From 
that  period  it  went  on  rapidly  increasing, 
and  in  1818  it  reached  iu  maximum  of 
nearly  8  millions.  This  large  fund  was 
sut^Ject  to  great  abuses  of  administration, 
which  begot  habito  of  improvidence 
among  the  poor  by  encouraging  early 


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746 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Qhap.  xxxt. 


mMTlAgM,  etc  Laboonn'  wifes  w«w 
ft«qiiently  paid  in  part  from  the  rates ;  and 
thus  a  portion  of  the  (krmer's  labour  was 
done  at  the  expense  of  the  parish.  At 
length,  in  1832,  a  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  the  pracUoal  opera- 
tion of  the  poor-laws.  In  February,  1834, 
they  made  their  report,  and  a  bill  fbonded 
upon  it,  the  Poor-law  Amendment  Act, 
was  soon  afterwards  introduced  by  lord 
Althorp,  and  received  the  royal  assent  on 
August  II.  1834.  By  this  act  all  bodies 
charged  with  the  relief  of  the  poor  are 
placed  under  the  control  of  a  central 
board  of  three  commissioners,  who  are  to 
make  rules  and  regulations,  binding  upon 
the  local  boards.  One  important  power 
given  to  them  is  that  of  uniting  several 
parties  for  the  purpose  of  a  more  eco- 
nomical administration.  The  system  of 
paying  wages  out  of  the  poor-rate  is 
abolished;  and,  except  in  esUreme  cases, 
to  be  determined  by  the  commissioners, 
relief  is  only  given  to  the  able-bodied 
poor  within  the  workhouse.  After  this 
period,  in  the  fkoe  of  a  rapidly  increasing 
population,  the  sums  expended  have 
rapidly  diminished.  In  the  administration 
of  the  law,  the  "workhouse  test"  has 
been  greatly  mitigated.  The  "Poor-Law 
Commissioners"  have  now  been  superseded 
by  the  "  Local  Government  Board,"  with 
a  president  who  is  a  member  of  the 
government.  On  this  subject  see  sir  G. 
Nicholls's  But.  qftkeSngliih  Poor-Law, 
2  vols.  8vo;  Porter's  Progru*  qf  the 
Nation,  sect.  L  ch.  4;  and  the  article 
pAUPBRisic  in  the  Penny  Ojfekpadia. 

B.  CORN  LAWS. 
The  earliest  enactments  on  this  suliject 
were  to  forbid  the  exportation  of  com, 
while  iU  importation  was  freely  admitted ; 
but  in  later  times  the  policy  of  the 
legislature  was  altogether  different.  The 
first  statute  extant  on  com  is  the  Dictum 
de  Kenilworth  (1268),  and  the  next  the  34 
Edw.  in.  c.  20  (1360),  which  forbids  iU 
exporutlon,  except  to  certain  places 
where  it  was  necessary  to  the  king's 
interest,  and  to  be  named  by  him.  At  a 
later  period,  in  the  reigns  of  Richard  II. 
and  Henry  VI.,  we  find  this  policy  re- 
versed, and  liberty  given  to  export  to  any 
places;  though  suttject,  in  the  latter 
reign,  to  restriction  in  case  the  price  of 
com  reached  6<.  8d.  the  quarter  fbr  wheat. 
Since  no  attempt  was  made  to  prevent 
the  importation  of  com,  we  may  infer 


that  H  was  produced   in  England  as 
cheap,  or  cheaper  than  in  neigfaboaring 
countries.    In  the  reign  of  Edward  IV. 
we  find  the  first  protective  law  In  fkTonr 
of  the  agriculturist,  importation  of  ooro 
being  fbrbidden  by  3  Edw.  I V.  c.  2,  unless 
the  price  of  wheat  exceeded  6s.  Set.  the 
quarter.    But  agriculture  seons  to  have 
much  declined  in  England  towards  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  and  in 
that  of  Edward  VI.,  which  was  probably 
in  some  degree  owing  to  the  great  change 
of  property  consequent  on  the  diasolutioii 
of  the  abbeys  and  religious  houses.    Thus 
the  statute,  25  Hen.  VIII.  e.  2,  positively 
fbrbids  the  exportation  of  com ;  and  the 
statute  ft  and  6  Edw.  VI.  c.  5,  entitled 
•*An  Act  for  the  Maintenance  and  In- 
crease of  Tillage  and  Com,"  attempted  to 
make  the  cultivation  of  com  compulsory, 
by  exacting  a  fine  of  is,  payable  by  each 
parish  on  every  acre  of  land   in  each 
deficient  in  tillage  when  compared  with 
the  quantity  that  had  been  tilled  at  any 
period  after  the  aooesaion  of  Henry  VIII. 
The  act  of  Hen.  VIII.  forbidding  tiie 
exportation  of  com  was  repealed  in  the 
reign  of  Mary ;  but  the  price  at  whidi 
exportation  was  allowed  was  gradually 
raised,  till  in  1670  it  was  enacted  that 
wheat  might  always  be  exported  as  long 
as  it  was  under  63«.  4d,  per  quarter.    At 
the  same  time  heavy  import  duties  were 
imposed ;  and  the  design  of  the  legislature 
seems  to  have  been  to  keep  wheat  at  an 
average  of  about  63i.  Ad.     Nsy,  in  1689 
the  landowners  obtained  the  payment  of 
a  bounty  of  5s.  per  quarter  on  the  expor- 
tation of  wheat  when  the  price  did  not 
exceed  48s.,  and  on  other  grain  In  propor- 
tion.   These  bounties  were  not  repealed 
by  Uw  tiU  1815,  though  they  had  been  lor 
some  time  virtually  inoperative. 

Regulations  were  also  made  respecting 
the  home  trade  In  com;  and  in  the  reign 
of  Elixabeth  it  was  made  an  offence,  under 
the  name  of  engroisingt  and  punishable 
with  imprisonment  or  the  pillory,  to  buy 
com  in  one  market  in  order  to  sell  it  in 
another.  The  act  15  Chas.  II.  c  7,  legal- 
ised engrossing  when  the  price  of  wheat 
did  not  exceed  48*.  Till  a  very  recent 
period  engrossing  continued  to  be  regarded 
by  public  opinion  as  a  heinous  offence,  and 
even  lord  Kenyon  violently  denounced 
firom  the  bench  a  oora-fkctor  aocoaed 
of  it. 

By  a  bill  of  1773  Importation  was  al- 
lowed at  the  nominal  duty  of  6d.  whenever 


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OhAP.   XXXV. 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS, 


747 


the  price  of  wheat  should  be  above  48«. 
Sabeequently,  in  1791  and  1804,  this  price 
was  raised  to  54«.  and  63«. ;  and  in  181S 
the  importation  of  wheat  for  home  con- 
sumption was  poeitiTely  forbidden  when 
the  price  was  under  80«.,  and  other  com  in 
proportion.  Various  modifications  were 
introduced  between  that  time  and  1839, 
when  the  principle  of  a  graduated  duty  or 
sliding  scale  was  introduced;  the  duty, 
when  the  price  was  62«.,  being  24s.  8<i 
and  gradually  diminishing  as  the  price 
advanced,  till  at  73«.  and  upwards  it  fell 
to  Is.  The  operation  of  this  principle, 
iMwever,  was  found  to  bo  inconvenient 
and  unsalutary ;  and  at  length,  by  Peel's 
bill  of  1846,  of  which  an  account  has  been 
given  in  the  text,  the  trade  in  com  was 
ultimately  left  entirely  fl-ee.  The  duty 
of  Is.  per  bushel,  reuined  by  sir  R.  Peel 
for  the  registration  of  statistics,  was  abo- 
lished by  Mr.  Lowe  in  1869.  See  the 
article  Corn  in  the  Penny  Cydopadia. 

C.  NAVIGATION  LAWS. 
The  first  Navigation  Act  was  introduced 
by  Whitelock  in  the  time  of  the  Common- 
wealth (1658).  and  was  intended  as  a  blow 
to  Dutch  commerce;  its  main  provisions 
were  embodied  in  the  act  which  till  very 
recently  formed  the  foundation  of  our 
commercial  system  in  this  respect  (12 
Chas.  IL  c.  18).  By  this  act  it  was  pro- 
vided that  no  goods  should  be  imported 
into  England  firom  Asia,  Africa,  or 
America,  except  in  an  English-built  ship, 
navigated  by  an  English  master,  and 
having  at  least  three-fourths  of  its  crew 
English.  With  regard  to  Europe,  goods 
imported  into  England  fh)m  any  European 
state  in  a  foreign  ship  were  sufeiJect  to  a 
higher  rate  of  duty  than  if  imported  in  an 
English  one.  The  first  deviation  fh)m 
this  act  arose  firom  the  treaty  of  Qhent 
with  the  United  States  of  America  in  1815. 
The  States,  soon  after  the  establishment 
of  their  independence,  had  retaliated  on 
England  by  a  navigation  law  similar  to 
her  own ;  but  this  mutually  restrictive 
system  was  found  to  be  so  inconvenient 
and  unprofitable,  that  it  was  abandoned 
at  the  period  mentioned,  and  the  ships  of 
the  two  countries  were  placed  reciprocally 
on  the  same  footing.  With  this  exception, 
all  the  provisions  of  the  act  were  main- 
tained till  1822,  when  Mr.  WaUace,  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Trade,  introduced 
five  bills  effecting  various  important 
relaxations.     The  provisions  respecting 


Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  were  repealed, 
and  also  that  cUuse  which  forbad  foreign 
goods  to  be  brought  into  England  fh)m 
Europe  in  a  foreign  ship,  except  direct 
fhnn  the  place  of  production,  and  in  ships 
belonging  to  the  country  of  production. 
Certain  enumerated  goods  were  also 
allowed  to  be  brought  fW>m  any  port  in 
Europe  in  ships  belonging  to  the  port  of 
shipment;  and  Dutch  ships,  which  by  the 
Navigation  Act  were  forbidden  to  enter 
English  porta  with  cargo,  were  placed  on 
the  same  footing  as  those  of  other  nations. 
Other  relaxations  were  made  in  fuvour  of 
our  West  India  colonies. 

In  the  following  year,  the  PrusslAns 
having  noUfled  that  unless  some  relaxation 
were  made  in  C&vour  of  their  ships  heavy 
retaliatory  duties  would  be  imposed  on 
English  ships  entering  on  their  ports,  Mr. 
Huskisson,  now  at  the  head  of  the  Board  of 
Trade,  introduced  what  are  called  the  Reci- 
procity Acta  (4  Geo.  IV.  c.  77  and  5  Geo.  IV, 
c  1),  by  which  the  king  was  authorised  to 
permit,  by  order  in  council,  the  importa- 
tion and  exportation  of  goods  in  foreign 
vessels  at  the  same  duties  as  those  im- 
ported in  British  vessels  were  liable  to.  In 
the  case  of  those  countries  that  should 
levy  no  discriminating  duties  on  goods 
imported  in  British  vessels;  and  the 
vessels  themselves  of  such  countries  were 
to  psy  no  higher  tonnage  duties  than  were 
chargeable  on  British  vessels.  On  the 
other  hand,  power  was  given  to  impose 
additional  duties  on  the  goods  and  shipping 
of  those  countries  which  should  levy 
higher  duties  on  British  vessels  than  on 
their  own.  Under  these  acta  treaties  of 
reciprocity  were  concluded  with  most  of 
the  principal  nations  of  the  world.  But 
in  1849.  in  the  ministry  of  lord  John 
Russell,  and  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  La- 
bouchere,  the  navigation  laws  were  re- 
pealed, except  as  to  the  British  coasti:  g 
trade,  the  provisions  coming  into  force 
on  January  1,  1850.— See  Porter's  Pro- 
greu  fff  the  Nation,  sect.  ill.  ch.  9. 

D.  AUTHORITIES  FOR  THE  PERIOD 
COMPRISED  IN  BOOK  VI. 

The  principal  authorities  for  the  reigns 
of  William  III.  and  Anne  are— Bishop 
Burnet's  History  qf  His  Own  Times; 
Evelyn's  Diary;  prindpsl  Garstalrs's  StaU 
Letters  and  Papers;  Macphersons  Ori- 
ginal Papers  (1688-1714);  Macphenton's 
Hist  qf  Great  Britain  from  the  Restora- 
tion to  the  Hounqf  Hanover;  Dalrymple'f 


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NOTES  AND  ILLUSTBATION&         Ohap.  xxxt. 


Mmnirt  tf  Qfmk  BrOoln  and  JrelaMd  ; 
Orimblok's  and  Verne's  LMtrt  tif 
WOliam  m. ;  Leuington  Papert ;  Harris, 
BUt.  itf  iht  Life  and  Reign  i^  wmiam 
HI. :  Ooze,  Oorruptmdenee  qf  the  Duke  qf 
Skrewdlmrv  ¥rith  King  WiUiam;  Boling- 
broke's  IjeUere  and  Obrreepondenee ; 
SomeniHt'e  Political  TraneaetioM  from 
the  Rettoration  to  the  mditf  WiUiam  III. ; 
Mimoiret  du  Due  de  Berwick:  Ker  of 
KersUnd's  Memoire  qf  Secret  Traneac- 
tione;  Boyer's  Annait  t^  <A«  Reign  of 
Queen  Anmei  Lockbart's  Memoirt  and 
Ocmtnentariet  on  tke  Affaire  of  Sootland; 
Ooxe,  Memoire  and  Oorreepondenoe  qf  the 
Duke  qf  Marlborough;  The  Ijcttere  and 
Deepalehu  qfJokn  Duke  </  MarfborougK 
1701-lfl2,  edited  by  general  sir  Q. 
Morray ;  Swift's  Fewr  Last  Yeart  qf  the 
Reign  qf  Queen  Anne;  SomenriUe's  Hiet. 
</  Oreat  Britain  during  the  Reign  qf 
Queen  Anne;  earl  Stanhope's  Reign  qf 
Queen  Anne ;  Wyon,  etc. 

It  would  be  qaite  impossible  within  the 
limits  of  this  work  to  recite  all  the  works 
that  might  be  used  for  the  Georgian  and 
Victorian  era,  and  we  shall  therefore 
content  onrselves  with  indicating  a  few 
of  the  principal  onee:  Ooxe,  Metnoire 
qf  Sir  Rob.  WalpoU;  idem,  Memoire  qf 
the  Pdham  Adminietration;  Dr.  Wm. 
King's  Jneodotef  qf  Hie  Own  Timee  (re- 
lating to  the  pretender  Charles  Edward) ; 
Bnbb  Dodlngton's  Diary  (1749-1761); 
Barke's  Lettere  and  Writings:  Orford 
(H.  Walpole),  Mem.  qf  Last  Ten  Tears 
of  George  II. ;  Mem.  qf  Reign  qf  King 
Oeorge  III ;  Malroesbnry's  and  colonel 
Chester's  Joumale:  dnke  of  Bucking- 
ham's Joumale  qf  Oeorge  III.,  etc;  the 
Register   (commeiidiig    1768); 


Lord  Mahon's  Hist,  qf  England,  f  rem  ike 
Peace  qf  Utrecht  to  the  Peace  qf  Ver- 
saHlee,  1783;  Wellington's  Detpatehes, 
both  series ;  Adolphos  and  Jesse's  HisL  qf 
Oeorge  III :  Craik  and  M*Farlane's  Pic^ 
torial  History  during  Reign  qf  Oeorge 
UL ;  H.  Martineau,  Bist.  qf  Bnglamd 
dwring  Thirty  Year^  Peace;  Charles 
Knight's  Popular  History  qf  England: 
the  recent  Lives  and  Memoirs  of  lord 
Shelbunie,  lord  Althorp,  lord  Mel- 
boome,  lord  Palmerston,  lord  Roseell.  and 
other  statesmen ;  the  L{fe  qf  the  Pritue 
Oonsort;  Kinglake's  Orvnean  War: 
Spencer  Walpole's  History  qf  Bngtand 
from  the  Peace  qf  Paris;  Justin  Mae* 
Oarthy's  History  qf  Our  Own  Tisnes,  etc 


E.  STATIi:   OF  THE  REPRESENTA- 
TION, 1878. 

The  following  table  shows  the  composi- 
tion of  the  House  of  Commons  onder  the 
Reform  Acts  of  1867-8,  as  compared  with 
that  ander  the  Act  of  1832  (see  p.  704) :— 

BDgland.  WslM.  Intend.*  SeoCkad. 
Couuaes     .  172        15        64  32 

Universities  t  6         0         2  2 

ClUes     and 

M       16        30  26 


S 


463 


106 


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TABLES. 


•ofiBBieirt  ov  BveLAVD  tnroi  m  ooiravsiT. 


Bndof  1017  I  cr.  Dee.  S9.  KM  StpC  8. 1067 
,  1007  or  1000  '  cr.  8«pC  90, 1007  Aof.  1  llOO 
I  About  lOOB  '  cr.  Aug.  B.  1100  i  Dee.  1,  IIU 
PtobaUj  1000  ,  cr.  Dec  M.  IISO    Oct.    SB.  IIM 


00 
40? 
07 
80 


Maith.  US  cr.  Dee.  U.  IIM  July  0.  UW 
8ept  IS.  11S7  t  er.  8«pt  0.  1100  |  Apr.  8.  USD 
Dee.  M.  1100  ,  cr.  Majr  t7,  IIW  ,  Oct  19.  ItlO 
Oct.    1.  U07  I  cr.  Oct.  tt.  1310  ,  Nor.  10. 1278 

pr.  Not.  10. 1170    Jotjr     7.  1107 

-    *   -  1,  U74 


pr.  Jalf 

pr.  Jan.  94.  U 


I  {    defMMd 

1 1 8ept  n.  „ 
94.1117     Jon.  n.  IIT 


JmlIB.) 


j  (    depoeed 

ISOO  ,  pr.  Jan.  «.  1177  <  ^^^ 
I  Mar..  1400. 

mt ;  SeptTio.  law     Mjtf .  10.  mu 

8,  IMO  '    Mar.    tU  1411       Aug.  11.  1421 

Dee.  0.  1411  >   9tvL     h  1419      Mar.    4.  1401 

Ob.  Majr.  1471 


Mar.  4.  1401 

Apr.  9. 1401 

Jiin.  10. 1481 

1400  !    Aoff.  11.  1480 

Jon.  «.  1401  I    Apr.  39.  lOuf 

Oct.  12.  1S37  I    Jan.  18.  1M7 

Feb.  18.  1010      Jnljr  0.  1001 

8ep.  7.  188S  I    Nor.  17.  lOfiO 

Mar.  34.1000 

Mar.  17.  10I& 

Jan.  iai04» 

Apr.  IB.  U»  ,    Dec  10^  1089 


Apr.     9.  1483       99 
Jon.  90, 1481  i    s  m. 
Aug. '99.  1480  ' 


I  Apr.  -J.  1000  34  I     03 

Jan.  S8, 1047  18  00 

'  Jolf     0.  1063  '      04  .     10 

Nor.  17,  10B8  0  I    41 

>  Mar.  14.  lODl  40  70 


Sept     1.1060 

Jan.    10.1041 
pr.  Mar  0.  l«n 
>eb.      0.1080 

Feb. 
Fell 
Mar. 

11.1089 
11.10BB 

8.1701 

Mar.  97.  1090  99 

Jan.  80.  1648  94 

Ma7     8,1000  u 

8ept.   1.  1008  0 


Majr   IB.  1009 

ob^l074 
Feb.     0.1085 


Majr  90.  1000  i  Atm-  1. 1714 

Oet  80,  ion  ;  Jun.  11.  1737 

Jnn.  4.  1738  Oct  IB,  1700 

Am.  19.  1709  Jan.  99,  1890 

AUK.  94.  1700  ;  Jon.  30.  18» 

Majr  K  1819  I  Jon.  ».  1837 


Dec.  11.1088 

Ob. 
Sept.  18. 1701 

Mar.  8.  1701  I 
Dec  18.  1094  < 
Aug.     1.  1714  I 


Jan. 

11.  1727 

Oct 

IB.  1700 

Jan. 

29.189fr 

Jun. 

10.1880 

Jun. 

10.1837 

10 

7 

VITAT  BMQIA. 


Nom— IbaragMdyeanortbe  earlier  tdngi  are  dated  from  their  eorettoNMi.  tlU  Bdward  L.  wbOM 
eavonatioo  was  peetponed  ty  kb  delay  In  retaming  from  Paleetlna.  Jobn't  regnal  jrear*  are  dated  from 
Aacemloo  Dw.  tiMgh  a  morable  feait  From  Edward  lU.  H  beeaaie  the  nue  to  date  from  the  pro- 
thmftfim  iMtlr,  from  the  death  of  Henry  VIII..  the  principle  was  ertabUahed  that,  from  the  moment 
a  ki«  410^  Ids  k»fU  MoeeMT  begbw  to  reign. 


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750 


TABLE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  CONTEMPORARY  EUROPEAN 

The  Yean  Aouf  Ike  com- 


BvoLAn>. 


WilUamL 
WllUamn. 
Heniy  I.    ... 


loee 

108t 


uoo 


SoonavD. 


Malcolm  UL 


FsavcB. 


IMT     Philip  L 


Donald  VI lOtS 

Duncan  II 1094 

Donald  VI.  restored  1096  , 

Edgar       1098  ' 


1060 


-^ 

...  1135 

Alexander  I 

DaTidI 

.  1107 
.  1124 

LooisVL 
LooisVn. 

1108 

um 

Henry  n 

...  IIM 

Malcolm  IV 

.  115S 

William  the  Lion  .. 

.  1166 

FhlUpIL 

1180 

Richard  I 

...  1189 

John         

Henry  IIL 

...  1199 
...  1216 

Alexander  D. 
Alexander  m.     .. 

.  1214 
1249 

Lonis  VllL 
SkLonisIX. 

1223 

1226 

EdwtRiL 

...  ixn 

Philip  m. 

12»0 

Margaret 

died 

1286 

.  1290 

1292 

1296 

PhiUpIV. 

1280 

JobnBaliol    

Interregnnm 

Edward  U.       ... 

Edward  HL     ... 

Richard  n.   ,  ... 
Henry  IV. 

...  180t 
...  13a» 

...  idfn 

...  1809 

Robert  L(Bnice).. 

D«Tldn.(Brooe)  .. 

Robert  n.(Stnart) 
Robert  m 

.  1306 

1329 

13tl 
1390 

LooisZ.  ... 
JohnL    ... 
Philip  V. 
Charles  IV. 
Philip  VL 
JohnU.  ... 
Charles  V. 

Charles  VI. 

1314 

1316 

1316 

..     ..r  1322 

1338 

1360 

1364 

1380 

Henry  V 

Henri  VI* 

...  141S 
...  1412 

James  n.       

.  1406 
.  148T 

Charles  Vn. 

Ma 

Edward  IV.      ... 

...  1461 

James  m 

.  1460 

Louis  XL 

1401 

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751 


SOVEREIGNS  FROM  THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  CONQUEST. 
mencement  of  their  Beign$, 


Gbrmakt  axd 
Empkbobs. 

Spadt. 

POPBB. 

Henry  IV 

1056 

Alexander  II. 

...  1061 

LEON  AND  CASTILE. 

GregoryVIL  .. 
Victor  HI.      ... 

...  1073 
...  1086 

SanchoII 

1066 

Urban  II. 

...  1088 

Henry  V 

1106 

Alfonso  VI.  (Leon) 

1072 

Pascal  II. 

...  1099 

LokbaireH 

1136 

Alfonso  VII.  ...      . 

1109 

GelasiuB  II.    .. 

...  1118 

Conrad  III.  (of  Ho- 
bensuufen') 

Alfonso  VIII.        .. 

1126 

CaUxtusH.    .. 

...  1119 

1138 

SancholII 

1167 

HonoriusU.  .. 

..   1124 

j 

Alfonso  IX  (Leon) 

1168 

Innocent  II.    .. 

...  1130 

Henry  I 

1214 

CelestineU.    .. 

...  1143 

Ferdinand  IIL 

1217 

Lucius  n.      .. 

...  1144 

Frederick  I.  (Barba- 

(Unites  Leon  andCasUle, 

EugeniuB  HI. 

...  1146 

«»•)  ...    

1162 

12300 
Alfonso  X 

Anastasius  IV. 

...  1163 

1262 

Adrian  IV.     .. 

...  1164 

SanchoIV 

1284 

Alexander  HI. 

...  1169 

Ferdinand  IV. 

1296 

Lucius  IIL     .. 

...  1181 

Alfonso  XL    

1312 

Urban  m.      .. 

...  1186 

Henry  VI 

1190 

Peter  the  Cruel 

1360 

Gregory  VIH. 

...  1187 

/Philip      

lOthoIV 

1198 

Henry  11 

1368 

aementm.  .. 

...  1187 

1198 

John  I 

1379 

Celesiinelll. .. 

...  1191 

Otho  IV.  (alone)    ... 

1208 

Henry  IIL       ..    . 

1390 

Innocent  III.  .. 

...  1198 

Frederick  II.  ...    ... 

1212 

John  n 

1406 

HonoriusIII... 

...  1216 

Henry  IV 

1466 

Gregory  IX.    .. 

...  1227 

/Conrad  IV 

IWilliam 

1250 

CelestinelV.    . 

...  1241 

1260 



Innocent  IV.  .. 

...  1243 

Interrecnnm  

1264 

Alexander  IV. 

...  1264 

/Richard  of  Cornwall 
lAlfonso  of  Castile 

126t 

ARRAGON. 

Urban  IV. 

...  1261 

1267 

QementlV.   .. 

...  1266 

Rudolf  I.  (of  Haps- 

Sancho  Ramires 

1063 

Gregory  X. 

...  1271 

burg) 

I2t3 

Peter  of  Navarre  .. 

1094 

Innocent  V. 

...  1276 

Alfonso  I 

1104 

Adrian  V. 

...  1276 

Ramiro  U 

1131 

John  XXI. 

...  1276 

j 

PetroniUa  and  Ray- 

Nicholas III.  .. 

...  1277 

1 

mond     

1137 

Martin  IV. 

...  1281 

1291 

Alfonso  U 

1162 

HonoriuB  IV.  .. 

...  1286 

AdolphusofNaoMii 

1292 

Sancho  VIL    .       .. 

1194 

Nicholas  IV.  .. 

...  1288 

Peter  n 

1196 

CelestineV.    .. 

...  1294 

AlbertI.(ofAnrtria] 
Henry  VII : 

1298 

James  I 

1213 

Boniface  VUL 

...  1294 

1308 

Peter  III 

1276 

Benedict  XI.   .. 

...  1303 

1313 

Alfonso  III 

1286 

Clement  V.     .. 

...  1306 

/Louis IV. (0  Bavaria)  1314 

James  II 

1291 

JohnXXU.    .. 

...  1316 

iFrederick  of  Anstria 

1314 

Alfonso  IV     

1327 

Benedict  XII. .. 

..    1334 

Louis  IV.  (alone).. 
Charles  IV.    

1330 

Peter  IV 

1336 

Clement  VI.   .. 

...  1342 

1347 

John  I 

1387 

Innocent  VI.  .. 

...  1362 

WencesUus    

1378 

Martini 

1396 

Urban  V. 

...  1362 

Feidinand  of  Sicily 

1412 

Gregory  XL    .. 

...  1370 

Alfonso  V 

.  1416 

Urban  VI.      .. 

...  1378 

John  II 

.  1468 

Boniface  IX.   .. 
Benedict  XIIL 

...  1389 
...  1394 

i 

CAJsrriLE. 

Innocent  VIL 

...  1404 

Robert*  or  Rupert .. 

a400 

(Gregory  XII. 

1406-1416 

Ferdinand  V 

.   1474 

Alexander  v.. 

...  1409 

agfsmiind      ..     .. 

1410 

(Marries  IsabelU  of  Cas- 

IJohnXXIIL 

1410-1416 

tile,  1479.  and  unites 

Martin  V. 

...  1417 

Albert  11 

1438 

Castile  and  Arragon.) 

Eugenlus  IV. .. 
'  Nidiolas  V.    .. 

.     ...  1431 

Frederick  IIL       .. 

1440 

Philip  I 

.  1604 

.    ...  1447 

Callxtusm.  .. 

.     ...  1455 

"— 

PlusU 

.     ...  1458 

Digitized  by 


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762 


TABLE  OF  THE  PRINaPAL  CONTEMPORART 


BROuan>. 


Edward  V. 
Richud  HI. 
Henry  VU. 

Henry  VTII. 

Edward  VL 

Maty 

Eliubeth 


James  I. 


1483 
1483 
1486 

1609 

1647 
1663 
1668 


1693 


Charles  I 

Commonwealth 
Charles  II. 

(Restored  1660.) 


1636 
1649 
1649 


JameH  II.         

Wllluin  and  Mary  ... 
William  III.  (alone) 

Anne 

George  I 

Qeorge  II 


Qeorge  III. 


1686 


QOOftLAMD. 


James  TV. 


James  V. 
Mary 


F&uics. 


1613 
164a 


James  VI 1667 

(Unites  the  crowns 
on  the  death  of 
Elisabeth,  1603.) 


RUSSIA. 

Bmperorgfrom 
The  Great. 


Peter  the  Qreat 

Catherine  I. 

Peter  II 

Anne       

Ivan  VI 

Elisabeth 

Peter  III. 
1694  ,  Catherine  II.  ... 
1702  I  Paul 


Qeorge  IV. 
William  IV. 


Victoria  I. 


1714 
1727 


1760 


1820 
1830 


1837 


Alexander  I.  . 
Nicholas  ... 
Alexander  II. 


.  1689 

..  1726 

...  1727 

.  1730 

.  1740 

...  1741 

..  1763 

...  1763 

..  1796 

.  1801 

...  1826 
1866 


CharksVm. 
Liniis  XII. 

I  Francis  I. 
'  Henry  11. 

Francis  n. 

Charles  IZ. 
I  Henry  HI. 
I  Henry  IV. 

I  Lonis  zni. 

I  Louis  ZIV. 
,  Loois  XV. 


...  1483 

...  1496 

...  1616 : 

..  164T  ; 

...  1669 

..  1660 

...  16T4 

...  1689 

...  1619 

...  164S 

...  It  16 

1774 


PRUSSIA. 

{From  the  SgtabUthment 

qf  the  Kingdom. 

Frederick  1 1701 

Frederick  William  I.  1713 
Frederick    II.    (the 

Great)  ..  1740 

Frederick  WllUam  1 1. 1 786 
Frederick  Williaml  II .  1 797 
Frederick  William  IV.1840 

(Proclaimed  German 
emperor.  1871) 


Lonis  XVI 

(Beheaded.  1793) 

(Luols  XVII.,  nominal. 
Died  in  prison  1798, 
aged  10.) 

t  Republic 1713 

!  Napoleon  I.  emperor  1864 
abdicated  ...  1814 
(Napoleon  II.  tioMtnoI) 

Louis  XVIII 1814 

Charles  X 1834 

Louis  PhiUppe      ...  1830 

Republic 1848 

Napoleon   III. 

emperor      1863 

Republic 1876 

M.  Thiers,  president  18T1 
Marshal  Macmahon, 


president 
M.  Gr^vy, 


18TS 
1878 


LIST  OF  THE  ARCHBISHOPS  OF  CANTERBTOT 


I 
1633.  Thomas  Cranmer.  Burnt  at  Oxford  | 

Mar.  21,  1556.  ' 

1566.  Reginald  Pole,  cardinal.  ■  Ob.  Nor. 

17,  1658.  ! 

1659.  Matthew  Parker.  Ob.  May  17, 1676.  ' 
1676.  Edmund  Grindal.    Translated  firom  j 

York.    Ob.  July  6. 1583.  ' 

1683.  John  Whitglft.      Translated  from 

Worcester.    Ob.  Feb.  29,  1604.        | 
1604.  Richard  Bancroft.    Translated  from  . 

London.    Ob.  Not.  2, 1610. 
1611.  George  Abbot.     Translated   ftt« 

London.    Ob.  Aug.  4, 1688. 


1633.  William  Laud.    Translated  from 

London.   BehesdedJau.lO,  1646. 

The  see  vacant  14  Tears. 
1660.  WiUiam  Juxon.   Translated  from 

London.    Ob.  June  4, 1663. 
1663.  Gilbert  Sheldon.   Translated  ftutn 

Ix>ndon.    Ob.  Not.  9, 1677. 
1678.  WilUamSancroft.  DepriTfdPsb.1, 

1691.    Ob.  Nov.  24,  1693. 
1691.  John  Tilloteon.  Ob.  Nor.  33, 1664. 
1696.  Thomas  Tenison.  Translated  ftvm 

Lincoln.    Ob.  Dec  14, 1718. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


763 

EUROPEAN  SOVEREIGNS,  bc—eonHnmed. 


QaKAKT,  AXD  Bmpbbobs. 

SpAor. 

tem. 

Pfcuin 

..  1464 

The  United  Kingdom  of 

SlxtusIV. 

..  1471 

apain. 

Innocent  VIIL 

..  1484 

ICazimlUanl.       ...  1493 

Alexander  VI. 

.     1492 

Ferdinand  V.  ...         1612 

Plus  III 

..  1503 

Charles  1 1616 

JuUnsII 

..   1603 

CharlM  V 1619 

LeoX 

.     1513 

Charles  vT)                         Adrian  VI.       ... 

..   1622 

aementVIL    ... 

..  1623 

Paul  III 

..  1634 

Julius  III. 

..  1660 

FcnUMndl ^W8 

Philip  n.     •    1666  I  Marcellus  IL     ... 

..   1666 

Maztmilian  U.      ...  1564 

Paul  IV 

..  1665 

Kudoini 1176 

Pius  IV 

..  1669 

Philip  IIL       1M8 

Plus  V 

Gregory  XIIL  ... 

..  1666 
..  1672 

..  1585 

'urbSvh. 

..  Ift90 

Gregory  XIV.  .. 

..  1590 

Innocent  IX.     ... 

.     1591 

aement  VIII.  ... 

..  1692 

Leo  XI 

..   1605 

PaulV 

.     1605 

MfttfhlM 1611 

Gregory  XV.     ... 

1621 

Ferdinand  II 1619 

Philip  IT.       1621 

Urban  VIII.     ... 

1623 

Fenlinandlll.        ..  1637 

Innocent  X. 

..  1644 

Leopold  L       1668 

Charles  IL      1666 

Alexander  VII. 

.     1655 

Joseph  I It06 

CharleaVI mi 

Philip  v....      1700 

Clement  IX.      ... 

.   1667 

Clement  X. 

..  1670 

Charles  VII 1742 

Innocent  XI.     ... 

..   1676 

Francis  1 1746 

Ferdinand  VL       ...  1746 

Alexander  VIII. 

..  1689 

Joseph  II 1766 

Charles  111 1769 

Innocent  XIL  ... 

..  1691 

Leopold  II 1790 

Charles  IV 1788 

Clement  XI.      ... 

..  1700 

•  Francis  II 1792 

Innocent  XIH. 

..   1721 

f    CBnd   qf    the    Holy 

Benedict  XHI.  ... 

..  1724 

Roman     Bmpire, 

Clement  Xll. 

.     1730 

1806.) 

1  Benedict  XIV.  ... 

..  1740 

WJlUam  I.,  German 

Ferdinand  Vn.iw..  1808  '  Clement  X IIL  ... 

.     1758 

emperor      1871 

(Joseph  Bonaparte.)         i  Clement  XIV.  ... 

..  1769 



Ferdinand  restored      1814  j  Pius  VI 

..  1775 

4  rT01*T>T  A 

Isabella  IL                  1833     Pius  VU 

.    1800 

AUSTRIA.                  Republic 1868  1  Leo  XII 

.  1823 

ftands  L  (the  pre-              Amadeus.  king       .1870     Pius  VI 11 

..  1829 

ceding  Francis  11.)  1804  '      (AMlcaled  1873)              i  Gregory  XVL  ... 

..  1831 

Ferdinand       1836     Federal  Republic  ...  1873  j  Pius  IX 

Frandf  Joseph      ..    1848  |  Alfonso  XIL,  king     1874  1  Leo  XIII 

..  1846 

..  1878 

FROM  THE  TIME  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

1716.  William  Wake.     Translated  from 

Lincoln.      Ob.  Jan.  24, 1 737. 
1737.  John    Potter.      Translated   from 

Oxford.    Ob.  Oct.  10,  1747. 

1747.  Thomas  Herring.  Translated  from 

York.    Ob.  Mar.  13,  1757. 

1767.  Matthew  Hutton.  Translated  from 

Oxford.    Ob.  Mar.  19,  1768. 
1758.  Thomas  Srcker.    Translated  from 
Oxford.    Ob.  Aug.  3, 1768. 

1768.  Frederick  Comwallis.    Translated 

from  Lichfield  and  Coventry.  Ob. 
Mar.  19,  1783. 


1783.  John  Moore.  Translated  from 
Bangor.    Ob.  Jan.  18,  1805. 

1805.  Charles  Manners  Sutton.  Trans- 
lated from  Norwich.  Ob.  July  21, 
1828. 

1828.  William  How  ley.  Translated  from 
London.    Ob.  Feb.  11.  1H4'<. 

1848.  John  Bird  .Sumner.  Translated 
from  Chester.     Ob.  Sept.  6,  1862. 

1862.  Charles  Thomas  l^ongley.  Trans- 
lated from  York.  Ob.  Oct.  27. 1868. 

1868.  Archibald  Campbell  TaH.  Trans- 
lated from  London. 


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OENBALOGICAL  TABLES. 


AA   B180IR  OV  TIOIOBIA   L  fBOM  BGim 

1.  BoBBBT.  2.  ETRmLwuLF.  3.  Altrbd  thb  Grbat.  4.  Edwako  thb  Eldbk. 
B.  Edmuvb.  6.  Edoab.  7.  Ethklrbd.  8.  Edmukd  Ibobbidb.  9.  Edward  (iMt  « 
king.  10.  MdrgBTet,  wife  of  Mftloolm,  king  of  ScotUnd.  11.  M*UkU,  wtfe  of 
Hbvbt  I.  12.  Matilda  or  Maud,  empretf  In  G«mum7,  and  wilb  of  Geolftvy 
of  Ai^Jou.    13.  Hbmbt  n.     14.  JoBX.    15.  Hbbbt  m.     16.  Edwabd  I.    IT.  £»• 

WABD  n.  18.  edwabd  m. 


19.  lionel.  dnkeofCUmioe.          Edmund,  John  of  Gmnnt,* 

(                           duke  of  York.  duke  of  Lincartw. 

90.  Pbillpp*.                            I  m.  CBtherine  Swyntad 
m.  Edwaid  HorUmer,  earl  of  Manh.                       (teoe  afterwaidB  legittmBlBd') 

n.  Bof«r]lbrtiiD6r,  earl  of  Manh.  John  BeaafNt, 

I                                     I  earlofSumemi. 

tt.  Amie  Mflrtimer.    «■   Rkhard,  earl  of  | 

I                             Gambridse.  John  Beanlbrt, 

I I  duke  of  Somenet 

I  I 

S8.  Rldianl,  Margaret, 

doke  of  York.  m.  Edmund  Todoi^ 


I  eari 

S4.  Edwabd  IV. 


,  ElLbeth. 

I .. I 


rt  of  Rtchmond. 
Hbbbt  Vn. 


JamealV.erSeotlttid.     «•     96.  Maioaret       «•       Arohlbald  Dooglii^ 
I  Todor.  I  earloTAi^fai. 

2f .  Jambb  y.  of  SeoUand.       Margaret  DongUa. 
I  m.  earl  of  Lenox. 

20.  Mabt,  qwen  of  Soots,    a    Lord  Damley. 

I j ! 

St.  Jaxbs  VL  of  Scotland,  and  I.  of  England. 

aOL  EHMbeth,  m.  Frederick,  elector  palatine. 

n.  aophiB,  m.  IroMt  Angostne  of  Bnmiwiek,  etoctor  of 

32.  GeorobL 

88.  GbobobIL 

«1  Vrateridc  orince  of  WaliB. 

86.  QbobobUI. 

H  Edward,  doke  of  Kent 

87.  VlOTOBIA. 

•  John  of  Gannt  wbi  oldff  than  Edmund,  but  the  latter  la  plaoed 
Vpograpoloal  oonventonea. 


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Q£N£ALOGICAL  XAJBUE&  755 

A^-OHlAIOeiOAL  TABU  OF  THI  SOITSB  OV  OBRDIO. 

*^*  I%e  mmtberi  mark  the  suooession  of  ike  kingi  before  the  Conquest. 

Ckbdic,  the  ancestor  of  the  kingi  of  England  of  the  Saxon  line,  founded  the  king- 
dom of  Weesez  a.d.  619.  Oerdic  died  in  634;  and  tnm  him  Egbert,  the  first  king 
of  England,  is  descended  as  follows:—!.  Cynric,  king  of  Weesex  (r.  534-560).  3. 
OeawUn,  king  of  Wessex  (r.  560-591}.  3.  Cnthwine.  4.  Cntha.  5.  Ceolwald.  6. 
Oenred.  7.  Ingild.  8.  Eoppa.  9.  Eaa.  10.  Ealhmund,  king  of  Kent,  whose  son 
Egbert  was  elected  to  succeed  firfiitric  in  the  kingdom  of  Wessex  a.d.  800.  The 
Uiie  then  proceeds  as  follows :~ 

1.  EGBERT. 

r.  800-136. 
m.BflBdborii. 

9.  BTHELWULP, 

r.886-8U. 

111.(1)  Osbmli. 

(g)  Judith. 

__J 

Athelstaae  8.  ETHELBALD,  4.  ETHELBEBT,   6.  ETHEliBED  I.,   6.  ALFRED 


(k.ofS.£.of       r.  858-860.  r.  860-866.  r.  866-871.  r  871-901 

Bthelwold,  d. 


\f.\  d.  804.  I  m.  Ealhswith. 


7.  EDWARD  the  ELDER.  5  other  childi«n 

r.  901-925. 
m.  (1)  Bcgwyn.    (2)  Elfleda.    (3)  Bdglra. 
Bj  hli  three  marriages  Fxlward  left  15  children,  bj  3  Of  whom  he  was  succeeded. 


.  ATHELSTANE      9   EDtfUin)        10.  EDRED 
OorBdgira),         -    —  • 

r.  940-946. 
m  0)ElgiTa. 
(aiUthelMa. 


(by  Ecgwyn).  O-y  Edgira).         (bj  Edgiva), 

r.  925-940.  r.  940-946.  r.  946-960. 


11  EDWT,                         Eih«>iB^dA  «=  R.  EDOAR  »  EUMa. 
r.  966-968. _|      r.  958^976.     | 

U.  EDWARD  the  MARTYR.  ^  ,     I  ,^       _,„ 

r.  975-979.  Elfleda  =  14.  FTfflP^AED  H.  ^  Emma  of  Normandy 

I  r.  9ti.i016.  I 


If.  EDMUND  IRONSIDE,  AlfhJd  »*  TOW4»U)  tks  C2^"''I^^SS0R 

toNc  *    ■"'  -    -  -  -— 

AWtl 


r.  AprU  to  Nor.  1016.  k.  1080.  t.  i«g  1066. 

m.  Algitha.  «•  f*m« 


Edward  »  AgrthA» 
d.  1507.  I 


»r  Atl 


±, 


^.  Atheling  Margaret,  

(in  whom  the        m.  Malcolm,  k.      (*  nQii> 
male  Saxon  of  Scotland. 

Uaebecame  I 

•itinct).  Matilda, 

m  Hurt  I.,  k.  of  Eni^Und    _ 
OfcM  uniting  the  Saxon  and  Nornn  lfiM> 


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756  QENKALOOICAL  TABLES. 

B.— exHiALon  or  thb  uroio-DMnsH  inros  ov  nreLuro 

*  ^  The  nmrAers  wmrk  ik$  suoocmon  of  the  kingi  hefort  iht  Comqtmt. 

Hftrald  BUAtand  (Blnetooih), 
d.  986. 

Sweyn  IVeel^ieg  (Forkbeard)» 
d.  leu. 

16.  CANUTE  ■•  Emnu,  widow  of  Sttnlve^ 
(DlegltliiMta.)  r.  1016-1036.   | 


SwejD        17.  HAROLD  HAREFOOT,         18.  HARDICANUTE,         Gmiliild 
Iccf  Norway),  r.  1025-1040.  r.  1040-1042 

d.  1086.  (on  his  detth  tb«  Suuw  line  was 

natond  in  Edward  the  OooteMr> 


O— f  AlOLT  or  lABL  OODWHT. 

(See  Freeman,  Norman  (Jonqtteit,  vol.  ii.,  A  pp.  F.,  p.  552.) 

*«*  The  number  (20)  belongs  to  the  auccession  of  the  kmge  before  the 
Conquest, 

Godwin  —  Oytha  (m.  1010). 
d.1063.    I 
(a)  SoKs. 

eyn.         S3.  HAROT.T)  IT..*         Tosrtg.         Onrth.  LeofUne         J^ifear 


8weyiL 


king  and  killed  k.  1066,         k.  1066.  k.  1066.       (donbCfbi; 

1066.  at  Stamford         "^ " 

m.  >Aldg]rtli.  Bridge.  at  Uaettoci. 

(b)  DAnGHTBBS. 


_  _.rth  (Kdith>  Oonhikl.  ElclTa 

m.  Edward  the  (d(mKftil> 

OOMJ 


^  Flor  tue  ditldren  of  Harold,  aec  Freeman,  yorman  CimqutsL  toI.  tti-,  App.  &, 
a.t64. 


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QENEALOQICAL  TABLB& 


757 


D.— THS  irOBKAV  USE. 


Botf  or  Bollo  the  Ganger,  dake  of  the  Hormum, 
911-927. 


William  LongBword  (Longiie-Me\ 
927-943. 


Bldutfd  1.  the  Fearleee  (Sens-pearl 
94S-996. 


Bkhard  n.  the  Good  (le  Bon), 
996-1026. 


m.  (1)  Ethelred. 
(2)  Canute. 


Richard  IIL. 
102«-1028. 


1.  the  MagniCkent  or  the  Detfl, 
1028-1035. 


WILLIAM  I.  the  Conqueror 

(by  ArletU), 

b.1027;  d.  Sept.  7,  1087. 

m.  Matilda,  d.  of  Baldwin. 

Goant  of  Flanders. 


Robert  n., 
dnke  of 

S(onnandy, 
d.  113i. 


Richard, 
d.  yonng. 


WILLIAM  IL 

(Ruftu), 

d.  Aug.  a, 

1100. 


Wflliam. 
d.  1128. 


HENRY  I..  6  danghter 

d.  Dec.  1, 1136.  

m.  (1^  Matilda  of  Scotland ;  Of  whom  Ad 
(2)  Adeliisaof  Lonvain  the  fourth 
Q:^  whom,  no  children).  Stephen,  a 
of  BloiB. 
I 


Matik 


William, 

d.  1120.  m.a)  Henry  V 

m.  Matilda,  d.  if        of  Germany. 
Fnlk  of  AnJoii    (2^  Uootn^y  of  AnJou, 
d.  1187. 


lYIL 


Robert 


(by  a  concubine), 
d.  1147. 


Several  other 
illegitimate 
oUldrtn. 


STKPHE 
d.1164 


34 


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768 


OBHXALOaiOAL  X^lJia 


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coarxAiioaicAL  tablbb. 


I 


^     5-     ^  •     "S^  . 
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SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTES. 


Note  I.,  pa^  284. 

America  first  appears  in  the  history  of  England  at  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  When  Columbus,  disappointed,  was  about 
to  leave  Portugal  for  Spain,  he  sent  his  brother  Bartholomew  to 
ask  assistance  of  the  British  monarch,  Henry  YII.  The  applica- 
tion was  not  made  until  several  years  had  elapsed;  and  when 
Henry  sent  Bartholomew  to  invite  his  brother  to  England,  Chris- 
topher had  returned  from  his  brilliant  first  voyage  of  discovery. 
King  Henry,  early  in  1498,  gave  Sebastian  Cabot,  one  of  nis  sub- 
jects, a  commission  to  go  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  and  furnish- 
ed two  small  vessels  for  the  purpose.  Cabot  first  saw  the  North 
American  continent  at  Labrador  in  June,  1498.  Columbus  dis- 
covered the  South  American  continent  a  few  weeks  later.  To 
England  belongs  the  honour  of  furnishing  the  first  discoverer  of 
the  North  American  continent 

Note  IL,  page  816. 

Some  Huguenots,  returning  to  France  from  the  coast  of  South 
Carolina  in  a  small  brigantine,  were  rescued  from  their  capsized 
vessel  fioating  near  the  English  shores.  They  were  nearly  starved. 
Taken  before  queen  Elizabeth,  they  gave  such  an  account  of  the 
beautiful  country  they  had  left  that  an  intense  desire  was  created 
among  the  English  to  colonize  that  region.  In  1584,  the  queen 
gave  Walter  Raleigh  a  commission  to  send  an  expedition  to 
America.  Two  ships,  fitted  out  by  him,  sailed  for  the  pleasant 
region  described  by  the  wrecked  Huguenots.  They  touched  land 
a  little  farther  north,  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina.  The  com- 
manders of  the  two  vessels,  on  returning  to  England,  gave  glow- 
ing accounts  of  the  beauty  of  the  region  they  had  visited.  Ra- 
leigh afterwards  attempted  to  colonize  the  country,  which  was 


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SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTEa  767 

^lled  ViRGiRlA.    He  never  saw  North  America  himselC    Thii 
was  the  first  attempt  at  English  colonization  in  America, 

Note  m.,  page  854. 

It  was  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Powhatan,  in  Virginia,  where 
the  English  adventurers  planted  a  settlement  in  the  spring  of 
1607,  and  not  "in  the  bay  of  Chesapeake,"  as  mentioned  in  the 
text.  They  named  the  river  James,  in  honour  of  the  king  of 
England,  and  their  settlement  they  named  James  Town.  This 
was  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  made  in  America. 
It  was  more  than  50  miles  from  the  entrance  to  Chesapeake 
Bay.  No  vestige  of  that  first  capital  of  Virginia  now  remains, 
excepting  the  ruins  of  the  tower  of  the  first  substantial  church 
built  there.  In  1613,  a  bond  of  friendship  between  the  Indian 
emperor  Powhatan  and  the  English  settlement  at  James  Town 
was  made  by  the  marriage  of  the  dusky  ruler^s  daughter  Poca- 
hontas to  John  Rolfe,  one  of  the  settlers.  They  became  the  an- 
cestors of  some  families  distinguished  in  Virginia  society.  It  was 
at  James  Town,  twelve  years  after  the  settlement  was  planted,  that 
the  first  representative  government  in  America  was  established. 

Note  IV.,  page  856. 

An  important  event  in  English  history  occurred  in  America  in 
1620.  A  congregation  of  nonconformists,  who  had  fled  to  Hol- 
land from  persecution  in  England,  had  been  formed  at  Leyden 
under  the  pastoral  care  of  Rev.  John  Robinson.  They  were  loyal 
Englishmen,  and  desired  to  live  under  English  rule  if  they 
could  have  freedom  in  their  method  of  divine  worship.  They 
made  arrangements  with  the  Plymouth  Company,  to  whom  king 
James  had  granted  a  large  domain  in  America,  to  make  a  set- 
tlement there.  In  the  fall  of  1620,  a  company  of  101  persons 
sailed  from  England  for  America  under  the  charge  of  elder 
William  Brewster,  a  coadjutor  of  Robinson  in  Holland.  They 
came  in  the  Ma/yfloioer^  and  late  in  December  landed  near  Cape 
Cod,  and  there  began  a  settlement,  to  which  they  gave  the  name 
of  New  Plymouth.  Before  landing,  a  compact  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  civil  government  was  drawn  up,  and  on  the  lid 
->f  the  chest  of  elder  Brewster,  in  the  cabin  of  the  Mayflower^  it 
was  signed  by  the  men  of  the  little  company  of  "  Pilgrims,"  as 
they  called  themselves.  They  chose  John  Carver  to  be  their 
governor,  and  thus  they  laid  the  foundations  of  a  state  in  the 
region  which  captain  Smith,  the  real  founder  of  Virginia,  had 
explored  and  named  New  England. 


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768  SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTia. 

Note  v.,  page  Hr/i, 

Another  important  event  in  English  history  occurred  In  Ame^ 
ica  12  or  15  years  after  the  "Pilgrim"  immigration*  King 
James  persecuted  the  Roman  Catholics  as  well  as  the  non-con- 
formists in  England.  George  Calvert,  a  Roman  Catholic,  a  crown 
officer,  and  a  court  favourite,  desirous  to  have  an  asylum  for 
his  coreligionists,  sought  a  grant  of  a  domain  in  America  from 
Charles  I.,  the  son  and  heir  of  James.  Calvert  had  been  cre- 
ated lord  Baltimore  by  James.  He  died  before  a  charter  was 
obtained ;  but  Charles  gave  one  to  his  son  and  successor,  Cecil 
Calvert.  The  domain  was  in  the  region  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and 
was  named  Maryland,  in  honour  of  Charles's  queen,  Henrietta 
Mary.  Late  in  1638,  lord  Baltimore  sent  his  brother,  Leonard 
Calvert,  with  about  800  persons,  to  make  a  settlement  in  Mary- 
land. They  arrived  in  the  spring  of  1684;  and,  at  a  place 
which  they  named  St.  Mary,  they  began  a  settlement,  and  found- 
ed the  colony  of  Maryland.  Although  a  larger  proportion  of 
immigrants  were  Protestants,  it  was  essentially  a  Roman.  Cath- 
olic colony,  the  first  that  ever  came  to  America  irom  England. 
The  ruling  class,  from  governor  down,  were  Roman  Catholics. 
The  colony  was  composed,  lord  Baltimore  wrote  to  W^ntworth, 
of  "  very  near  20  gentlemen  of  very  good  fashion,  and  300  la- 
bouring men,''  who  had  taken  the  oath  of  supremacy  before 
leaving  England,  and  were,  of  course,  Protestants. 

Note  VI.,  page  451. 

Governor  Berkeley  of  Virginia  was  a  staunch  loyalist,  and 
ruled  the  colony  under  a  commission  sent  to  him  from  prince 
Charles,  the  decapitated  king's  heir,  who  was  an  exile  from 
England  in  Breda.  The  Republican  parliament  of  England  was 
offended  by  this  persistent  attachment  of  Virginia  to  royalty, 
and,  early  in  the  spring  of  1652,  sent  sir  QeorgQ  Ayscue  with  a 
powerful  fleet  to  reduce  the  Virginians  to  submission.  Mean- 
while Berkeley  and  the  Cavalier,  or  Royalist,  party  in  Virginia, 
had  resolved  not  to  submit,  and  had  sent  a  messenger  to  Breda 
to  invite  prince  Charles  to  come  over  and  be  their  king.  He 
was  preparing  to  come,  when  affairs  took  a  turn  in  England 
which  foreshadowed  a  speedy  restoration  of  monarchy  there. 
When  the  prince  ascended  the  throne  as  Charles  H.,  he  did  not 
forget  the  loyalty  of  the  Virginians.  He  caused  the  arms  of  that 
province  to  be  quartered  with  those  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  as  an  independent  member  of  the  empire.    From  this 


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8UPPLEMENTABT  NOTES.  769 

circamstance,  Virginia  acquired  the  title  of  "  The  Old  Dominion." 
Coins  with  these  quarterings  were  struck  as  late  as  1778. 

Note  VII.,  page  469. 
England  claimed  the  territory  in  America  occupied  by  the 
Dutch,  and  named  by  them  New  Netherland,  as  a  part  of  her 
domain,  the  right  to  which  the  Hollanders  disputed,  because  the 
river  upon  which  a  larger  portion  of  the  territory  lay  was  dis- 
covered by  Henry  Hudson  when  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch. 
The  latter  had  built  a  flourishing  commercial  station  at  the 
mouth  of  the  stream,  which  was  named  Hudson's  River,  in  honour 
of  its  discoverer.  In  1664,  king  .Charles  gave  the  domain  of 
New  Netherland  to  his  brother  James,  duke  of  York,  and  the 
same  year  a  land  and  naval  force  captured  New  Amsterdam,  the 
name  of  the  commercial  village  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The 
conmiander  of  the  expedition  took  possession  of  the  town  and 
the  whole  territory,  and  the  name  of  each  was  changed  to  New 
York.  After  a  brief  season  of  repossession  by  the  Dutch,  New 
Netherland  passed  into  the  permanent  control  of  the  English, 
and  has  ever  since  been  called  New  York,  in  honour  of  the  duke. 

Note  Vm.,  page  487 

Late  in  the  seventeenth  century,  William  Penn,  a  son  of  ad- 
miral Penn,  a  favourite  of  king  Charles  II.,  procured  from  that 
monarch  a  charter  for  a  province  in  America.  This  son  had  be- 
come a  member  of  the  despised  and  persecuted  sect  called  Quak- 
ers, but  the  friendship  which  Charles  felt  for  the  father  was  ex- 
tended to  William,  and  he  gave  him  a  charter  for  a  province,  ly- 
ing mostly  on  the  Delaware  River.  The  consideration  was  the 
relinquishment  of  claims  to  a  debt  of  $80,000,  due  from  the  crown 
to  Penn's  father.  The  charter  was  given  in  1681.  Penn  proposed 
to  call  the  domain  **  New  Wales."  The  king's  Welsh  secretary 
objected.  Then  he  suggested  "Sylvania*' — wooded  country. 
Against  the  wishes  of  Penn,  the  king  caused  his  name  to  be  pre- 
fixed to  the  last  title  suggested  by  the  proprietary,  and  it  was 
named  in  the  charter  Pennsylvania.  Penn  came  to  America  in 
1782,  and  laid  out  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  The  colony  pros- 
pered from  the  beginning,  for  it  was  founded  upon  justice. 

Note  IX.,  page  516. 

The  revolution  in  England  (1688-89)  had  a  powerful  and  sal- 
utary effect  upon  the  English-American  colonies.  While  in  Eng- 
land the  religious  aspect  of  the  movement  in  the  chonge  of  dynas* 


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770  8UPPLEMENTABY  NOTES. 

ties  was  conspicuous,  in  the  American  provinces  the  change  ' 
marked  by  a  rapid  development  of  democratic  ideas  and  prin- 
ciples. Connecticut  resumed  its  ancient  charter,  of  which  it  had 
been  deprived,  and  Andros,  who  was  arbitrary  governor  of  all 
New  England,  was  driven  from  Boston,  when  local  self-govern- 
ment was  established  in  Massachusetts.  In  New  York  the  dem- 
ocratic element,  in  the  absence  of  a  royal  governor,  became  po- 
litically dominant  for  a  while.  When  a  governor  appointed  by 
the  king  came,  Jacob  Leisler,  who  had  been  chosen  ruler  by  the 
people,  was  hanged,  and  his  estates  were  confiscated ;  but  democ* 
racy  had  taken  too  firm  root  to  be  eradicated.  From  that  mo< 
ment  it  grew,  and  bore  abundant  fruit  The  spirit  of  liberty, 
fostered  by  the  results  of  the  revolution  in  England  in  1688, 
ruled  the  colonies  until  1776,  when  they  declared  their  indepen- 
dence of  the  British  crown.  Their  triumph  was  made  complete 
by  the  terms  of  peace  in  1783,  which  decreed  the  dismemberment 
of  the  British  empire. 

Note  X.,  page  528. 

In  the  revolution  in  England  in  1688,  king  James  IL  was 
driven  from  the  throne,  and  took  refuge  with  his  kinsman  and 
coreligionist,  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  The  latter  espoused  his 
cause,  and  war  ensued  between  the  two  countries.  William  of 
Holland,  husband  of  Jameses  daughter  Mary,  then  reigned  in 
England  jointly  with  his  wife.  In  this  war  the  English  and 
French  colonists  in  America  became  involved,  and  the  opera- 
tions were  important  events  in  English  history.  It  is  known  in 
American  history  as  "  King  William's  War."  The  French  were  . 
usually  joined  by  their  Indian  allies  in  expeditions  against  the 
English  frontiers.  In  1600,  French  and  Indians  penetrated  New 
York  almost  to  Albany,  destroying  Schenectady  by  fire,  and  mas- 
sacring many  of  its  inhabitants.  They  desolated  the  New  Eng- 
land frontiers.  The  people  of  that  region  and  of  New  York 
joined  in  a  land  and  naval  expedition  against  Canada,  but  fdled. 
The  English  colonies  suffered  much  during  that  war,  which  was 
ended  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1697. 

Note  XI.,  page  541. 

King  William  and  queen  Mary  being  both  dead,  the  princess 
Ann^,  Mary's  sister,  by  the  Act  of  Settlement  became  queen  in 
1702.  The  dethroned  James  died  the  previous  year.  The  king 
of  France  having  acknowledged  Jameses  son  as  rightfril  king 
of  England,  war  was  renewed  between  the  two  countries,  and 


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SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTEa.  77I 

their  respective  colonies  in  America  were  involved  in  it  That 
conflict  was  known  in  America  as  ^^  Queen  Annd^s  War.**  In  this 
war  New  £ngland  suffered  dreadfully  from  the  incursions  of 
French  and  Indians  along  its  frontiers.  An  expedition  sailed 
from  Boston  in  1710,  and,  assisted  by  a  fleet  from  £ngland,  cap- 
tured a  portion  of  Nova  Scotia.  In  the  following  year  7000 
land  troops  and  a  powerful  English  fleet  started  for  Quebec; 
Alt  disaster  in  a  storm  near  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
caused  the  loss  of  eight  ships  and  1000  men,  and  the  expedition 
was  abandoned.  Peace  was  secured  by  a  treaty  at  Utrecht  in 
1713.  For  80  years  afterwards  the  New  England  colonies  en- 
joyed quiet. 

Note  XU.,  page  588. 

In  the  war  between  England  and  France  in  1744,  the  Amer- 
ican colonies  of  the  two  countries  again  became  involved.  This 
conflict  is  known  in  American  history  as  **  King  George^s  War," 
George  II.  then  being  on  the  throne  of  England.  The  French 
had  a  strong  fort  at  Louisburg,  on  the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  east- 
ward of  Nova  Scotia.  In  the  spring  of  1745,  a  provincial  army 
sailed  from  Boston,  and  were  joined  by  an  English  fleet,  under 
admiral  Warren,  from  the  West  Indies.  They  besieged  the  for- 
tress and  town  of  Louisburg,  both  of  which  surrendered  to  the 
English  a  month  after  the  first  attack.  The  following  year  a 
powerful  French  fleet,  commanded  by  the  duke  d'Anville,  was 
sent  to  recapture  Louisburg.  The  fleet  bore  a  large  land  force. 
Storms  wrecked  many  of  the  vessels,  and  disease  swept  away 
many  of  the  soldiers  and  sailors.  The  expedition  was  a  failure. 
Peace  ensued  in  1748,  by  a  treaty  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  By  that 
treaty  Louisburg  was  restored  to  the  French. 

Note  XIII.,  page  597. 

After  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  circumstances  made  the 
English  colonies  in  America  anxious  to  form  a  general  political 
union.  It  had  been  attempted  by  the  New  England  colonies. 
The  principal  causes  which  produced  this  desire  now  were  the 
encroachments  of  the  British  government  upon  the  liberties  of 
the  colonies  in  the  form  of  navigation  acts  and  other  restrictive 
measures,  and  the  increasing  rapacity  of  the  royal  governors.  In 
the  wars  they  had  lately  passed  through,  the  colonists  had  dis- 
covered their  strength.  In  1754,  a  colonial  convention  of  dele- 
gates was  held  at  Albany,  at  which  Dr.  Franklin  submitted  a 
plan  for  union,  similar  in  its  general  features  to  our  national 


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772  8UPPLEMENTABT  NOTM. 

Constitution.  It  was  adopted  by  the  conyention  and  sobmitM 
to  the  colonial  assemblies  and  the  British  cabinet.  It  was  reject- 
ed. The  former  thought  there  was  too  much  prerogatike  in  it; 
and  the  latter  discovered  too  much  democracy  in  it 

Note  XIV.,  page  50a. 

Hostilities  between  the  English  and  French  colonists  in  Amer- 
ica began  about  boundaries  in  1754.  The  French  traded  with 
the  Indians  in  the  country  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  from 
Lake  Erie  to  the  Mississippi  and  New  Orleans.  They  buUt  forts 
in  these  regions,  and  the  English  became  jealous  of  them,  be- 
cause, through  the  Jesuit  priests  and  the  more  intimate  social 
relations  with  the  Indians,  the  French  had  almost  unbounded  in- 
fluence over  the  barbarians.  The  English  and  French  claimed 
the  right  to  the  country  around  the  head- waters  of  the  Ohio 
River,  and  far  down  its  valley.  From  disputes  they  proceeded 
to  blows.  The  two  home  governments  soon  perceived  that  the 
struggle  must  be  a  strife  for  power  and  dominion  in  America; 
and  in  1756,  after  actual  war  had  been. going  on  between  the 
rival  colonists  for  nearly  a  year,  England  declared  war  against 
France.  It  was  a  severe  stmggle  for  full  seven  years,  and  ended 
by  a  treaty  in  1763.  By  this  war  France  was  stripped  of  nearly 
ail  its  domain  in  America.  Chiefly  through  the  prowess  of  the 
colonial  troops,  Canada  was  conquered,  and  with  it  fell  French 
power  from  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  along  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers;  also  in 
Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Cape  Breton,  and  St.  John.  This 
conflict  is  called  in  American  history  the  **  French  and  Indian 
War;"  in  Europe,  the  **  Seven  Years'  War." 

Note  XV.,  page  612. 

The  statement  that  Dr.  Franklin  "  expected  little  else  than  ac- 
quiescence from  his  countrymen"  is  an  error,  originating, doubt- 
less, in  a  statement  made  in  a  pamphlet  written  by  dean  Tncker 
at  that  time.  Franklin  was  then  in  England,  acting  as  a  colo- 
nial agent  He  opposed  the  Stamp  Act  from  its  first  inception. 
When  it  was  made  a  law,  he  wrote  to  Charles  Thomson,  from 
London,  July  11,  1765,  ''Depend  upon  it,  my  good  neighbour,  I 
took  every  step  in  my  power  to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  Stamp 
Act. .  .  .  The  sun  of  liberty  is  set ;  the  Americans  must  light  the 
lamps  of  industry  and  economy."  When  asked  by  a  committee  of 
parliament  whether  the  Americans  would  pay  the  stamp-duty,  he 
said,  emphatically,  "No,  never,  unless  compelled  by  force  of  arma'^ 


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8UPPLEMENTABT  N0TS8.  fJS 

Note  XVL,  page  614. 

William  Pitt  (earl  of  Chatham)  was  the  chief  author  of  the 
bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.  It  was  accompanied  in  its 
passage  by  another  bill,  introduced  by  Mr.  Pitt,  which  was  call- 
ed the  Declaratory  Act,  for  it  declared  that  parliament  had  the 
right  "  to  bind  the  colonies  in  all  cases  whatsoever" — the  vital 
point  at  issue  between  Great  Britain  and  her  American  proyinces. 
The  Americans,  jubilant  because  of  the  repeal,  overlooked,  for 
the  moment^  the  significance  of  the  Declaratory  Act.  In  their  ef- 
fusion of  gratitude,  an  equestrian  statue  of  the  king  and  a  statue 
of  Pitt  were  voted  by  New-Yorkers.  A  statue  of  Pitt  was  also 
erected  at  Charleston.  But  there  were  sagacious  men,  like  Chris- 
topher Gadsden  of  South  Carolina,  who  shook  their  heads  in 
doubt  about  the  blessing.  Gadsden,  at  a  meeting  of  some  of  his 
political  friends,  warned  them  not  to  be  deceived  by  this  show 
of  justice.  "The  fangs  of  the  dragon  of  oppression,"  said  he, 
"  by  Pitt's  Declaratory  Act,  have  been  left  untouched."  The  fact 
was  soon  made  manifest  by  new  obnoxious  acts  of  parliament 

Note  XVIL,  page  616. 

The  statement  in  the  middle  paragraph  on  this  page,  that  "it 
became  customary  to  strip  those  who  refused  to  enter  into  these 
[non-importation J  agreements,  and  to  cover  them  with  tar  and 
feathers,^  is  a  repetition  of  false  statements  made  by  the  crown 
officers  in  the  colonies  at  that  time.  There  are  very  few  well- 
attested  cases  of  that  mode  of  treatment  being  practised  during 
the  struggles  here  alluded  to,  and  these  were  inflicted  upon  per- 
sons guilty  of  the  most  flagrant  offences.  The  writer  has  never 
met  with  any  account  of  this  punishment  being  inflicted  upon 
persons  because  of  mere  difference  of  opinion,  as  in  the  case  of 
non-importation  agreements.  In  these  cases  there  was  social  os- 
tracism, nothing  more. 

Note  XVin.,  page  618. 

In  the  account  given  on  this  page  of  the  transmission  of  Hut- 
chinson's letters  to  Boston,  the  impression  is  left  on  the  mind 
of  the  reader  "^hat  Dr.  Franklin  was  guilty  of  a  violation  of  his 
solemn  promise.  In  the  pvUication  of  the  letters,  Franklin  had 
no  part.  When  he  sent  the  letters  to  Mr.  Cushing,  chairman  of 
the  Committee  of  Correspondence  of  the  Massachusetts  Assembly, 
he  wrote  to  that  gentleman:  "I  am  not  at  liberty  to  make  the 
letters  public ;  I  can  only  allow  them  to  be  seen  by  yourself,  by 


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774  SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTES. 

the  other  gentlemen  of  the  Committee  of  Correspondence,  bj 
Messrs.  Bowdoin  and  Pitts  of  the  council,  and  Drs.  Chauncej, 
Cooper,  and  Winthrop,  with  a  few  such  other  gentlemen  as  you 
may  think  fit  to  show  them  to.  After  being  some  months  in 
your  possession,  you  are  requested  to  return  them  to  me," 
When,  afterwards,  the  committee  urged  the  necessity  of  being  al- 
lowed to  retain  copies,  Dr.  Franklin  replied,  ^^  I  have  permission 
to  let  the  originals  remain  with  you  as  long  as  you  may  think  it 
of  any  use.  I  am  allowed  to  say  that  they  may  be  shown  and 
read  to  whom  and  as  many  as  you  think  proper.''  But  copying 
of  them  was  positively  forbidden. 

Not  long  tifterwards  the  letters  were  read  to  the  Massachusetts 
Assembly  in  secret  session.  This  reading  was  soon  followed  by 
printed  copies  of  the  letters  in  pamphlet  form,  purporting  to  be 
"  from  copies  recently  received  from  England."  By  whom  they 
were  copied  is  not  known.  Dr.  Franklin  had  no  hand  in  it. 
And  when  the  publication  appeared  in  England,  and  innocent 
persons  were  suffering  for  being  accused  of  sending  the  letters  to 
America,  Franklin  at  once  published  a  card,  in  which  he  said, 
**  I  alone  am  the  person  who  obtained  and  transmitted  to  Boston 
the  letters  in  question."  He  was  promptly  dismissed  from  the 
office  of  colonial  postmaster-general. 

Note  XIX.,  page  6ia 

It  was  in  this  congress  that  the  colonies,  through  their  repre- 
sentatives, first  announced  their  determination  to  stand  by  each 
other  in  the  coming  struggle  in  the  following  resolution^  adopt- 
ed on  the  8th  of  October,  1774 : 

"  Besohed,  That  this  Congress  approve  the  opposition  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  to  the  execution  of  the  late 
acts  of  parliament ;  and  if  the  same  shall  be  attempted  to  be 
carried  into  execution  by  force,  in  such  case  all  America  ought 
t/6  support  them  in  their  opposition." 

That  resolution  sounded  the  key-note  of  the  war  that  followed. 
It  was  the  first  planting  of  the  seed  of  our  Union. 

Note  XX.,  page  eia 

The  expression  '^  militiamen,  part  of  their  main  army,^  gives 
an  erroneous  impression  of  the  military  situation.  The  only 
**  main  army  "  then  existing  was  the  great  mass  of  the  masculine 
citizens  capable  of  bearing  arms,  who,  for  months,  had  been  train- 
ing throughout  New  England,  in  every  neighbourhood,  to  be 
ready  to  seize  their  muskets  at  a  minute^s  warning.    These  were 


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SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTEa  775 

the  femooB  "  minute  men  "  of  the  Revolution.  Those  on  Lexing- 
ton Green  on  the  morning  of  April  19, 1775,  were  the  ndmUe  men 
of  the  neighbourhood. 

The  men  who  seized  the  forts  at  Ticonderoga  were  from  Con* 
necticut,  Western  Massachusetts,  and  the  New  Hampshire  Qrants, 
afterwards  Vermont,  the  whole  led  by  Ethan  Allen  of  the  latter 
region. 

The  ''force  of  20,000  men^^  was  not  raiied  in  New  England; 
it  was  the  spontaneous  gathering  there,  within  three  days,  of 
the  patriotic  people  from  the  hills  and  valleys  of  New  England 
when  they  heard  of  the  afO^ir  at  Lexington  and  Concord. 

Note  XXI. ,  page  020. 

The  British  troops  sailed  from  Boston  in  March,  but  did  not 
proceed  to  Staten  Island,  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbour  of  New 
York,  untfl  the  following  July. 

Note  XXn.,  page  62L 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed  on  the  day  it 
was  adopted  by  every  member  who  voted  for  it.  The  voting  in 
the  congress  was  by  colonies,  and  majorities  were  not  of  in* 
dividuals,  but  colonies.  There  was  a  division  among  the  indi* 
vidual  members  of  two  of  the  colonies;  but  a  mtgority  of  the 
delegates  of  each  of  those  colonies  gave  their  votes  for  inde- 
pendence. 80  it  was  that  the  vote  was  unanimous,  every  colony 
voting  for  independence.  The  members  were  required  to  sign 
the  Declaration  as  an  evidence  of  their  concurrence.  This  was 
done  on  ordinary  paper.  It  was  afterwards  engrossed  on  parch* 
ment,  and  was  again  signed  by  all  the  members  present.  This 
was  done,  by  54,  on  the  2d  of  August,  1776.  Two  others,  not 
then  present,  signed  it  afterwards. 

The  statement  at  the  bottom  of  the  preceding  page  (620)  con- 
cerning independence  needs  some  transpositions.  The  delay  in 
the  colonies  in  accepting  the  issue  concerning  independence 
mostly  preceded  the  action  in  congress  in  favour  of  the  measure. 
Paine's  "Common  Sense"  appeared  at  about  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1776.  A  motion  was  made  in  June  declaring  the  colo* 
nies  free  and  independent  states,  when  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed to  draft  a  preamble  to  the  resolution,  in  which  the  rea- 
sons for  the  act  were  declared.  The  resolution  was  passed  on 
July  2y  and  the  declaration  on  July  4. 

Note  XXnL,  page  621. 
Howe  landed  hlB  troops  on  the  western  end  of  Long  Island, 


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776  SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTES. 

several  mileB  from  Brooklyn.  The  battle  was  Ibught  near  thai 
little  village.  The  Americans  evacuated  Long  Island,  and  retired 
to  the  northern  end  of  Manhattan  Island,  on  which  the  city  of 
New  York  stands.  Howe^s  army  crossed  over  to  that  island, 
several  miles  north  of  the  city.  The  American  army  retired  into 
New  Jersey,  after  fighting  the  British  at  White  Plains,  and  losing 
Fort  Washington  on  Manhattan  (or  York)  Island.  They  were  pur- 
sued by  Comwallis  to  the  banks  of  the  Delaware.  Soon  aiter- 
wards  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton  occurred.  The  Brit- 
ish were  expelled  from  New  Jersey,  excepting  at  one  or  two 
points,  and  the  American  army  went  into  winter-quarters  at  Mor 
ristown,  in  East  Jersey. 

Note  XXIV.,  page  OSa 

Burgoyne  and  his  army  were  on  the  east  side  of  the  Hudson 
River,  when  a  detachment  was  sent  to  Bennington,  85  miles 
eastward  of  that  stream.  None  of  Burgoyne's  army  had  yet 
crossed  the  Hudson. 

General  Gkites  was  in  chief  command  of  the  American  army 
opposed  to  Burgoyne  fVom  the  middle  of  August,  and  he  be- 
haved so  timidly  that  at  the  second  battle  (October  7)  the  im- 
patient Arnold,  although  deprived  of  all  couimand  by  Gates, 
who  was  jealous  of  him,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  old  troops, 
and  by  his  skill  and  prowess  saved  the  Americans  from  defeat 
But  for  Arnold,  no  doubt  the  British  army  would  have  so  scat- 
tered the  American  forces  in  the  battle  on  the  19th  of  September 
that  Burgoyne  would  have  easily  reached  Albany  a  victor.  On 
that  occasion.  Gates  would  give  no  order,  and  seemed  disinclined 
to  fight  at  first.  The  chief  credit  of  the  defeat  of  Burgoyne  prob- 
ably belongs  to  Arnold. 

Note  XXy.,  page  635. 

John  Paul  Jones  entered  the  Firth  of  Forth  hrfore  the  action 
with  the  Serapis,  In  that  battle  his  own  ship,  the  Bonhomnu 
Richard^  was  so  shattered  that  it  sank  soon  aiter  the  contest 
ceased,  and  Jones,  in  another  vessel,  sailed  for  Holland  with  his 
prizes. 

Note  XXYI.,  pages  628, 689. 

The  British  occupied  the  idand  of  Rhode  Island,  and,  in  the 
summer  of  1778,  general  Sullivan  led  a  considerable  force  to  ex- 
pel them.  A  French  fleet,  under  admiral  D^Estaing,  went  into 
Narraganset  Bay  to  assist  the  Americans.  A  British  fleet  appear- 
ed off  Newport,  and  D'Estaing  went  out  to  attack  it    A  ibrious 


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SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTB&  777 

storm  dispersed  and  greatlj  damaged  both  fleets,  when  D^staing, 
instead  of  returning  to  help  Sallivan,  went  to  Boston  to  have 
his  yessels  repaired.  The  French  were  not  "  blockaded  in  New- 
port harbour"  at  all.  Sullivan,  for  lack  of  co-operation  on  the 
part  of  the  fleet,  was  compelled  to  withdraw  from  Rhode  Island. 

The  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs  was  not  the  "  last  action  "  of  the 
Revolution ;  the  siege  of  York  Town  and  the  capture  of  Com- 
wallis  occurred  afterwards 

The  chief  commander  of  the  French  allies  of  the  Americaus 
in  the  siege  of  York  Town  was  lieutenant-general  count  de  Ro- 
chambeau,  who  had  arrived  in  America  with  a  French  army  the 
previous  year.  St.  Simon  was  a  gallant  French  officer  who  came 
with  troops  from  the  West  Indies  in  the  vessels  of  De  Grasse. 
La  Fayette  was  an  officer  of  the  American  army  under  the  imme- 
diate coomiand  of  Washington. 

Note  XXVII.,  pages  682, 088. 

A  pretirnvna/Fy  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  on  November  30, 
1782;  the  definitive  treaty  of  peace  was  not  signed  until  Sep- 
teml)er  8,  1788,  by  David  Hartley  on  the  part  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  by  Dr.  Franklin,  John  Adams,  and  John  Jay  on  the 
part  of  the  United  States.  In  the  latter  treaty  the  articles  al- 
luded to  in  the  text  were  incorporated.  Although  Mr.  Adams 
was  treated  kindly  by  the  king,  his  ministers  treated  him  with  so 
much  indifierence  as  an  American  ambassador  that  he  finally 
left  England  in  disgust  It  was  believed  in  Great  Britain  (and 
with  reason)  that  the  feeble  league  of  states  under  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  would  soon  dissolve  and  be  suppliants  for  re- 
admission  to  membership  in  the  British  empire.  The  British 
c^ovemment  scomftilly  reftised  to  enter  into  any  reciprocal  com- 
mercial relations  with  the  United  States,  or  to  send  a  resident 
minister  to  the  seat  of  our  general  government  We  were  not  a 
nation ;  only  a  league  of  independent  states,  bound  by  a  tie  as 
impotent  as  a  rope  of  sand. 

Note  XXVm.,  page  641. 

The  year  1789  was  a  memorable  one  in  the  annals  of  England, 
for  in  America  was  then  established  a  power  that  was  destined 
to  become  her  rival  for  the  mastery  of  the  seas  and  the  advan- 
tages of  the  world^s  commerce.  The  league  of  states  had  been 
superseded  by  a  consolidated  national  government  under  an  ad* 
mirable  constitution,  which  gave  it  wonderful  vitality.  It  was 
at  once  perceived  that  a  real  nation  was  bom,  and  that  it  was  the 


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778  SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTES. 

child  of  the  will  of  the  people.  EDgland  hastened  to  send  a  res- 
ident minister  to  the  seat  of  oar  national  government,  oyer  which 
Washington  had  been  called  to  preside.  The  constitution  had 
been  ratified  by  the  people  of  the  States  in  1788.  In  March,  1789, 
Congress  first  met  under  it,  and  on  the  SOth  of  April  Washington 
was  inaugurated  President  Other  European  powers  sent  am- 
bassadors, and  the  United  States  took  a  conspicuous  place  in  the 
family  of  nations. 

Note  XXDC.,  page  661. 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  first  consul  of  France,  struck  a  severe 
blow  at  England's  supremacy  as  a  maritime  power  by  the  sale  of 
Louisiana  to  the  United  States  in  1803.  It  added  900,000  square 
miles  to  our  territory.  When  the  l>argain  was  closed  by  an  Amer- 
ican minister  (Robert  R.  Livingston),  Bonaparte  said  to  him,  pro- 
phetically, *'  This  accession  of  territory  strengthens  for  ever  the 
power  of  the  United  States ;  and  I  have  just  given  to  England  a 
maritime  rival  that  will,  sooner  or  later,  humble  her  pride.^' 

Note  XXX.,  page  678. 

The  British,  by  "  Orders  in  Council,"  and  the  French,  by  "  De- 
crees," concerning  blockades  of  ports,  etc.,  played  a  desperate 
game  with  the  worid^s  commerce  at  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent century,  violated  the  rights  of  neutral  nations,  and  so  impu^ 
dently  defied  the  power  of  the  Americans  that  hostilities  were 
begun  by  the  United  States  against  the  French,  chiefly  on  the 
ocean.  The  conduct  of  British  cruisers  led  to  a  war  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  in  1812-15.  To  depredation  on 
American  commerce  the  British  added  the  obnoxious  practice  of 
reclaiming  deserters  from  the  royal  navy  by  entering  American 
vessels,  searching  them,  and  caiTying  away  deserters  found  in 
them,  in  defiance  of  remonstrances.  This  claimed  right  of  search 
and  impressment,  and  its  practical  operation,  produced  great 
irritation  in  America.  Countervailing  measures  were  adopted, 
such  as  embargoes  and  non-intercourse.  Because  of  these  various 
ofiences,  tlie  United  States  declared  war  against  Great  Britain  in 
June,  1812. 

Note  XXXL,  page  689. 

It  is  an  error  to  say  that  after  1812,  in  the  second  war  for  m* 
dependence,  naval  engagements  terminated,  for  the  most  part,  in 
favour  of  the  English.  The  statement  concerning  the  battle  of 
Bladensburgh,  that  preceded  the  sacking  of  the  capital,  is  quite 
erroneous.  The  Americans  were  7000  strong,  of  whom  900  were 
raw  recruits.    Ross  had  a  much  larger  force  of  veteran  soldiers. 


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SUPPLEMENTARY  NOTES.  779 

It  was  oyerwhelming  numbers  that  caused  the  defeat  of  the 
Americans,  who  lost  only  26  killed  and  50  wounded,  while  the 
lose  of  the  British  was  about  500  killed  and  wounded.  The  Brit- 
ish were  not  on  ^heights  near  the  Potomac,^'  but  atBladensburgh, 
on  the  Anacosta,  five  miles  fi'om  the  Potomac.  The  *^  Senate 
House"  and  the  *^  House  of  Representatives"  composed  the  Cap- 
itol. The  dock-yards  were  burnt  by  the  Americans  themselves 
to  prevent  them  and  their  contents  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
British.  No  other  '^American  towns  were  taken"  after  the  de- 
struction of  Buffiilo,  excepting  the  little  village  of  Hampden, 
Maine,  which  the  British  held  a  few  hours. 

Note  XXXIL,  page  728. 

The  statement  that  war  raged  "between  the  Northern  and 
Southern  States  of  the  Union,  ending  in  the  victory  of  the  North- 
em  States,"  is  a  misrepresentation,  proceeding,  undoubtedly, 
from  a  misapprehension  of  the  character  of  our  Civil  War.  It 
was  not  a  war  between  the  States,  but  a  war  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States  for  the  defence  of  the  life  of  the  republic 
against  its  enemies  in  armed  insurrection  in  ^he  slave-labour  states. 
In  that  war  the  inhabitants  of  the  free-labour  states  were  mostly 
loyal  to  the  Union,  and  volunteered,  by  hundreds  of  thousands, 
to  assist  the  government  in  its  efforts  to  save  the  nation  from 
destruction. 

In  that  struggle,  the  unfriendly  spirit  of  the  British  govern- 
ment and  the  ruling  classes  in  Qreat  Britain  exhibited  towards 
the  government  of  the  United  States  was  conspicuous.  At  the 
instance  of  her  ministers,  the  British  queen,  before  an  American 
minister  could  reach  England,  issued  a  proclamation,  declaring 
the  insurgents  entitled  to  belligerent  rights;  and  the  British 
ministry,  by  secret  circulars,  sought  to  form  a  combination  of 
European  powers  against  the  Republic  of  the  West.  They  allow- 
ed the  insurgents  to  have  ships  built,  armed,  manned,  and  victual- 
led in  English  ports  to  depredate  upon  American  commerce; 
and  swarms  of  fleet  steamers  came  from  British  ports  with  sup- 
plies of  arms,  ammunition,  and  clothing  for  the  insurgents,  and 
so  prolonged  the  war.  These  steamers  ran  the  blockade  of 
Southern  ports.  One  of  the  piratical  vessels,  built  and  fitted  out 
in  England,  was  the  Alabama^  which  plundered  and  destroyed  a 
large  number  of  American  merchant  vessels.  The  United  States 
government  held  the  British  responsible  for  her  injuries  to  Amer- 
ican property,  and  arbitrators  decided  that  the  British  goveni^ 
ment  should  pay  for  such  damages  $15,500,000  in  gold* 


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780  8UPPLEMENTABT  K0TB8. 

Note  XXXTTT.»  page  797. 

In  tiie  year  1870  the  claims  of  the  goTemment  of  the  United 
States  upon  that  of  Great  Britain  for  damages  inflicted  upon  the 
American  shipping  interest  by  the  depredations  of  the  English- 
Confederate  privateer  Alabama^  and  other  vessels  built  in  Eng- 
land for  the  insurgents,  caused  much  diplomatic  correspondence 
between  the  two  governments.  A  Joint  High  Commission,  com- 
posed of  persons  chosen  by  the  respective  governments,  met  in 
Washington  city  in  February,  1871,  and  on  the  8th  of  May  fol- 
lowing they  concluded  and  signed  a  treaty,  by  which  it  was 
agreed  to  leave  the  decision  of  the  matter  in  dispute  to  arbitra- 
tors. These  were  chosen  by  the  respective  governments.  They 
met  at  Geneva,  Switzerland ;  and  at  a  final  meeting,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1872,  this  tribunal  decided  that  the  British  government 
should  pay  to  the  government  of  the  United  States  the  sum 
mentioned  in  Note  XXXII.,  to  be  given  to  its  citizens  for  loss^ 
incurred  by  the  depredations  of  English-Confederate  cruisers. 


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INDEX. 


AMnlAidB. 


Abdnl  Adx,  deposed,  com- 

niits  suicide,  733. 
Abercrombie,  sir  Ralph,  ex- 
pedition to  Holland,  654. 
To  Egjpt,  659.  Killed,  660. 

Aberdeen,loid,  foreign  secre- 
Uiy,  109.  Premier,  713, 
716. 

Abhorrers,  487. 

Abingdon,  convent,  51. 

Abingdon,  earl  ot,  rapports 
prince  of  Orange,  607. 

Aboulcir,  battle,  659. 

Abyssinia,  expedition  to, 
726. 

Acre,  taken  by  Richard  I., 
121.  Defended  by  sir  S. 
Smith,  654. 

Adams,  Mr.,  interview  with 
»eorge  III.,  633. 

Adda,  F.  d',  noncio,  506. 

Addington,  Mr.,  prime  min- 
ister, 657,  664.  Viscount 
Sidmonth  (<ee  Sidmouth). 

AddlsoD,  secretary,  573. 

Addressors,  487. 

Adela,  daughter  of  William 
the  Cktnqueror,  103. 

Adelais  of  Louvatn,  consort 
of  Henry  I.,  102.  104. 

Adelfuis,  bishop,  15. 

Af{jutatorSt  415. 

Adrian  IV.,  pope,  116. 

VI.,  pope.  247. 

Adrianople,  734. 

.l-^lcdford,  battle,  26. 

.H««c,  bon  of  Hengpflt,  26. 

.fJscings^  or  A  shines.  26         ' 

.Kthelbdld,kingofMercia,36.  ' 

,  king  of  Kent,  42.  I 

J<:thelberht,  king  of  Kent,  ' 
27.  Breiwaldii,  31.  Con- 
version, 32.    Laws,  33. 

,  king  of  the  East  Angles,  I 

murdeied  by  OITa,  37. 

II.,  king,  43. 

,  son  of  /tithelred,  48. 

iRthelburga,  34. 

£ihelfled,  48. 

£thelfritb  or  JEdelfHd,  king 
of  Northumbria,  28, 133. 
36 


JBtbelingaeigg  (Atbelney), 

44. 

^thelred,  king  of  Northum- 
bria,  35. 

,  king  of  Wessex,  43. 

II.,  the  Unready,  53, 

,     55. 

^  .£thelBtan,  king  of   Essex, 

'     etc.,  under  il^Ithelwuif,  42. 

,  king  of  England,  49. 

iEtbelwald,  5on  of  iEthelred, 

48. 
I  iEthelward,  son  of  Alfred, 

48. 
I  iF.tbelwulf,  king,  42. 
I  Aaius,  13. 
Afghan  war,  the  first,  718. 

The  second,  737. 
African  Company,  459. 
Aghrim,  battle,  529. 
Agincourt,  battle.  198. 
Agra,  718. 
Agreement    qf  the    People, 

scheme  so  called,  422. 
Agricola  in  Britain,  10. 
Agriculture  in  Britain,  13. 
Ahmednuggur  taken,  717. 
Aids  (feudal),  128,  137. 
Aislabie,  chancellor  of  ex- 
chequer,   accepts   bribes, 

576. 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  treaty  of, 

466.   Another,  696.    Con- 
gress of,  694. 
Alabama  claims,  729. 
Alban,  St.,  martyrdom,  16. 
Albans,  St..  battles,  209,  211. 
Albany,  duke  of,  muchina- 

tions  against  Robert  III., 

195. 
,  regent    of    Scotland, 

247. 
Albemarle,  duke  of  rMonk), 

engages  the  Dutch  fleet, 

462(r«  Monk). 
A  Iberoni,  cardinal,  573. 
Albert,  legate,  115. 
,       prince,        marries 

queen      Victoria,       708. 

Death,  723. 
Edward,    prince     of 

Wales,  illneis,  729.  Visits 

India,  T3L. 


Albion.  2. 

Albuera,  battle,  683. 

Alcoln,  37. 

Aldred,  archbishop  of  York 

82,  85. 

Alen^on,  duke  of,  suitor  of 

Elizabeth,  31 1, 313.    Duke 

of  Ai^Jou,  ib. 
Alexander  II.,  pope,  assists 

William   the   Conqueror, 

87. 

III.,  pope,   canonises 

Becket,  115. 

I.,  czar,  makeH  peace 

with  England,  658.    Alli- 
ance with  Napoleon,  672. 

II.,  caar,  715. 

Alfleri,  elopes  with  Preten- 
der's wile,  596. 
Alfonso,  king  of  Aragon,  154. 

,  son  of  Edward  I.,  164. 

Alfi^d  the  Great,  at  Rome, 

42.  Reign,  43-48.  Literary 

works,  47. 

,  son  of  ^thelred,  61. 

A  Igerine  pirates  suppressed, 

594. 
AlgierH,  dey  of,  chastised  by 

Blake,  443. 
Alice,  princess,  death,  738. 
Aliwal,  battle,  719. 
Ailectus,  12. 
Alleluia  victory,  13. 
Alliance,    triple,  466,  67S. 

Grand,   543.     Quadruple, 

673,  588. 
AUodial  lands,  125. 
Alma,  battle  of  the,  714. 
Almauica,  battle,  556. 
Almenara,  battle,  558. 
Alnwick,  battle,  118. 
Alphege,  bishop,  50. 
A  Isacc,  reunited  to  Qermsay 

728. 
Althorp,  lord,  chancellor  «f 

exchequer,   702,  706.  KM 

Spencer,  706. 
Alva,  duke  of,  309. 
Amand,  St.,  battle,  644. 
Amelia,  princess,  dlM.  6tl 
American  war,  684,  680 

dvll  war,  723. 

Amberst,  lord,  601,  Mt. 


Digitized  by 


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782 

Ainiew. 

ImleiM,  oongTMS  at,  14,1. 

TreaXy  of,  660. 
ADcalites,  7. 
AnderidA,     or     Andrede»- 

oeaster,  taken,  26. 
Andr£,  St.,  Jean  Boo,  647. 
Angeln,  22. 
Angevins.  10«. 
Angles  (Engle).  21.    Site  of 

the,  22.    Dialect,  76. 
Anglesey,  marquess  of,  692. 
Anglia.  East,  22.  28. 
Anglo- mania,  French,  643. 
Anglo-  Norman  constitution, 

124.    I^slation.  127. 
A.nglo-Saxon     institutions, 

70     »q.      Language,     76. 

Literature,    77.     Nobles, 

84.    Nobles  and  preUtes 

depressed  by  William  I., 

86. 
Ai^u,  duke   of,  proposed 

marriage  with  Elizabeth, 

308.  Becomes  Henry  III. 

of  France,  311. 
,    duke    of  (Alen^on), 

governor  of  the  Nether- 
lands, 314. 
Annan,  battle,  169. 
Annates,  act  against,  256 
Anne  of  Bohemia,  consort 

of  Richard  IL,  187. 
,  wife  of  Richard  IIL. 

223. 

Boleyn  (see  Boleyn). 

of    Cleves,     marries 

Henry  VIIL,  265,  266. 

of  Brittany,  233. 

Amnk,  princess,  daughter  of 

James  11.,  512,  631,  634. 

Queen,     549.      Reign  of. 

549-565. 
Annoslcy,  president  of  the 

cuuncil,  451. 
An!H?lm,    primate,    97,    99, 

100. 
Alison,  commodore,  684,  696, 

601. 
Antoninus,  wall  of,  11. 
Archangel,  passage  to,  dis- 
covered, 290. 
Argaum,  ^•ut  le,  717. 
Argj'le,   earl  of,  heads  the 

Covenanters,      377,     421, 

428,  432.  435,  4.'>6. 

«  earl  of,  condemned  of 

treason,  492.  Incites  Moo- 
mouth'sinvasion,  500.  De- 
feated and  rxrcnted,  ib. 

1  duke  of,  commander 

in  chief  in  Scotland,  567, 
569. 

Arkwright,  739. 

Aries,  council  of,  15. 

Arlington,  lord,  465.  Im- 
peached. 471. 

Armada,  Invincible,  326  De- 
fpjiled.  328. 

Armagnacs,  199. 

Armiiilaniiim,  379. 


INDEX. 

Armortca,  legend  of  firltiah 
colony  in,  12,  30.    GaUed 
Bretagne,  30. 
Army,  parliamentary,  410, 
416,  416. 

,  atanding,  origin,  44ft, 

617. 

,  reorganized,  729. 

Amand,  St.,  marshal,  Tli, 

716. 
Amee,  battle,  609. 
Arran,    earl   of,  regent   of 

Scotland,  368,  269. 
Arteveld*»,  Van.  170. 
Arthur,  king,  27. 

,  duke  of  Brittany,  132, 

133. 

,  prince,  son  of  Henry 

VII.,  237. 
Articles,     forty-two,     279. 
Thirty-nine,  298.  Altered. 
409. 
Artillery,  Bret  used,  173. 
Arts,  fine,  519.  British  school 

of,  744. 
Arundel,  earl  of,  executed  by 
Richard  IL,  188. 

,    earl    of,    commands 

against  the  Oovenanters, 
378. 

,  earl  of,  impeached,  480. 

Privy  seal,  504. 
Asaph  ul  Dowlah,  640. 
Ascalon  taken,  121. 
Ascham,  Roger,  2H3. 
Aflhantee  war,  730. 
Ashley.  lord,466(«eeaiafles- 

bury). 
Atiaito,  treaty,  575. 
Aske  of  Doncaster,  rebellion 
of,  262  aq. 

,  moves  that  Cromwell 

takes  the  crown,  444. 
Askew,  Anne,  burnt,  270. 
Assaye,  battle,  717. 
Assises,  128. 

Association  to  defend  queen 
Elizabeth,  314.  To  defend 
William  ni.,  536. 
Astley,  Sir  Jacob,  399. 
Aston,  sir  Arthur,  399. 
Atkelingg^  71. 

Athelstane  («ee  vEthelstan). 
Atherton  Moor,  battle,  402. 
AtUinder,  what,  384,  noU. 
Attaint,  writ  of,  476. 
Atterbury,  bishop.  676. 
AubiuTie,  WillUm  d',  139. 
Auckland,    lord,   governor- 
general  of  India,  718. 
.Vudley,  sir  Thomas,  chan- 
cellor, 256. 
'  .Augustine.  St.,  preaches   in 
I     England,  32.    Archbishop 
I     of  Canterbury,  ib. 
'  Augustus,  7,     Title  of,  70 
I  Aula  Regis,  127. 
Aulus  Plautius,  8. 
I  Aurungzebe,  608. 
•  Austerlitz,  battie,  CM. 


Bavaria. 
Austrian  socceaslon,  war  oL 

686. 

An  verquerqne,  earl  of  Gnnt- 

ham,623. 
Axtel,  executed,  466. 
Ayscae,  sir  Qeorge,  engages 

De  Boyter,  436. 


Babington,  conspiracy,  318^ 

Bacon,  sir  Nicholas,  lord 
keeper,  292,  304. 

,        Francis,        pleads 

against  lord  Essex.  335, 
336.  Viscount  St.  Albans 
and  diancellor,  356.  Im- 
peached, t6. 

BadaJoK,  taken,  683. 

Badon,  Mt.,  baUle,  27. 

Baird,  general,  717. 

Baker,  major,  defisnds  Lon- 
donderry, 626. 

Bolaklava,  occupied,  714. 
Battle  ot  ib. 

Ball,  John,  184. 

Ballard,  conspiracy  of,  317. 

Balliol,  John,  156-168. 

.    Fxlward,    seizes    the 

Scottish  crown,  169, 170. 

Balmerino,  lord,  executed, 
694. 

Baltimore,  congress  at,  621. 

Ban  (fOt,  what,  15. 

Banbury,  taken  by  Charles 
I.,  399. 

Bank  Restriction  Act,  649. 
Repealed,  695. 

Bannockbnm,  battle,  164. 

Bantry  Bay,  French  expedi- 
tion to.  649. 

Barbarossa,  Frederick,  119. 

Barclay,  sir  George,  535. 

Bards,  5. 

Barebone,  Praise-Ood,  439. 

Barfleur,  shipwreck  at,  101. 

Baroet,  batUe,  217. 

Ban^netcy,  institution  oC 
352. 

Barons,  council  of.  98.  123L 
Greater  and  lesser,  126. 
Oppose  king  John.  138. 
Council  of,  under  Magna 
Carta,  138.  Conspire 
against  Henry  IK-.  146  ag. 

Barrington,  loid,  chaucellor 
of  exchequer,  606. 

Barrosa,  battle,  681. 

Bartholomew,  St.,  massacre, 
310. 

Barton,  Elisabeth,  the  Holy 
Maid  of  Kent,  259. 

BasiUuM,  title  of,  71. 

nasUilfon  Doron,  346. 

Bastuick  released.  382. 

Bath,  earl  of  (see  Pulleney). 

Bath,  order  of,  revived,  67T. 

Battle  Abbey,  83. 

Bavaria,  elector  of,  claimt 


Digitized  tiy 


Google 


Baarter. 

Austria,  585. 
6M 

Baxter,  454,  458. 

Bayeux  tapestry,  69. 

Ba/nard's  Castfe,  231. 

Beacliy  Head,  battle  off, 
538. 

Beaton,  cardinal,  268,  269, 
2  5. 

Beaufort,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, and  cardinal,  201, , 
204, 205, 

,  duke  of;  French  ad-' 

miral,  462. 

Beaugd.  battle,  200. 

Beauhamais,  Eugene,  vice- 
roy of  Italy,  666. 

Beaulien,  sanctuary  at,  236. 

Becket,  Thomas  &,  rise. 
Chancellor,  109.  Arch- 
Ushop  of  Canterbury, 
109  iq.  Murder,  114. 
Character,  115.  Henry's 
penance  at  his  tomb,  118.  i 

Bede,  the  Venerable,  35.        | 

Bedford,  duke  of,  regent  of  I 
France,    201,    202,    204. 
Death,  205. 

,  earl  of,  parliamentary 

leader,  399. 

Redloe,  480. 

Begums  of  Oude,  640. 

Belasyse,  lord,  impeached, 
480. 

Belerium  (Land's  End),  2. 

Bellasis,  colonel,  406. 

Belleisle,  battle  oflT,  595.1 
I'aken,  606.  I 

BelUngham,  shoots  Mr.  Per- ! 
ceval,  682.  I 

Benbow,  admiral,  550. 

Benedictines,  51,  52. 

Ben^ia,  124  (Me  Fiefo). 

Benevolences,  law  of  Ri- 
chard III.  against,  223. 
Levied  by  Henry  VII., 
233,  339. 

Bengal  army,  mutiny.  719. 

Bennington,  battle,  622. 

Bentinck,  earl  of  Portland, ' 
522  («e«  Portland). 

,  lord  Wniiam.  688.   Go-  ' 

vernor-general   of   India,  i 
718. 

Beomred,  king  of  .Mercia,  36. 1 

Beomwulf,  king  of  Mercia, 
37.  1 

Berar,  rajah  of,  717. 

Berengaria,  consort  of  Ri- 
chard I.,  121. 

Beresford,  lord,  677,  682. 

Bergen-op-Zoom,  storm  of, 
688. 

erlcu^.  Britlflh  chiff.  h. 

Berkeley  castle,  Edward  II. 
murdered  at,  166. 

Berkeley,    sir     M.,     seiics 

Wy  att,  285 

1  earl  of,  expeditkm  to 

Brest,  633. 


INDEX. 

Berlin  Decree,  670. 

» treaty  d,  736. 

Bernadotte,  crown-prince 
(aft.  king)  of  Sweden,  680. 

Bemicia  (Ihemeich  or  Beor- 
narioe),  28. 

Bertha,  wife  of  iEthelbert, 
31. 

Berwick,  ceded  to  England. 
118.  Sold  by  Richard  I., 
121.  Ceded  to  England 
by  Edward  Balliol.  170. 
Padflcatlon  of,  378. 

Berwick,  duke  of,  626.  553, 
554,  556. 

Beymus's  Heights,  battle, 
622. 

Bburtpore  taken,  718. 

Bible,  English,  266. 

Blbroci,  7. 

Bigod,  Roger,  earl  of  Nor- 
folk, 159. 

Bills,  parliamentary,  228. 

Birmingham,  riots  at,  642. 

Bishoprics,  new,  erected  by 
Henry  VIII.,  264.  New 
arrangement  of,  706. 

Bishops,  new  regulations 
respecting,  257.  Protest, 
389.  Impeached  and  com- 
mitted, ib.  Restored  to 
parliament,  456.  Petition 
against  declaration  of  in- 
dulgence, 507.  Seven,  com- 
mitted to  Tower,  508. 
Acquitted,  ib. 

Bismarck,  prince,  725,  729. 

Black  Hule  of  Calcutta,  609. 

Black  Prince.  174,  177,  178, 
179,  181.  I 

Blackwater,  battle,  333. 

Blackwood,  captain,  668. 

Blake,  admiral,  434, 436, 437, 
443. 

Blakeney,  general,  f)9«. 

Blenheim,  buttle,  552. 

palace,  553. 

Bligb,  general,  601. 

Blithwallon.  king  of  North 
Wales,  86. 

Blood,  colonel,  467,  468. 

Blucber,  marshal,  690  sq. 

Boadicea,  9. 

Board  of  Control,  635. 

Hoc-land,  72. 

Bocher.  Joan,  burnt,  276. 

Bohemia,  king  of,  death  at 
Crecy,  174. 

Bohun,  Humphrey,  earl  of, 
159,  163. 

Boleyn,  Anne,  261  w.,  254. 
Married  to  Henry  ^m., 
257.     Execution,  262. 

BoUngbroke,  birthplace  of 
Henry  IV.,  192. 

.  St.  John,  TiAoonnt,  558, 

659,  560,  561,  565.  Pro- 
cures the  dismissal  of 
Oxford,  565.  Flight,  668. 
Entere  Pretender's  service, 


788 

Bristol. 

<b.    Attainted,  Qk    Ptev 

doned,  576.    His  '*Patriof 

King,"  582. 
Bomareund  taken,  714. 
Bombay,  dowry  of  Catharim 

of  Braganza,  457.    Ceded 

to  East  India   Company, 

608. 
Bonaparte,    Napoleon    (jut 

Napoleon). 
,  Louis,  king  of  Holland, 

670,  680. 
,  Joseph,  king  of  Naples, 

670.  Of  Spain,  674,  685. 
Boniface  VIII.,  pope,  160. 
Bonner,    bishop,    284,   287, 

289. 
Booth,  sir  George,  449. 
Borh  (surety),  74. 
Boroughs,  creation  of,  340. 

Small,    disfranchised  .  by 

Cromwell,  441.    Disfran- 
chised by  the  Reform  Act, 

703. 
Boscawen,  admiral,  597, 601. 
Bosnia,  736. 
Boston  (America),  riote  at, 

616,  618. 
Bosworth.  battle,  224. 
Both  well,  earl  of,  favourite 

of  Mary  queen  of  Scote, 

301,  302. 
Bothuell  Bridge,  battle.  486. 
Boulogne,  taken  by  Henry 

VIII.,  269.   Restored,  279. 

Army  of  invasion  at,  659, 

664. 
Bourbon,  Charles  duke  of, 

248.     Killed  in  storming 

Rome,  260. 
Bourcbier,    cardinal,    arch- 

bijihop  of  Canterbury,  231. 
Bourne,  captain,  436. 
Bouvines,  baltle,  136. 
Boyle,  secretary,  559. 
Boyne,  battle  of  the,  528. 
Bradshaw.  president  of  High 

Court  or  Justice.  423. 
Brakenbury,  hir  Robert,  221. 
Bramham,  baitlo.  194. 
Brandy  wine,  battle,  622. 
Breakspear  (se«  Adrian  IV.). 
Breda,   declaration   of,  452. 

Peace  of,  464. 
Brentford,  battle,  400 
Bretigny.  peace  of.  179. 
Breton.  Cape,  Uken,  601. 
Bretwaldas,  31. 
Bridges,  flrat  stone,  In  Eng- 

land,  140. 
Bridgman,  sir  Orlando,  464. 
Brigantes,  9. 
Brihtric,   king  of  Wessex, 

poi.Honed.  36. 
Biibuega,  battle.  568. 
Bristol,  taken  by  Rupert,  401. 

Surrender*  d  by  him,  412. 

I^lote  at.  703. 
Bristol,  earl  of,  ambassador 

to  PbUlp  IV.,  35a  365. 


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784 

Britain. 

BriUin,  earliest  AccoanU  of, 
a.  Trade  with  Oreelu,  ib. 
Invaded  by  Carar,  7.  Re- 
duced by  Claudius,  8. 
Abandoned   by   Romanis 

13.  Oindition  under  the, 

14.  Roads,  ib.  OhrisUaii- 
itj  in,  16.  Oovemment 
and  divisions  under  the 
Romans,  18. 

Brito,  Richard,  113. 

Britons,  origin,  3.  Reli^on, 
ib.  Manners,  6.  Tnbes, 
ib.  »q.  Civilization,  k 
Coins,  ib.  Repulse  the 
barbarians.  12.  Groans. 
13.  In  Armorica,  30. 
Whether  exterminated 
from  England,  ib. 

Brittany,  diHputed  succes- 
sion, 172.  Annexed  tu 
French  crown,  233. 

Broke,  heads  the  Bye  plot, 
347.    Executed,  ib. 

Bromley,  sir  Thomas,  com- 
mitted, 330. 

Brougham,  lurd.  697.  Chan- 
cellor, 702,  743. 

Bruce,  Robert,  desc  nt.  16«. 

(grandwn),  asnirett  to 

the  crown,  161.  Crowned 
At  Scone,  ib.  Defeats  the 
EngU^^h,  164.    Death,  169. 

,  David,  169,  175. 

Brudeiiel,  lord,  committed, 

Brunswick,  duke  or,  pub- 
lishes manifesto.  643. 

,  duke  uf,  690,  692. 

Brut,  the  Trcjaii,  2. 

Bubble  companies,  576. 

Buchanan,  George,  346. 

Buckingham,  llenry,  duke 
of,  supports  the  duke  of 
Gloucester,  220.  Favours 
Richmond,  222.  Executed, 
223. 

,    duke    of,    constable, 

executed,  247. 

1  George   Villiers,  duke 

of,  353  tq.  Persuades 
Charles  to  visit  iMadiid, 
369.  Accused  by  Bristol, 
366.  Kxpp'liilon  to  R-- 
chelle,  36t>.  Impeached  by 
the  common^.  368.  AHsas- 
sin  .ted,  369. 

,  duke  of.  465,  472. 

Bulf^a,  Turkish  atrocities 
in.  732.   lYinclpality,  736. 

Bunkers  HIU.  battle,  619. 

Burdett.  sir  Francis,  679. 698. 

Burgesses,  first  summoned 
to  parliament.  148, 157. 

Burgh.  Hubert  de.  Justiciary, 
142. 

Bunroync,  general,  607,  619, 
622,638. 

Borgundv,  duke  of.  allied 
with  the  English,  199.  200. 


INDEX. 

I  Bvrgnnily,  dndMM  ot  anlili 
I  Simnel,  233;  and  War- 
I     beck,  234. 

{  Burke,  Edmund,  616.    Pay- 
I     master  of  forces,  629.  Im. 
,     peaches  Warren  Hastings. 
!     636,  640.      His  *•  Reflec- 
tions "  on  the  French  Re- 
volution, 642. 
,  Burleigh,  lord  (see  Cecil). 
•  Burrard,  sir  Harry,  676. 
Bury  St.  EdmundV  43,  136. 
Busaco,  WUe,  679. 
Bute,    earl    of,     697,    605. 
Prime  minister,  607,  610. 
^ye,  the,  plot,  347. 
Byng,  admiral  (lord    Tor- 
I     rington),  defeats  the  Pre- 
.     tender.  667.    Defeats  the 
I     Spaniards,  674. 
,  admiral,  fails  to  re- 
lieve Minorca,  6M.    Shot, 
ib. 

O. 

Cabal  ministiT,  465,  471. 

Gibinet  council,  origin,  541. 

('abo',  Sebastian,  230. 

Cabul,  718. 

Cade,  Jack,  rebellion,  208 

Cadii  Uken,  332. 

Ciedmon,  36. 

Caer  Caradoc,  9 

Caerleol,  30. 

Caerleon,  bishopric,  16. 

Caermaribec  (§ee  Danby). 

Caernarvon,  164. 

Csesar,  invades  Britain.  7. 16. 

Calais  taken  by  Edward  III., 
175.  SUple  of  English 
goods,  ib.  Taken  by 
Guise,  289. 

Calamy,   the   presbjtorian, 

454,  468. 

Calcutta,  608. 

Caltler,  admiral  sir  Robert, 
667. 

Caledonia,  10. 

Caledonians,  II. 

Calendar,  reformed,  69o 

Caligula,  8. 

Cttlvi,  siege  of,  647. 

Cambray,  peace  of,  253. 

Cambria  (Wales),  30. 

Cambridge,  earl  of,  exe- 
cuted, 198. 

.  duke  of,  664. 

Cambuskenneth,  battle,  160. 

Camden  {see  Prait). 
I  Camden,  battle,  628. 
i  Cameron  of  Lochiel,  690. 

Campbell,  sir  Colin,  720. 

Carope^o,  cardinal,  261. 

Camperdown,  nction  off,  661. 

,  Campion.  Ji^uit,  315. 

Camps,  Roman,  in  Britain,  8. 

Camulodunum,  8. 

Canada,  when  colonised.  602. 
Conquered,  603.  At- 
tempted   by    Americans, 


OatMby. 

•84.    Insurrectloa  In,  70& 

Dominiou  of;  ib. 
Canals,  739. 
Canning.    George,     fSoreign 

secreury,  671.    Duel  with 

Castlerngfa,  679.   Foreign 

secretary,  697.     Premier, 

698.    Death,  a». 
,  earl,  first  viceroy  of 

India,  721. 
Canrobert,  general.  715. 
Canterbury,    archUahopric, 

32.    Priina<7  of;  acitDow- 

ledged.  88. 

,  pilgrims  ai,  116. 

CantiC  6. 

Canute (Knut),  son  of  Sweyn. 

66.     Reign,  67-60. 
,    king    of    Denmark, 

threatens  England,  91. 
Capel,  character,  381. 
Caracalla,  emperor,  11. 
Caractacus,  8. 
Carausius,  usurper,  11. 
Cardigan,  earl  of.  714. 
Cardonnel,      Marlborough's 

secretary,  562. 
Garew,  sir  Peter,  286. 
Oarislnnooke  castle,  CSisrlei 

I.  at,  419. 
Carleton,  secretary,  385. 
Carmarthen,  lord,  secretary, 

635. 
Carnarvon,  earl  of,  730,  734. 
Camatio,  secured,  610. 
Caroline  of  Anspach,  consort 

of  George  U.,  681. 
,     queen,     tiial,    6»«. 

Death.  697. 
Carr,      Robert,      fkvouiite 

of    James    I.,    352    (see 

Somerset). 
CarrlngUm,  lord,  committed. 

480. 

,  Carter,  Jack,  184. 

'Carteret,  lord  (earl  Gran- 
ville), lord  Iten  tenant  of 
Ireland,  677.  SecreUty  of 
state,  686.    Resigns,  688. 

Carthagena,  attack  on,  684. 

Cartismandua,  9. 

I  Cartw  right,  mi^or,  003. 

'Ca«ii,7. 

Oi88iterides,orTin  islands,  3. 

Cassivelannns.  7. 

Oastlemaine,  catI  oU  em- 
bassy to  Rome,  505. 

Castlereagh,  lord  ^marquess 
of  Londonderry),  secre- 
Ury  at  war.  671.  Duel 
with  Canning.  679.  Foreign 
secretary,  C82.  SuicUe, 
687. 

Castles,  Anglo-Norman,  03. 
Destroyed  by  Henry  II., 
108. 

GUssby,  220. 

,  Robert,  forma  ilo  fpa» 

powder  plot,  348.  KUkO, 
350. 


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Oatharind. 

OMlMrioe  of  Bragaiua,qiie6n  I 
ofaiarlMlI.,M7,481. 

de  Medid,  regent  of 

France,  39S,2»7.  I 

ofBn8ala,627.  | 

(«ee  Katharine) 

Oatbcart,  lord,  684.  | 

,    lord,    takes    Copen- . 

bagen.  672. 

Catholic  «nanoIpation.  advo* 
cated  by  Pitt,  667.  Lord 
Howiclc'8  bill  lost,  671.! 
Advocated  by  Canning, 
698.    Carried,  701. 

Gato-street  oonspinu^,  696.  < 

CaTaUer^  389. 

CaTendtoh,  lord  John,  chan> 
cellor  of  the  exchequer 
629,631. 

Gaxton,  219  noU. 

OeawUn  of  Weesex,  27. 
BrttwOda^  31.  Defeated 
at  Wodesbeorg,  ib. 

Cecil,  sir  William,  secretary  ' 
of  sute   (lord  Burleigh), 
292,   294,    304,    306,   308,, 
310,  333. 

,  Sir   Robert  (earl    of 

Salisbury),  eon  of  pre- 
ceding, secretary  of  btate,  I 
340,  346,  347,  362.  I 

,  sir  Edward,  viscount 

Wimbledon,  364. 

Celestlus,  heretio,  16 

Celtic  words,  38. 

Celts.  3. 

Cenimagni,  7. 

Censorship  of  the  press  abo- 
lished, 634. 

Census,  first,  740. 

C&^U  (Churls),  71.  72. 

C«rraic,  king  of  Wejuex,  26. 

OerdicM-oni,  26. 

C^realis.  PeUlias  10. 

Ghidgrove  field,  battle,  401. 

Chaluz,  castle  of,  123. 

Chandernagore  taken,  609. 

Charlemagne,  36. 

Cbarlbs  I.,  prince  of  Wales, 
Journey  to  Madrid,  369. 
Beign  of,  362-425. 

-~—  11^  prince  of  Wales, 
escapes  to  Parin.  412. 
CororoandB  the  fioct,  420. 
Sends  a  carte  blanche  to  I 
the  regicidos,  424.  Pro- 
claimed in  Scotland,  430.1 
Crowned  at  Scone,  432. , 
Defrated  at  Wora'fltpr,  433.  \ 
Retires  to  Cologne,  442.  < 
Escapes  to  Breda,  461. 
Proclaimed  in  lx>ndon, 
462.    Reign  of,  462-497. 

Charles,  kings  of  France  :        I 

III.,  the  Simple,  cedes  i 

Neustrla  to  Rollo,  80. 

IV„  the  Fair,  166. 

VI.,  180,  197. 

VII.,  203,207. 

—  VIII.,  a.-^,  234. 


INDEX. 

CbtflMDUaoe.  MaMMsres 
theHiigiiaiola,aiO.  Death, , 
311.  I 

.»..,  deposed,  701. 

Gbarles  I.  (of  Spain)  V.  (em- 

ErorX  238, 244, 246.  Visits 
igland,  246.  Bribes  Wol- 1 
sey,  246.  Second  visit  to 
England,  247.  Breaks  with 
Henry  VUl.,  249.  AlU- 
ance  with,  268.  Proposes 
an  alliance  with  Mary,  286. 

VI.,  emperor,  662. 

VII.,  emperor,  dies,  688. 

Charles  11.  of  Spain,  death, 
640. 

III.,  Utular   king  of 

Spain,  651,  663.  Elected 
emppror  Charles  VI.,  562. 

In.  of  Spain,  forms  the 

Family  Oimpact  with 
France,  606.  Declares 
war  with  England,  607. 

IV.  of  Spain,  674. 

Charles  of  Navarre,  claim  to 
French  crown,  170. 

Qtarles  Edward,  son  of  the 
Pretender  (James),  687. 
Expedition  of,  689.  Es- 
cape, 694.    Later  life,  696. 1 

Charleston,  siege  of,  628. 

Charlotte  of  Siecklenbnrg- 
Strelitz,  marries  George 
III.,  606.    Death,  695. 

,  princess,  dies,  694. 

Chamock,  captain,  636,  636. 

Cliarter  of  Henry  I.,  99. 
Discovered  by  Langton, 
136.  Of  Stephen,  103.  Of 
John,  137. 

Charters  of  oorporations  sur- 
rendered, 492.  Annulled 
by  James  IC,  606. 

Chartists,  708.  711, 

Chatham,  ships  at,  burnt  by 
the  Dutch,  464. 

Chatham,  earl  of  (WilliAm 
Pitt),  583,  588,  697.  First 
administration,  699-605. 
Opposes  the  peac«:,  610. 
Denounces  Stamp  Act, 
613.  Created  earl  Chat- 
ham, 614.  Second  admin- 
istration, 614-616.  De- 
nounces American  policy, 
616. 622.  Last  speech,  623. 
Illness  and  death,  624. 

.  earl  of  (2nd),  expedi- 
tion to  Walcberen.  678. 

CbAtillon  -  sur  -  Seine,  con- 
gress at,  686. 

Hiauoer.  Geoffrey.  191,  226. 

Cherbourg,  expedition 

against,  601. 

Chester,  earl  of,  117. 

Chesterfield,  earl  of,  lord- 
Ueutenant  of  Ireland,  588. 
Secretory  of  stote,  595. 
Character,  ib.  Reforms 
the  oftlendar,  ib. 


785 

Olergy. 

*<CbeT7GbaM,''l8T. 

Cheyte  Sing,  640. 

Child,  sir  Jodab,  618. 

Chillianwallah,  baUle.  719. 

Chinon,  castle,  death  of 
Henry  II.  at.  119.  Peace 
of.  136. 

Choiseul,  duke  ot  606,  606. 

Christ  Chunh.  Oxford, 
founded  bv  Wolsey,  272. 

Christian,  admiral,  648. 

Christianity  in  Britain,  16. 
Among  the  Saxon^  32  $q. 

Chronicle,  Anglo-Saxon,  77. 

Church,  Anglo  -  Norman, 
128. 

,     English,     separated 

from  Rome,  267.  King 
supreme  head  of,  268. 

of  Ireland,  disestab- 
lished, 727. 

Churchill,  lord,  deserts 
James  II.,  61 1  (see  Marl- 
borough). 

,  the  satirist.  607. 

Cintra,  convention  of^  676. 

Circuits.  Judges',  127. 

Circuses  In  Britain,  14. 

Clssa,  26. 

CHssa-ceaster  (Chichester),2S. 

Ciudad  Rodrigo,  token,  083. 

Clanricarde,  earl  of,  429,430. 

Clare.  Richard  de  (Strong- 
bow),  eurl  of  Chepstow, 
1 16.  Marries  Eva.  daugh- 
ter of  king  Dermot,  116. 
Defeats  the  Iri>h.  117. 

Clarence.  Thomas,  duke  of, 
son  of  Henry  IV..  defeated 
at  Beaugd.  200. 

.  Get)rge,  duke  of,  mar- 
ries Warwick's  daughter. 
215.  Deserts  to  Edward 
IV..  216.    Killed,  219. 

{$ee  WiLUAM  IV ). 

(Uarendon,  Constitutions  of, 
111.    Assize  of,  i6. 

Clarendon,  esrl  of  (HydeX 
prime  minister,  464.  Re- 
stores epiiicopacy.455.  Ad- 
vises the  sole  of  Dunkirk, 
459.  Disgraced,  464.  Ban- 
ished. 465.  His  Hi^tory.  ib. 

,  earl  (2nd),  chamber- 
lain, 500.  Lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland.  604.  Treata 
with  James  II.,  612. 

Clarke,  Mre..  676. 

Clarkson,  Mr..  671. 

Claudius  reduces  Britoin,  8. 

Claypole,  Mrs.,  death.  446. 

Clement  VI..  pope.  248.  261, 
252.  Grants  a  commis- 
sion to  try  Henry  VIII.'s 
divorce.  261. 

.   Jagues,   sssmrinrtge 

Henry  III.,  330. 

Clement's.  St..  Danish  oeoie- 
tery  at,  61. 

Clergy,  their  privUegei^  7% 


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786 

Ill  $q.    Brongfat 

pramunire^  3M. 
Oeret,  Anne  of  (tee  Anne). 
GUfford,  lord,  murders  tbe 

earlof  RuiUnd.211. 
^— ,    Rir    Robert,   betrajs 

Perkln  Warbeck.  236. 

,  sir  rhomns,  465. 

Clifton  Moor,  battle,  593. 
Clinton,  admiral  lord.  305. 
,  seneral,  619.    Retreats 

to  New  York,  624.  Takes 

Charleston,  628. 
Clipping  the  coin,  155. 
Clive,  takes  Chandemagore, 

600,  6U9.      Exploits,  609. 

Victory  at  I'lassy,  ib,  Go- 

Temor  of  Bengal,  ib.    An 

Irish  peer,  610.    Returns 

to  India,  636.     Reforms, 

637.      Quells  a   mutiny, 

ib.     Vote  of  censure  on, 

•38.    Suicide,  ib. 
CSontarf  meeting,  709. 
Closittngs,  506. 
Cloth  of  (iold.  Field  of,  246. 
Oobden.  Richard,  708,  722. 
Oobham,  lord,  197  {$ee  Old- 
castle). 
^— ,    lord,    plots    against 

James  I..  347. 
Coburg,  prince  of,  commands 

imperial  army,  644. 
Coeur  de  Lion,  124. 
OofFee-hoavs,  519. 
Coin,  debasement  of,  277. 
Coke,  ^i^  KdwArd,357.    Im- 
prisoned, 358. 
Colchester  taken,  421. 
Coleman,       secretary       to 

duchefw  of  York,  479.  4H2. 
Colepepper,  sir  John,  39H. 
CoUgny,297,308.  Murdered, 

310. 
College,  trial  of,  491. 
Collier,  Jeremy,  536. 
Collingwood,  lord,  660,  667, 

66H,  674. 
Colonial     secretary,     offlce 

established,  615.  Separated 

from  war,  721  vote. 
Colon  i/.ition,  EnKlish,origin, 

3:.».    Progress,  61«. 
Columbus,  239. 
Combats,  judicial,  75. 
ComN'rtnere,  lord,  718. 
Comes,  title  of,  18. 
Cfffnef  littoris  .Sfaxonict,  17. 
Oonin^uMiers,     Roman,     in 

Brit^iin,  Im. 
Commerce,  freedom  of,  se  ' 

cured  by  the  Charter,  138. 

Under   }':dward  III.,  183. 

Propn'ssof,  518. 
Committee  of  .Safety,  450. 
Common  Pleas,  court  of,  127. 
Common  Prayer,  the  Book 

of,  n'vised,  279. 
Commons,   126.    House  of, 

148,158.  iDcreMed  power. 


INDEX. 

IM.  AfiOomitoC  nt.  Be- 
ftue  to  reaaon  with  Wol- 
aey,  348.  How  treated  by 
EUsabeth.  389.  Resist 
James,  861.  ReTtre  im- 
peachments, 356.  Pledge 
to  defend  tbe  palatinate, 
367.  Claim  fVeedom  of 
debate,  ^.  James  tear 
out  their  protestation,  358. 
Leaders  of,  363.  Riefuse 
snpplieii  to  Charles  I.,  ib. 
Impeach  Buckingham, 
385.  Frame  the  Petition 
of  Right,  367.  Prees  a 
redretfs  of  grievances,  378. 
Impeach  iStrafford  and 
Laud,  380.  Speeches  first 
published.  381.  Retain 
the  army  of  the  Covenant, 
382.  Proceedings  against 
the  clergy,  tb.  Committee 
during  recess,  386.  Re- 
monstrance, 388.  Charles 
demands  the  five  mem- 
bers, 390.  Seise  Hnll,  etc, 
392.  Militia  bill.  ib. 
Name  the  lieutenants  of 
counties,  393.  Propose 
terms,  ^.  Porged  by 
colonel  Pride,  433.  Ordi- 
nance to  try  the  king,  433. 
Name  an  executive  conn- 
cil.  438.  Compodtton 
under  first  Reform  Act 
704;  onder  second,  748. 
(£te  Parliament^ 

Commonwealth,  437-463.      I 

Communion  service,  376.       j 

Compton,  sir  Spencer,  581. 
Made  lord  Wilmington, 
585.    Death,  687. 

Compurgation,  138. 

Compurgators,  75. 

Comyn,  assassinated,  161. 

Conan,  duke  of  Brittany, 
108.  Succeeded  by  Henry 
II.,  109. 

Con<1e,  397.    Death.  808. 

Confirmations  of  the  Great 
Charter.  149. 

Conformity,  occasional,  bill 
to  prevent,  thrown  ont, 
551.    Passed,  562. 

Congregation.  Scotch,  394. 
Assisted  by  EllMbeth.  ib. 

Con  naught,  kingdom  of,  116. 

•♦Conservatives," origin,  705. 
Party  broken  up,  710.  Re- 
action, 730. 

Constable,      office      extin- 
guished. 247  note. 
I  Constince,  mother  of  Arthur 
'     of  Brittany.  182. 
,  ConsUntine  the  Oreat,  13. 
I  Constantius  Chloms,  13. 

Constitution,  Anglo-Nor- 
man. 124.  EngliMi,  imd«r 
the  Tudofs,  338. 

Contract,  original,  616 


Oranmar. 

Oonventicle  Act,  «M 
Second,  ib. 

Convention  parliament,  46L 

Convention.  515.  ]f«le  a 
parliament,  533.  Di»- 
siilved,  637. 

,  Frendi,  646. 

Convocation,  acconnt  of,  678. 

Conway,  general,  606.  Seo- 
reUry,  613.  Carries  ad- 
drees  against  American 
war,  639.  Commander-in- 
chief,  A. 

Convers,  sir  John,  393. 

Cook,  solicitor  for  people  of 
England,  433.  Executed. 
455. 

Coote,  air  l^yre,  defieatA 
Hyder  AU.  639. 

Cope,  sir  John,  690.  De- 
feated at  Preston  Pans.  69 1 . 

Copenhagen,  victory  at,  by 
Nelson,  658.  Bomhankd 
by  Oambier,  673. 

Com  bury,  lord,  511. 

Comiah,  alderman,  attainder 
reversed,  637. 

Oom-Uws,  693.  League 
against  the,  708.  Abo- 
lished. 710,  746. 

Cornwall,  insurrection  in, 
336. 

Corowallis,  lord,  631.  Capi- 
tulates at  York  To«n, 
628.  Viceroy  of  Ireland, 
656.  Qovemor-general  ot 
India,  reduces  Tippoo,  718. 

,  admiral,  646. 

Corporation  Act,  466,  473. 
Repealed,  699. 

Corsica,  taken,  647. 

Corunna,  battle  of,  676. 

Cospatric,  earl  of  Northnm 
berland.  rebels,  86. 

Cotton  famine,  733. 

Count,  UUe  of,  337. 

County  courts,  76,  137. 

Court,  verge  ot  76. 

baron,  136. 

Ootirts,  Anglo-Saxon,  76. 

of  Justice,  137. 

Covenant,  377.  Bomt  by 
tbe  hangman.  456. 

Covenanters,  Scotch,  377. 
Invade  England.  379.  Re- 
tained by  Long  Parlia- 
ment.  383. 

Coverdale,  imprisoned,  384. 

Cow  per,  lord,  dianoellor, 
dismit«ed,  660. 

Craggs,  secretary  at  war 
673.    Bribed,  576. 

Cruimer,  Thomas,  363 
Made  primate,  annuls 
Henry's  marriage  with 
Katharine,  357.  Annuls 
Anne  Bol^n's  marrian, 
363.  At  Henry's  death- 
bed, 371.  Executor,  37X 
Conduct  of  tbe  Reform** 


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Uon.  £74.  Oondranwdfor 
tiewMm,  284.    Burnt,  288 

Creceanford,  baUk,  36. 

Crerr,  battle,  173. 

Ci^p.v,  pe&ce  of.  269. 

CreMingham,  flayed  b}-  the 
Scots,  160. 

Crimea,  descent  en  the,  714. 

Criminal  law,  amendment 
OC743. 

tYoke,  Judge  375. 

Crompton.  739. 

Cromwell,  Thomas,  defends 
Wolj«ej,  252.  Favours  the 
Reformation,  26H.  Vicar- 
eneral,  261.  Made  earl  | 
.r  Essex,  266.  FaU  and 
execution,  ib.  { 

,  Oliver,  first  appear- 
ance of.  402.  Defeats 
Rupert  at  Marston  Moor, 
405.  Republican  views. 
407  Reduces  the  midland 
counties,  412.  Obtains 
command  of  the  army, 
416  Views  as  to  the 
king,  418.  Qoells  the 
Levellers,  419.  Defisats 
Langdale  and  Hamilton, 
421.  Reduces  Ireland. 
429,430.  C«ptain*general, 

431.  Invades  Scotland,  <6. 
Gains  battle  of  Dunbar, 

432.  Defeato  Charles  11. 
at  Worcester,  433.  Dis- 
solves the  Long  Parlia- 
ment, 438.  Calls  another, 
ib.  Made  Protector,  439. 
Reproves  the  parliament, 
441.  Refuses  the  crown, 
445.  Supporto  the  Vau- 
dois,  447.  Death  and 
character,  448.  His 
mother,  ib.  Esute  con- 
flecated,454.  Disinterred 
and  Jinged,  455. 

«  Richard.  445.  Suc- 
ceeds to  the  Protectorate, 
447.  Signs  his  demission, , 
449.  I 

,  Henry,  governs  Ire- 
land, 448.  I 

Croprcdy  Bridge,  battle,  406. 

Crosses  at  Charing  and 
Cbeapside  destroy^.  382.  I 

Crown,  settlement  of  the,51 5.  | 

Crusade,  first,  96.  Of 
Richard  I.,  121.  I 

Culemberg.  admiral,  564. 

Culloden,  battle,  593. 

Cumberland,  made  an  £ng< 
lish  county,  96.  t 

Cumberland,  duke  of.  stDet- 
tingen.586.  Fontenoy,588.  I 
Defeats  the  Pretender  at 
Culloden,  593.  One  of  the  < 
council  ot  regency',  597. 1 
Defeated  by  the  French, 
600.  Abandons  Hanover; , 
diflgraco  and  death,  »6 


DIDCX. 

OnsiberUni,  ErnMt,   duke 

oA  king  of  Hanoiy«^  707. 
Cumbria,  90. 

Cnnobelin(Cymbeliui;,  6. 
Curfew,  93. 
Curia  Regis,  126,  127. 
Curie,  queen  Mary's  aecro- 

tary,  320. 
C^wm  (queen),  71. 
Cwichelm,  king  of  Weaeex, 

33. 
Cymen.  26. 
Cymenes-ora,  26. 
Cyning  (king),  70. 
Cynric  27. 
Cyprus,       conquered       by 

Richard    I,    121.     Ceded 

to  England,  737. 


Dacre,  lord,  defaats  the 
Soots,  247. 

Dalhonrfe,  lord,  governor- 
general  <if  India,  719. 

Dalrymple,  idr  John,  master 
of  Stair,  530. 

,  sir  Hew.  674.  676. 

Damnonia,  kingdom  of,  28. 

Danby,  earl  of,  treasurer. 
472.  Denounces  the  popish 
plot.  479.  Impeached, 
481,  483,  496  President 
of  council,  522.  Marqu<^K 
of  Carmarthen,  527.  Duke 
of  Leeds,  534. 

Dcm^eld,  54,  61,  91,  128. 

DanOagk.  45. 

Danes,  invade  England,  41. 
Murder  king  Edmund,  43. 
Defeated  by  Alf^^  45. 
BapUxed  by  him,  46.  Five 
towns  of,  »fr.  Boundary 
of,  ib.  Invade  Kent,  46. 
Incureions  renewed,  54 
Massacred,  55. 

Dangerfleld,  concocts  the 
meal-tub  plot,  486. 

Danish  fleet  carried  off.  673. 

Darcy,  lord,  263. 

Darlington,  countess  of  (ba- 
roness Kilmanaeck),  572. 

Damley,  lord,  marries  Mary 
on-^sn  of  800(6,  298. 
l.urdered,  301. 

Dartmouth,  lord,  secretary, 
570. 

Dashwo  mI.  B'r  Francis, chan- 
cellui  o(  exchequer,  607. 

David  L,  khig  of  ScotUnd, 
Invadw  Enfrl  ind,  104. 

,  prince  of  Wales,  exe- 
cuted l^  Edward  I.,  154. 

,  ean  of  Huntingtion. 

deecendaots  of.  156. 

Davison,  secretary,  de- 
spatches warrant  for 
queen  Mary's  execution, 
322.    Fined,  324. 

Days,  Saxon  names  of;  22, 
38. 


787 

Ootifflas. 

DeaD<>.  Silas,  621. 
Death,  the  BIuck,  176. 
lMb(.     imprisonment    far, 

abolisbed,  727. 
TVclaratioD  of  Independence, 

American,  620. 
Defender  of  the  Faith,  title 

ci,U1. 
Deira  (Deifyror  Deora-rioe), 

2H. 

Delaware,  lord,  governor  of 
Virginia,  354. 

Delhi,  taken  by  lord  Lake, 
718.  By  general  Wilson, 
720. 

nd.inq»ent*,  381. 

I)enm«a.  lord,  697. 

Derby,  riots  at,  703. 

Derby,  countess  of,  dettods 
hXe  of  Man,  434. 

,  earl  of  (Mr.  and  lord 

SUnley),  702.  Secretary 
at  war,  709.  Heads  the 
"Protectionists,"  710. 
Premier,  712.  Resigns, 
713.     Premier  again.  720. 

.  son.  foreign  secretary, 

730.     Resigns,  735. 

Dermot  Macmorrogh,  king 
of  Leinster.  116. 

Dervorghal,  116. 

Derwentwater.  earl  of,  sup* 
porte  Pretender.  569,  571. 

l)eH,iix.  general,  654. 

Desburough.  opposes  the 
crowning  of  Cromwell, 
445.  Threatens  Richard, 
449. 

Dcffpenser,  Hugh  le  (Spen- 
ser), 164. 

Dettlngen,  battle,  586. 

Devizes,  battle.  401. 

Devunshire,  rioing  In,  277. 

DIgby,  sir  Everard,  joins 
gunpowder  plot,  .'U9. 350. 

Digges,  sir  Dudley.  «  leader 
of  the  common",  363. 
Master  of  the  RolN.  372. 

Diocletian,  emperor.  15. 

Directory  for  worship,  409. 

Dispensing  power,  458,  504 
note. 

Disraeli,  Mr..  711.  Chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer, 
712.  Premier.  726.  730. 
Earl  of  Beaconi«fleld,  732. 

Dissenters,  promoted  by 
.James  11.,  506. 

Divlno  right,  theory  of,  516. 

Dogger  Bank,  action  off  the, 
I      629. 

Domesday  Book,  91  »q. 

Dominica,  taken,  606. 

Donauwerth,  titken.  552. 

Dortiet.  marquess  of,  expe- 
dition to  Spain,  242. 

Douay,  seminary  at,  316. 

Douglas,  lord,  attacks   the 
I     English  camp,  168. 
I ,  earl,  fights  with  Hot* 


Digitized  by 


Google 


788 


Boufflas. 
againsfc  Hemy  IV., 


Dcmglas,  OeorgOt  300.  Mur- 
ders Riuio,  ib. 

»  George,  asBirts  Mary  I 

queen  of  Scots  (o  esci^,  ^ 
303.  I 

Dover,  iMittle  off,  436. 
Treaty  of,  406.  I 

Dowdeswell,  William,  chan- 
cellor of  exchequer,  613. 

Downing,  ambasaador  to 
Holland,  468. 

Drake,  Francis,  sails  round 
the  world,  312.  Enter- 
tains queen  Elisabeth,  313. 
Attacks  the  West  Indies 
316.  D<«troys  the  Spanish 
shipping.  325.  Expedition 
to  Portugal,  329. 

Drapitr's  Letters,  677. 

Druidism,3M.  ! 

Drummond,  titular  duke  of' 
Perth,  690.  j 

Dubois,  cardinal,  672. 

Duckworth,  admiral  sir 
John,  672. 

Dudley,  minister  of  Henry 
YU.,  237.   Executed,  241. 

,  lord  Quilford,  mar- 
ries lady  Jane  Orey,  280. 
283.    Beheaded.  286. 

,  lord  RobertffkTOurite 

of    EUxabeth.    297     (<ee 
Leicester). 

.  lord,  700. 

Duke,  title  of,  227. 

Dumouries,  643. 

Dunbar.  baUie.  168,  432. 

Duncan,  king  of  Scotland. 

murdered  by  Macbeth,  64. 

^ — ,   admiral,  defeats  the 

Dutch    off  Camperdown, 

661.     Viscount,  662. 

Dundas,  666  (Me  Melville). 

,  admiral,  716. 

Dundee,  viscount,  opposes 
William  in.,  526.  Victory 
and  death,  ib. 

Dunes,  battle  off,  446. 

Dunkirk,  surrendered  to 
Cromwell.  446.  Sold  to 
France,  469.  Besi^^  by 
duke  of  York,  644. 

Dunstan,  St.,  60-54.  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  62. 

Dutch,  wars  with  the,  432, 
460.  Lcaeue  with,  440. 
War  with,  in  1672,  468. 

colonies  taken,  648. 

guardH,  513.  Dismissed, 

639. 

Dux  Britanniarum,  18. 

I^kvalt,  609. 


Eadbdd,  king  of  Kont,  38. 
Eadbarga,  36. 
Baldormen  (aldermen),7l. 
Balhswith,  wifeof  Alfired.  48. 


IKDBX. 

Barl,  tttla.  9i7. 

Eiit  IndU  Oompany, 
founded,  364,  634.  Pro- 
gress ot  608.  BUlsofFox 
and  Pitt  respecting.  636. 
Regulating  Act,  637.  Abo- 
lished, 720. 

(French),  608.     Their 

settlements,  609. 

East  Saxons  (Essex),  king- 
dom of,  27. 

Ebissa,  28. 

Eborius,  bishop  of  York,  16. 

Ecclesiastical  Commission, 
court  of^  606.  Annulled, 
610. 

^706. 

Titles  Bill.  T12. 

Ecgferth's-Minster,  36. 

Edgar,  reign  of,  62,  63. 

JEtbeling,  66.  Sub- 
mits to  William,  82.  Ke- 
belllon  and  flight,  86. 
Retires  to  Hooen,  88.  Ite- 
turns  to  England,  96.  Cap- 
tured at  Tinchebray,  100. 

&igehill,  battle.  399. 

Edinburgh,  tumult  at,  about 
Laud's  Liturgy,  376. 

Edgiva,  stater  of  Jltbelsfcan, 
49. 

Editha,  daughter  of  Godwin, 
marries  Edward  the  Cbn- 
f^ssor,  61,  ea 

Edmimd,  Ung,  saint,  and 
martyr,  43. 

the  Elder,  48. 

Ironside,  66. 

,  son  of  Edmund  Iron- 
side, 67. 

Edred,  king,  60. 

Edric,  duke  of  Mercia,66,68. 

Edward  I.  the  Elder,  suc- 
ceeds Alfi^  48. 

U.  the  Martyr,  63. 

the  Outlaw,  son  of  Ed- 
mund Ironside,  68,  66. 

-  ill.  theOonfee^r,  son  of 
iBthelred,  68.  Reign  ot 
61-66.    Laws  of,  66. 

Edward  I.,  ** after  the  con- 
quest ; "  prince,  at  Lewes, 
147.  At  Evesham,  148. 
Ebds  the  Bar.  ns'  War,  ib. 
Goes  on  a  crusade,  149. 
Proclaimed  in  his  absence, 
152.  Return,  ib.  Reign, 
151-162 

II..  prince  of  Wales. 

154.     R^Ign  of;  162-166. 

IIL,  prince  of  Wales, 

sent  to  Paris,  166. 
Affianced  to  Philippa,  166. 
Reign  of,  167-183. 

—  fV.,  reign  of,  213-219. 
v.,  reljcn  of,  21^221. 

—  VI.,  prince,  birth,  263. 
Reign  of,  273-281. 

,  prince,  son  of  Hemy 

VI.,  murdered.  217. 


Edwaides,  lieotniant,  710. 
Edwin,  kiiigof  Northombrla. 

28.  Bretwalda,3i,  Reign, 

ib.    Slain,  34. 
— ,  grandson  <rf  LeofKc. 

governor  of  Merda,  66, 82-. 

84.     Rebels.  86.  88. 
Edwy,  king,  reign  of,  61,  62. 
—  -,   toother  of   Ettanund 

Ironside,  68. 
Egbert,  king  of  Weasex,  36 

»q.      Unites  the   AnRlo- 

Saxoti  kingdoms,  37.  Om- 

quests,  44).    Death,  42. 
Egerton,  lord  keeper,  334. 
Egmont,   ootmt,    executed. 

309. 
Egremont.   lord,   secretary. 

607,  610. 
Egypt,  French  in,  662,  664 

669.    Expedition  to,  672. 
Elba,  Napoleon  banished  to. 

688. 
Eldon,  lord,  chancellor,  667, 

671.    Resigns,  698.     • 
Eleanor  of  G^enne,  queen  of 

Henry  II.,  106,117 
of  Provence,  queen  of 

Henry  III.,  143. 
Electors,  county,  228. 
Elf^lda,   kiUs  her 

Edward,  63. 
Elgiva,  wife  of  Edwy,  61,  62. 
Eliot,  sir  John,  370,  371. 
Ellott,  general,  defends  Gib- 
raltar,   631.      Made   lord 

Heathfield,  632. 
Elisabeth  of  York,  wife  of 

Henry  VII.,  231,  231. 
EuzaBETB,   princess,    276. 

Supports  queen  Mary,  283. 

Imprisoned,     286.       Re> 

leased,  287.    Qtieen,  292. 

Reign  of;  29»-342. 
1  ditughter  of  James  1., 

marries  elector  palatine. 

362. 
Ella,   king  of  Sussex,  26. 

BretwaUa^Sl. 

,  kingofDeira,28. 

Elkmborottgh,     lord,     709. 

Governor-general  of  India. 

718. 
Elphinstone,  admiral,  648 
Emigration,  698. 
Emma  of  Normandy,  queen 

of  JGthelrcd  U.,  64,  66,  67. 

Marries  Gsnute,  68.    Con- 
fined by  her  son  Edward 

the  Confessor,  62. 
Empson,  minister  of  Henry 

VII.,  237.   Executed,  S41, 
Enghien.  duke  d'.  munfered. 

666. 
Bn-U  (earls).  71. 
Borne$t  gudidal    combat), 

76. 
Episcopacy  Abolished  inSoot* 

land,  377.  AUured  in  Eng- 
land, 409.    Restored.  465 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Brio. 

KMo,60. 

Eraklne,  lord  chAnoeUor,  669. 
DiamiflBed,  671. 

EKbeats  (feudal).  128. 

Eacviii,27, 

Estaer.  Wolsey's  seftt,  262. 

iStttas  (eerfii),  72. 

Essex,  earl  of  ^Devereiix\ 
329,  332.  Lora-lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  334.  Con- 
dsmofKl  and  imprison  d, 
335.  Conspires  against  the 
queen,  ib.  Executed,  337. 

' ,  earl  of,  i:l8  sun,  sideei 

with  the  commons,  389. 
CommaDds  the  parlia- 
mentary army,  393,  400, 
407.  Death,  415. 

,  earl  of  (Capcl),  trea- 
surer, 484, 486, 488.  Joins 
Russell's  conspiracy,  493. 
Suicide,  495. 

Eataples,  treaty  of,  234. 

Eihandiin,  battle,  45. 

Ethel—,  names  beginning 
with  (me  iEthel— ). 

Eugene,  prince,  co-operates 
with  Marlborough,  552  i 
Defeats  the  French  at| 
Turin.  554.  Invades 
France,  567.  Defeated  at  I 
Dcnaln,  563.  | 

European  system,  origin, 
230. 

Eustace,  count  of  Boulogne, 
62. 

Eva,  daughter  of  king  Der- 
mot,  116. 

Evesham,  battle,  148 

Ewtow  Springs,  battle  of, 
628. 

iSr  o^cio  oath,  315. 

Exchequer,  court  of,  127. 

,  the   king's,  shut   up, 

468. 

Excise,  origin,  404.  Here- 
ditary, granted,  455. 

Exclusion  Bill,  484,  488. 
Thrown  out,  488. 

Exeter,  duke  of,  governor  of 
Paris,  200. 

,  marqtiees  of,  executed, 

264. 

Exhibition  of  Industry,  712. 

,  second,  723. 

Exniouth,  lord,  bombards 
Algiers,  694. 

Exton,  sir  Piers,  190. 


Fairfax,  lord,  parliamentary  i 
general,  400.  402,  405.         i 

,  sir  Thomas  (aft.  lord),  I 

402,  405.  Commander  of' 
parliamentary  forces,  408,  i 
411,  421,  431.  I 

1   lady,   interrupts  thei 

High  Court  of  Justice,  423. 
alabe,  133. 
ftlkirk.  brttlo,  160-  I 


INDJEX. 

FaUdrk  Molr,  battto,  8ML 

Falkland,  lord,  381.  Supports 
Strafford's  attainder,  384. 
Opposes  the  Remon- 
strance, 389.    Killed,  402. 

Famars,  battle,  644. 

Family  Compact,  606. 

Farmer,  606. 

Faulconbridge,  viscount, 
marries  Cromwell's  daugh- 
ter, 445. 

FawKes,  Quy,  348,  360. 

Fecamp  abbey,  86. 

Fclton,  John,  affixes  the 
bull  of  excommunication 
against  EUzabetb,  307. 

^,  stabs  Buckingham,  369. 

Executed,  ib. 

Fenians,  the,  726. 

Fenwick,  sir  John,  his  con- 
spiracy and  revelations, 
536.    Attainder,  ib. 

Ferdinand  of  Arragon,  league 
with  Henry  VII.,;i33.  De- 
ceives Henry  VIII.,  241. 

of  Brunswick,  recovers 

Hanover,  601. 

IV.  of  Naples,  670. 

VII.  of  Spain,  674,  689. 

Feudal  tenures,  abolished, 
455. 

Feudalism,  Norman,  91.  An- 
glo-Norman, 124  sq. 

FeverMham,  eart  of,  com- 
mands against  Monmouth, 
501,  502,  608,  513. 

Fiefs,  124. 

Fiennes,  Nathaniel,  407. 

Fiji  islands,  annexed,  731. 

Finch,  sir  Heneage,  471  {$ee 
Nottingham,  earl  of). 

,  sir  John,  speaker,  370. 

Lord-keeper,  381. 

Fines  (feudal),  128,  138. 

Fini^terre,  battle  ofi;  696. 
Caldet's  action,  667. 

Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester, 
258  Made  a  cardinal,  269. 
Executed,  ib. 

,  captain,  536. 

Fishguard  Bay,  French  male- 
factors landed  at,  649. 

Fitx-Oerald,  Maurice,  astdsta 
king  Dermot,  116. 

Fitzgerald,  lord  Edward,  con- 
spiracy and  death,  666. 

,  Mr.  Vesey,  700. 

Fitzherbert,  Mrs.,  636. 

Fitz-0>bem,  William,  84. 

FitK-Stephen,  101. 

,  Robert,  takes  Water- 
ford,  116. 

Fiti-Drse.  Reginald,  113. 

Filzwalter,  Robert,  heads 
the  barons  against  king 
John,  137. 

Pivt  Burghers  (Danes),  46. 
Removed  by  Edmond,  49. 

Five-mile  Act,  461. 

Fleetwood,     opposes     ths  | 


789 
Franols. 

notion  to  crown  Grom- 
well,  446. 

Plemings,  the.  treaty  of 
commerce  with,  238. 

Fletcher  of  Saitoun,  666. 

,  sir  Robert,  motinies, 

637. 

Fleorus,  battle,  640 

Flodden,  battle,  243. 

Fblc-land^  12. 

Fontainebleau.  Napole<«  ab- 
dicates at,  688. 

Fontarabia,  expedition  to, 
241. 

Fontenoy,  battle.  688. 

Fontevraud,  Henry  IL 
buried  at,  119. 

Foreigners,  address  agdnst, 
640.  IneUgible  to  offloes 
or  to  parl.ament,  641. 

Forest  laws,  93.  Gbarteii 
138  note,  169. 

,  New.  39. 

Forfeitures  (feudal),  128. 

Forst**r,  Mr.,  supports  the 
Pretender,  669.  Surren- 
ders, to. 

Fossway,  the,  14. 

Fox,  bi^opof  Exeter,  minis- 
ter of  Henry  VH.,  23L 

,  George,  618. 

,  sir  Stephen,  697. 

,    Henry,    697.     Secte- 

tary,  598.  Paymaster  of 
the  forces,  600.  Leads  the 
commons,  610.  Made  lord 
Holland,  ib. 

,  Charles  James,  secre- 
tary, 629.  Resigns,  631. 
SccreUry,  636.  Dismissed, 
ib.  Foreign  secretary, 
669.    Death,  670. 

France,  nrovlnoes  o^  pos> 
sessed  oy  Henry  IL,  108. 
Edward  III.'s  claim  to, 
170.  Title  of  king  as. 
sumed  by  him,  170-    Con- 

2uered  by  Henry  V.,  200. 
English  expelled  fh)m,  207 
Claim  renounced  by  Henry 
VIII.,  250.  Religious  wars 
of,  297  ig.,  308.  Acknow 
ledges  American  inde- 
pendence, 623.  Threatens 
an  invasion,  624.  First 
revolution,  641.  Title  of 
••  king  of  France  "  dropped 
by  George  III.,  656.  Ex- 
tent of  the  empire,  68a 
Second  revolution,  701 
Third.  711.  Second  em 
pire,  712.  Alliance  with, 
against  Russia,  7ia  War 
with  (Germany,  727.  Re- 
public, 728. 
Francis  I.  of  France,  courts 
Wolsey,  245.  Meets  Henry 
V  in.  at  Calais.  246.  Cap- 
tured at  PavU,  249.  Re* 
ocvcrs  his  liberty,  n^ 


SB* 


Digitized  by 


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790 

Francis. 

FnatOB  II..biisbftiMlof  ICuy 
qneeD  of  Soots,  294,  296. 

I.,  emperor,  588. 

II..  resigns  the  imperial 

<Ugtiit7,  and  becomes 
Francis  I.  of  Aostria,  666  n. 

Francis,  Fatlier,  606. 

, ,  sir  Philip,  638. 

FrankcUmoign,  tenure,  126. 

Franklin  (a  freeholder),  125. 

Franklin,  Dr.,  612.  Dismissed 
from  post-offlce,  618.  Ne- 
godations,  620,  621.  At 
Paris,  631,  632. 

Frankpledge,  48,  74. 

Frederick,  elector  palatine, 
marries  princess  Eliza- 
beth, 352.  Elected  king 
of  Bohemia,  355. 

,  prince  of  Wales,  582. 

Marries  Aognsta  of  Saxe 
Ootha,  ib.    Death,  596. 

« II.  of  Prussia,  invades 

Silesia,  585.  Invades  Bo- 
hemia and  Moravia,  §88. 
His  campaigns  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  600  sq. 

Freeman,  Mrs.,  name  of  the 
duchess  of  Marlborough, 
550. 

Freemen,  equality  of,  226. 

French  language,  abolished 
in  pleadings,  183. 

Frere,  Mr.,  675 

Freya,  goddess,  23. 

Friborg  f  frank-pledge),  74. 

Friend,  sir  Jotin,  conspiracy 
against  William  III.,  535. 
Executed,  536. 

Frisians,  21,  38. 

Fritk-borh,  74. 

Fritk-gildt,  76. 

Frobicher,  327. 

Frontiuus,  Julius,  10. 

Fuentes  de  OAoro,  battle,  682. 

Fulford,  battle,  67. 

a. 

Gage,  general,  619. 

Gainsborough,  battle,  402. 

Galgucus,  10. 

Galway,  earl  of  fRuvigny), 
expedition  to  Spain,  554, 
556. 

Gambier,  admiral,  bombards 
Coponhagen,  673. 

Gardiner,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, 258,  267.  Op- 
poses Reformation,  275. 
Deprived,  279.  ResWred, 
284.  Prime  minister.  2m5. 
Favours  persecution,  287. 

Garibaldi,  Giuseppe,  722. 

Garter,  order, institutt^,  176. 

Gascoigne,  chief-justice,  196. 

Gastein,  convention  of,  724. 

Gatf*,  general,  628. 

Gaul,  overrun  by  the  bar- 
barians. 12,  13. 

aauls  in  Britain.  3. 


INDEX. 

Gaimti  MrSi^  banit»803k 

Oaveston,  Plen,  16S.  164. 

General  warranto,  611. 

Genoa,  united  to  France,  666. 
Annexed  to  Sardinia,  688. 

Geoffrey  (Plantagenet)  of 
Anjou,  marries  Matilda, 
dauip(hter  of  Ueniy  I.,  102, 

106. 

,  son  of  Henry  II.,  118, 

119. 
,  natural  mm  of  Henry 

Gbokoi  L,  Idgn  of,  566-578. 

IL,  reign  of,  580-603. 

m.,  reign  of,  605-696. 

IV.,  pnnce  of  Wales, 

dissipation  and  extrava- 
nnce,  636.  Regent,  681.  i 
Reign  d,  696-701 


Otoooo* 

QkyoosBler,  duke  oi;  gnaidla 
of  England,  201,  216. 
Murdered,  206. 

^    Richard,    duke     at 

assists  In  die  murder  d 
prince  Edward,  217.  Re- 
gent, 219.  Seises  Edward 
V .,  ib.  Named  protector, 
<b.  Accepts  the  crown, 
221  (aee  Richaixl  III.). 

,  duke  of  (son  of  queen 

Anne),  death,  641. 

Goderich,  visoount,  premier 
699.  Colonial  secretary. 
702. 

QodStejt  sir  Edmondbory, 
478.    Murdered.  479. 

Godolphin,  lord,  treasurer, 
649,659.  Attackedl^Sa- 
cheverelU  559.  Death,  66S. 
George,  prince  of  Denmark,  Godoy,  don  Emantiel,  Prince 
marries  queen  Anne,  612,  of  the  Peace,  648,  673. 
550,  666.  I  Godwin,  earl,  68,  63,  64. 

George,  ohevaUer  St.  (Pre-  Gondomar,  356. 


tender),  668. 

G<^rgia,  disputes  with  Spain 
respecting,  682. 

Gerard,  Balthazar,  assassi- 
nates the  prince  of  Orange, 
316. 

Germain,  St.,  of  Auxerre,  16. 

Germaine,  lord  George  (Sack- 
ville),  at  battle  of  Mlnden, 
604.  Colonial  secretary, 
620. 

German  Town,  battle  of;  622. 

troops,  hiring  of,  621. 

Geta,  emperor,  11. 

Ghent,  treaty  of,  689. 

Gibbon,  Jl^moire  Jutt^fica- 
t\f,  624. 

Gibraltar,  taken,  664.  Re- 
linquished by  Spain,  582. 
Memorable  siege  of,  631. 

Giffbrd  reveals  Babiogton's 
conspiracy,  318. 

Glnkell,  524.  Takes  Ath- 
lone,  529.  Besieges  Lime- 
rick, ib. 

Glsla,  wifeofRoUo,  80. 

Gladstone,  Mr.,  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer,  713. 
Financial  policy,  725. 
Premier,  727.  IMsesUb- 
lishes  the  Irish  Church, 
ib.  Resigns,  730.  Retires 
fn>m  leadership  of 
Liberals,  731. 

Glamorgan,  earl  of,  treaty 
with  Irish  rebels,  413. 

Glastonbnry  abbey,  50. 

Glencoe,  massacre  of.  530  ig. 

Glendower.  0\*en.  193,  194. 

Gloucester,  duche«8  of,  does 
penance  for  witciicraft.206. 

,  earl  of.   leader  of  the 

barons,  146,  147. 

,   duke    of,    uncle    of 

Richard  II.,  regent,  186, 
187, 188. 


Good  Hope,  Cape,  taken,  648. 
Goojerat,  battle.  719. 
Gordon,   duke  of,  opposes 

William  in.,  626. 
^  lord  George,  riots,  626 

Goring,  386.     Governor  of 

Portsmouth,  392,  398. 
Gormanstone,  lord,  heads  the 

EnglliOi  of  the  pale.  387. 
OOrts,  baron,  673. 
Gough,  general  sir  Hugh,  719. 
Goulbum,  Mr.,dianoeUorof 

exchequer,  699, 709. 
Gourdon,      Bertrand      de, 

wounds  Richard  1.,  123. 
Gk>wer,  the  poet,  226. 

I ,  earl,  president  of  coon- 

'     cil,  636. 

,  lord  Leveeon,  embaMiy 

I     to  St.  Petereburg,  673. 
j  Gneme's  Dyke,  11. 
Grafton,  duke    ot  deeerta 

James  II..  611. 

I ,  duke  of,  secretary,  613^ 

I     Head  of  treasury,  614, 616. 
Graham  of  Claverboose,  486 

(«0e  Dundee). 
,  sir  Thomas,  685.    Ks- 

pedition  to  HolUnd,  688. 
,  sir  James,  home  secre- 
tary, 709. 
Oranimont,  duke  de,  686. 
Granby,  marquess  of,  606. 
Grand  Coutumier.  or  Greait 

Customary,  127. 
Grantham,    IcMti,  secretary, 

631. 
Gran  vllle ,  earl  (see  0aiteret> 
Grattan,  Henry,  630. 
Graves,  admiral,  628 
Gray,  master  of,  321. 
Great  Britain,  name  of  Ena- 

land  and  Scotland  united 

666. 
Greece,  indep«ideDoeoC6W 


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272. 

Greenwich  hospital,  533. 

Greg;,  eT-^itcd,  669. 

Gregory  i.  uie  Great,  pope, 
missioii  to  England,  32. 

Xin.,  medal  for  maa- 

aacre  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
311.  Reforma  the  calen- 
dar. 696. 

XV.,  pope,  369. 

,  speaker,  483. 

GrenviUe,  sir  John,  461. 

,  Oeorge,  8K:retary,  607, 

610.  First  lord  of  treasury 
and  chancellor  of  ex- 
chequer, ib.  Proposes 
American  Stamp  Act,  61 1, 
616. 

1   lord,   coalesces   with 

Fox,  66ft.  Premier,  669, 
671. 

,  Thonua,  at  admiralty, 

671. 

Grey,  lady  Jane,  marries  lord 
Goilford  Dudley,  2H0.  Pro- 
claimed qoeen,  283.  Be- 
headed, 286. 

,  lord,  of  Ruthyn,  193. 

,   lord,    plots    against 

James  1^  Ml. 

,  lord,  of  Groby,  422. 

,  lord,  at  Sedgemoor  601. 

,  earl  (see  Howlck),  pre- 
mier, 702.    Reafgns,  706. 

,  sir  Thomas,  executed, 

198. 

,  general   sir  Charles, 

647. 

Grim. Cambridge  monk,  114. 

Grimstone,  sir  Harbottle, 
speaker.  461. 

Grfndal,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, 316. 

Grove,  478.    Executed,  482. 

Gnnder,  Ralph  de,  earl  of 
Norfolk,  89.    Rebels,  a>. 

Guardians  of  the  realm,  162, 
201. 

Guiana,  Raleigh's  expedi- 
tions to,  332,  364. 

Guilds,  Anglo-Saxon,  76. 

Guillotine,  ambulatory.  646, 

Guinegate,  or  Spurs,  battle, 
243. 

Guiscard,  stabs  Harley,  661 

Guise,  duke  of,  takes  Calais, 
289.  DesigusagalnstElixa- 
beth,295  Seises  Catherine 
de  Medici,  297. 

,   duke   of,  forms   the 

I^eague,  311.  Assassi- 
nated, 330. 

• ,  cardinal,  aaaassinated, 

330 

Gnnhilda.  murdered.  66. 

Gunpowder  plot.  348  »q. 

Onrth,  son  of  Godwin,  63, 
68. 

Guthrie.  466. 


INDSX. 

Onthnim,   the    Dmm,    44. 

Baptised,  46. 
GyllenboK,  count,  673. 
Gwrnn,  Eleanor,  497  note. 
Gytha,  Harold's  mother.  86. 


Habeas  Corpus,  138,  4H8, 
497. 

Hacker,  executed,  456. 

Hadrian,  wall  ot,U. 

Hales,  sir  Edward,  collusive 
trial  of,  604  Attends  the 
flight  of  James  II.,  512. 

Hallldon  Hill,  battle,  170 

Halifax,  marquess  of,  484. 
Opposes  Exclusion  Bill, 
488.  PriVT  seal,  492,  622, 
627.  President  of  council. 
600.  Dismissed,  604.  Sent 
to  prince  of  Orange,  612. 
Speaker  of  the  peers,  616. 
Tenders  the  crown  to 
WUllam  and  Mary,  ib. 

,   earl   of  (Montague), 

642.  Dismissed,  649.  First 
lord  of  treasury,  667. 

,  earl  of,  secretary,  610. 

Halifax  (Nova  Scotia), 
founded,  696. 

Hamilton,  marquess  and 
duke  of,  employed  against 
the  Covenanters,  377. 
Raises  men  in  support  of 
Charles  I.,  420.  Defeated, 
421.     Executed,  426. 

,  duke  of,  opposes  Hano- 

▼erlMi  succession,  666. 
Opposes  union,  666. 

,  colonel,  630. 

,  lady,  668. 

Hammond,  governor  of  Carie- 
brooke  Oftstle,  410. 

Hampden,  John,  refuses  to 
pay  ship-money,  376. 
Accused  of  treason,  390. 
KUled,  401. 

,  John  (grandson).  Joins 

Monmouth's  conspiracy, 
493.  Apprehended,  494. 
Fined,  496. 

clubs,  693. 

Hampton  Court,  conference 
at,  347.  Flight  of  Charles 
I.  from,  419. 

Hanover,  treaty  of,  677. 
Overrun  by  the  French, 
600.  Seized  by  Prussia, 
668.  By  France,  664. 
Made  a  kingdom,  686. 
Separated  from  British 
crown,  707.  Annexed  to 
Prussia,  726. 

Hanoverian  suooesdon,  set- 
tled, 641.  Supported  by 
the  peers.  561.  R^ected 
by  Scotch  parliament.  666 
so.  Quietly  accomplished, 
-66. 


791 

Haslerlff. 

Harannt,  sir  Stmon,  660. 
Chancellor,  660. 

Hardicanute,  king,  reign 
of,  60,  61. 

Hardlnge.  sir  Henry,  gover- 
nor-general of  India,  719. 

Hardwicke.  lord  chancellor, 
585.     Resigns,  605. 

Haidy.  sir  Charles.  626. 

,  captain.  668. 

Harfleur,  taken  by  Henry  V^ 
198. 

Hargreaves,  739. 

Harington.  earl  of;  secre- 
Ury,  682,  688.  Lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland.  695. 

Harley,  Robert,  speaker. 
541.  643.  Secretarr,  668. 
Supplanted,  ib.  Chancel- 
lor of  exchequer.  660. 
Attack  on  his  Ufe.  661. 
Corresponds  with  duke  of 
Berwick,  ib.  Made  earl 
of  Oxford  and  treasurer. 
662  (see  Oxford). 

Harlow,  sir  Robert,  destroys 
the  crosses  at  Charing  and 
Clieapside,  382. 

Harold  Harefoot,  son  of 
Canute,  60,  61. 

,  son  of  earl  Godwin,  62, 

65.  Elected  to  the  throne, 
67.  Defeats  Harold  Har- 
drada  and  Tosti,  ib.  De- 
feated and  slain  at  Hast- 
ings, 69. 

Hardrada.  67. 

Harrington.  616. 

Harris,  general,  717. 

Harrison,  colonel,  423. 

Hasting,  the  Dane,  46. 

HasUngs,  battle,  68. 

.  lord,  claims  the  Sootcfa 

crown,  156. 

.  lord,  his  fMeUty.  220, 

221. 

,  marquess,  governor- 
general  of  India,  718. 

,  Warren,  first  gover- 
nor-general of  India,  637. 
Administration,  638  $q 
Impeachment,  636,  640. 

Hatfield,  James,  shoots  at 
George  III.,  656. 

Hatton,  Kir  Christopher,  319. 

Haugwitx,  666. 

Havannah  taken.  607. 

Havelock,  general.  720. 

Havre,  occupied  by  the  Eng- 
llsh,  297. 

Hawke,  admiral  sir  Edward. 
595,  698.  Expedition 
aoaiDSt  Rochefort.  600. 
Victory  off  Quiberon  60X 

Hawkins,  sir  John.  332. 

,   Richard,   son   of  sii 

John.  332. 

Hawley,  general,  693. 

Haxlerig,  sir  Arthur,  300^ 

450. 


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702 


HMtbfleld«  lord.  «»  («tt 
EUoii). 

Hedgtft,  dr  Ghtftot,  Mor»- 
tary,  660. 

Hedgley  Moor,  iMttle,  214. 

Uelder.  the,  Uken,  Mi. 

HeleiM,  lord  St.,  tna$j  with 
RuftsU,  668. 

Helie  de  St.  Smd,  100. 

Heligoland,  67a 

Hengeet  and  Hana,  34,  36. 

Hen  Icy,  lord,  chancellor,  606. 

Henrietu  Maria  of  France, 
369.  Marries  Charles  1.. 
362.  Sells  the  crown 
jewels.  303. 

Hbkbt  I.,  besieged  by  his 
brothers  at  St.  Michael's 
Mount,  06.  Reign  o^  98- 
102. 

—  II.,  prince,  acquires 
Normandy,  Ai^Joo,  and 
Maine,  106.  Marries 
Eleanor  of  Quienne,  ib. 
Invades  England,  ib. 
Reign  of,  107^30. 

,    son  of    Henrr   II., 

crowned,  113.  Rebels, 
117.    Death,  119. 

in.,  reign  ef.  140-149. 

IV.,  reign  of,  193-196. 

v..  reign  of,  196-301. 

VI.,  reign  of;  201-311. 

VII.,  reign  of,  239-339. 

VIII.,    reign   of.  340- 

273. 

,  prince,  son  of  James 

I.,  death,  363. 

' Benedict,  cardinal  York, 

last  of  the  Stuarts,  606. 

Henry  VI.,  emperor,  releases 
Richard  1.,  133. 

Henry  III.  of  Franee,  assas- 
sinated, 330. 

IV.  of  France,  assisted 

by  Elisabeth,  330.  Re- 
nonnces  protestantism, 
331.    Assassinated.  361. 

Henry  of  Blois,  bishop  of 
Winchester.  103,  104. 

Henry,  Patrick,  613. 

Heptarchy,  the,  38. 

Herbert,  attorney-general, 
impeactief  lord  Kimbolton 
and  the  five  members,  390. 

,  sir  Edward,  chief  Jus- 
tice, dictum  on  the  dis- 
pensing power,  604. 

,  admiral,  earl  of  Tor- 

rington,  628. 

Heresy,  first  penal  law 
against,  193. 

Heretics,  commission  to  ex- 
amine. 276.  Laws  against, 
revived,  387. 

BBretogOtlO. 

Hereward,  resists  the  Kor- 


Hermin     Street,     14    (ses 
Irmin) 


INDEX. 

HOTtfbrd,  earl  ot  3T0.    Pro- 
tector, 373.    Created  duke 
at    Somerset.    374     (< 
Somerset). 

— ^,  marquess  ot  retires 
before  the  parliamentary 
army,  399.  Overruns 
Devon,  401. 

Hereegovina,  the,  736. 

Hesse,  landgrave  of;  snb- 
sidiary  treaty  with.  698. 

Hewitt,      Dr.,      -  -     - 


Hexham,  battle,  316. 
Heydon,  sir  John,  399. 
Heyle,  sergeant.  340. 
Hi^  Commission  Court,  393. 

Mew,  316, 341.  Abolished, 

886.     Attempted   revival 

by  James  11^  606. 
Hiipi  Court  of  Justice,  to 

try  Charles  U  433. 
HiU.  AbigaU  (Mrs.  Masbam), 

669. 
,  sir  Rowland,  677,  683, 

686. 
,         ,  postal  reform, 

740. 
Hillsborough,  earl  of;  616, 

616. 
Hittriomoitim,      Piynne's, 

373. 
Hktfdiffe,  (lady).  71. 
HUfford  (lord),  76. 
Hobbe^  616. 
Hoche,  general,  648. 
Hoel,    count,    of     Nantes, 

108. 
Holgate,  arehMsbopof  York, 

384. 
Holkar,  717. 
Holland,  revolts  fh>m  Spain, 

311.    Treaty    wHh,   813. 

Elisabeth    protector    of, 

316.      War     with,     638. 

Overrun  by  Frendi,  647. 

Annexed  to  France,  693. 

,  earl  of,  executed,  436. 

,  lord  (see  Fox). 

HoUes,  holds  the  speaker, 

370.   Character,  381.    Ac- 
cused   of    treason,    390. 

Opposes  Cromwell,  431. 
Holmby,  Charles  I.  confined 

at,  414.    Seised  at,  416. 
Hchngang  (judicial  combat). 

76.  . 
Holsteln,  relation   to  Den- 
mark, 733.     War  about, 

734.     Ceded  to   Austria. 

*.    To  Prussia,  736. 
Holy  Alliance.  693. 
Homage,  ecclesiastical,  100. 

Described,  136. 
Homilies,  twelve,  276. 
Hone.  William,  prosecuted. 

694. 
Honorius,    withdraws     his 

legions  firom  Britain.  13. 
Hood,  sir  Samuel,  admiral, 


Hyde. 

638.  Made  an  Irish  bana^ 
631.  Takes  Toulon,  644. 
Corsica,  647. 

Hooper,  Ushopof  Qlouoester, 
384.     Burnt,  387. 

Hoptoa,  sir  Ralph,  rednces 
Oomwall,  400. 

Horn,  ooimt,  executed,  909. 

Home  Tooke,  633.  647. 

Horsa,  tomb  of,  36. 

Hoste,  sir  William.  678. 

Uotham,  sir  John,  pariia- 
mentaiy  governor  of  Hull, 
383.  393,  403. 

Hotspur,  187, 194. 

Hounslow  Heath,  417. 

Howard,  Katharine,  queen  of 
Henry  VIII.,  367.  Exe- 
cuted, ib. 

^  admiral  sir   Edward. 

kiUed,343. 

,  lord,    of  Effingham. 

admiral,  837.  Deitet^ 
the  l^anlsh  Armada,  32ts 
Expedition  to  OuUe,  332. 
Created  eari  of  Notting- 
ham, "Sb. 

,  lord,  joins  MonmomhV 

conspiracy,  493,  494. 

Howe,  general,  619.  Take^ 
New  York,  631.  Philadel- 
phia, 633. 

,       lord,       expedition 

against  Cherbourg,  601. 
Relieves  Gibraltar.  631. 
First  lord  of  admiralty, 
636.  Victory  of  1st  June, 
647. 

Howick,  lord,  at  admiralty, 
669.  Foreign  secretary, 
671.  Bill  for  catholic 
emancipation,  ib,  {tm 
Grey,  earl). 

Hubert,  arcobishop  of  Can- 
terbury, 134. 

Hugh  Capet,  81. 

Huguenots,  397.  Assisted 
by  Elisabeth,  897,  308. 
Their  strength.  311.  Ex- 
pedition against,  364. 

Hiuaber.  coimtry  beyond, 
devastated  by  WiUiam  I.. 
87. 

HumbU  Petitionand  Advice^ 
biU  so  called.  446. 

Hundreds.  73.    Moie,  73. 

Hunt,  Henry,  694.  696. 

Huntingdon  (aae  David> 

.  earl  of.  631. 

Huskisson,  Mr..  700. 

Bus-thing  (busting.  76. 

Hutchinsm.  general,  660. 

Huysduinen  taken.  664. 

Bvnccas^  46. 

Hyde,  Anne,  marries  duke 
of  York,  466. 

,  sir  Edward.  381.  Sup- 

ports  Strafford's  attainder. 
884.  Opposes  the  Remon- 
strance, 389.  Created  eari 


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Hyde. 

of    Clarendon,    464    («ee 

Clarendon  >. 
Hyde,  Lawrence,  treasurer, 

486.    Earl  of  Bochester, 

492  (««  Rochester). 
Hyder  All.  637,  C3». 
Hyderabad,  719. 
Hypwines-fleot,  2S. 

I. 

Ibrahim  Pasha,  699. 

Icenl,9. 

Icon  BfuUike,  account  o( 
426. 

Ictls,  Isle  ot  3. 

Ida.  king  of  Bcmicia,  28. 

Iden.  kills  Cade,  209. 

leme,  Ireland,  2. 

Ikenlld  Street,  13. 

Ildefonso,  San,  treaty  of, 
64)}. 

Impeachment,  first  instance,  I 
228.  Revived,  356   DifTers  | 
from  attainder.  384  wUe 
Not   barred   by   a   royal 
pardon,  484,  642. 

Imprisonment,  arbitrary, 
forbidden  by  the  Charter, 
138 

Ina,  king  of  Wessex,  36. 
His  laws,  36. 

Incomo-tax,  709.  Rates  and 
pn-dtice  of,  731. 

Indepfnil^nts.  rise  of,  406, 

India,  British,  history,  60S 
sq..  636  sq.,  717  $q.  Em- 
press of;  737. 

Indulgence,  declaration  of, 
458,  468,  470.     Cancelled  | 
by  Charles  II.,  470.  James 
II.'s  declaration   of,  505. 
506. 

Inglis.  sir  Robert.  713. 

Inkermann,  battle.  715. 

Innocent  III.,  pope,  134.  ^ 
Kxcommunicatf"*  king 
John.  135  Abrogates 
MnKita  Cnrta,  139. 

Inquisition,  the.  309. 

Instrument  of  government, 
439. 

Investitures,  whnt,  100  Re- 
signed by  Heury  I.,  100. 

Ionian  inlands,  taken,  678. 

Ireland,  early  history,  115.  | 
Conquered  by  Henry  II., 
117.  Under  EliEabeth. ' 
33C.  Rebellion,  386.  Eng- 1 
lish  nmssncred.  387.  Re- 
duced by  CroniwtU,  4:^0  : 
Grants  of  forfeited  estates 
in,  reversed.  5I0.  Union 
with  England.  655,  65B 
Disturbances  In,  704.  CV)- 
erci<m  bill,  70S.  Famine. 
711.  Church  dbefltab- 
lished,  727. 

Ireland,  Father,  executed, 
482. 

IretOll.411,  418,  421.     C«m- 


INDEX. 

maikls  ia  Ireland,  431. 
Takes  Limerick,  484. 

Irmin  Street,  14. 

Isaac,  ruler  of  Cyprus,  121. 

Isabella,  second  wife  of  king 
John,  133. 

,  daughter  of  Philip  the 

Fair,  marries  prince  Ed- 
ward (Edward  II.\  160. 
Intrigues  with  Mortimer, 

165.  Invades    England, 

166.  Imprisoned,  169. 
,  daughter   of  Charles 

VL,  affianced  to  Richard 

II.,    187.      Restored    to 

France,  196. 
Isca  Silurum,  14. 
Islands,  claim  of  pope  to, 

116. 

J. 

Jacobite  plot,  676. 

Jamaica,  acquired,  44a  In- 
surrection in,  705. 

James  I.  of  Scotland,  detained 
at  English  court,  195.  Re- 
stored, 202. 

IV.  of  Scotland,  supports 

PerkinWarbeck.  236.  Mar- 
ries Marsaret,  daughter  of 
Henrv  VI  I,  237.  SUin  at 
Flodden,  243. 

V.  of  Stotland,  267. 

VI.  of  Scotland,  303, 

321,  323:  James  I.  of 
England,  reign  of,  345-361 . 

II.,  r^lgn  oi;  499-619. 

,   pretender,  Mrth,  508 

(fee  Pretender). 

Japan,  commercial  relations, 
717. 

Jaqueline  of  Luxemburg, 
marries  the  duke  of  Bed- 
ford, 205.  Marries  sir 
Ridu.d  Wood VI lie,  21. S. 

TefTersoii.  Thomas,  618,  620 

.Jeffreys,  chief  Justice,  495. 
Bloody  oil  cult,  502.  ('han- 
cellor,  503.  Maltreated  by 
populace,  513.    Dies,  ib, 

Jena,  Kittle  of,  670 

*•  Jenkins's  eurh,"  682. 

Jephson,  colonel,  444. 

Jerusalem,  taken  by  Saladin, 
119. 

Jems,  admiral  sir  John,  647. 
Defeats  the  Spanish  fleet, 
650  MA<le  earl  St. 
Vincent,  i6 

Tesuits,  conspiracies  of^  814. 
I^aw  against,  ib. 

Jews,  massacred,  120  Ban- 
ished, 155.  How  exclud«-d 
from  parliament,  700.  Ad- 
mitted, 721. 

Jom  of  Arc,  history,  202  $q. 
Oipiured  and  burnt,  206. 

of  FUnders,  172. 

of  N.ivarre,  second  wife 

of  Henry  IV.,  196 


793 

Katharine. 

Joan  of  Kent  (ms  Bocbsr). 

JoHH,  prince,  sent  to  Ir^and. 
119.  RebeU.  ib.  In- 
trigoes  against  hit  brother, 
king  Richard.  122.  King, 
relm  of;  132-140. 

IIh  king  of  France,  cap- 
tured by  the  Black  Prince 
at  Poltiera,  178. 180. 

John,  St.,  lord,  treasurer,  27h. 

,01I\-er,  solicitor-general, 

407.  Commissioner  to 
ScotUnd,435.  Eknbasbyto 
Hollsnd,  ib. 

,  HenryCi^r  Bolingbroke) 

Jones,  colonel,  takes  posses- 
sion of  Dublin,  etc,  429. 

,  Inigo.  519. 

,  J.  Gale,  679. 

.  Paul,  626. 

Joppa,  122. 

Joseph  I.,  emperor,  664. 

Jouitlan,  general,  646. 

Joyce,  comet,  seises  Charles 
I.,  416. 

Jx^AgcBt  brought  to  trial,  154. 
Displaced  by  James  II., 
604.  Made  Independent  of 
the  crown,  542. 

Judicature,  Supreme  Court 
of,  730. 

Judith  of  France^  43. 

.  sister  of  the  Conqueror, 

86,  89,  90. 

Julius  martyrdom  of,  16. 

II.,    pope,   fbrms    the 

Holy  League,  241. 

,  in.,  pope,  285. 

Junoi,  marshal,  673,  674. 

Junta  of  Seville,  674. 

Junto,  the,  559. 

Jury,  48,  75.  Aoooimt  of 
trial  by,  150.  Exempted 
from  fines,  475. 

Justice,  arbltrrnr  admtnis* 
tration  of,  under  Tudors, 

340. 

I  Justices,  itiiiersiit,  116, 127, 

146. 
Justiciary,  121.     Chief,  127. 

For  Ufe,  142. 
Juxtinian,  the  English,  title 

of  Edward  I.,  162. 
Jutes,  22. 
Juxon,  bishop   of  London, 

advice  to  Charles  I.,  385. 

Attends  his  execution,  424. 

Archbishop :  death,  468. 


KaUsch,  alliance  of,  686. 
Kara,  defence  ot  716. 
Katharine  of    France,    ss- 

Ktused  by  Henry  V.,  200. 
arries  sir  Owen  Tudor, 
201. 

of    Arragon,   marriea 

prinos  Arthur,  237.    Om- 
traoled  to  prince  Hsmy, 


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794 

KftthArina. 

lb.  Ifarries  bim.  341. 
Heniy  seeks  a  diToroe,  260. 
She  demure  to  the  oooit, 
261.  Divorced  by  Cran- 
mer,  267.    Death,  260. 

Kathariue  («cc  Parr). 

Keane,  sir  John,  718. 

K«{th,  sir  WiUiam,  321. 

Ken,  bishop.  606. 

KendaU  duchess  of  (baron- 
ess Schulenburg),  672, 676. 

Kenllworth,  Dictum  de,  14H. 

» Edward  U.  oonflned  at, 

166. 

Kenmure,  lord,  proclaims 
Pretender,  669.  Executed. 
670. 

Kennett,  lord  mayor,  pun- 
iiibed.626. 

Keut,  kingdom  ot  26. 

Kent,  earl  of,  joins  Isabella 
and  Mortimer,  166.  Exe- 
cuted by  Mortimer,  168. 

,  earl   of,  superintends 

the  execution  of  queen 
Mary,  322. 

,  duke  of,  dies.  696. 

Keppel,  earl  of  Albemarle, 
63 

- — ,  admiral,  624.  First 
lord  of  admiralty,  629. 

Kei,  Norfolk  rebel,  277. 

Kildare.  Fitzgerald  earl  of. 
sup,ort8  Simnol,  232. 

KiIlitH:iHnkie,  baUle,  626. 

Kilmarnock,  earl,  executed, 
694. 

Kimbolton,  lord,  sides  with 
the  commons,  389. 

King,  Anglo-Saxon,  elective, 
70.  De  facto^  allegiance 
to.  protected  by  law,  239. 
Statute  pleaded  by  Vane, 
467. 

King^  colonel,  moves 
Charles's  restoration,  461. 

King's  B^nch  Court,  127. 

College,  743. 

Kirke,  colonel,  inhumanity, 
602    At  Londonderry,  626. 

Kir -Patrick,  sir  Thonuui, 
assoAsinates  Comyn,  161. 

Kleber,  general,  666. 

Kloster  Seven,  convention  of, 
600. 

Knight-service,  126.  Abo- 
lished, 455 

Knox,  John,  294.  Insults 
queen  Mary,  296. 

L. 

La  Chaise!  Pire,  478.  479. 

La  Fayette,  marquis  de,  721. 

La  Hogue,  battle,  632. 

Lackland,  name  of  John,  132. 

Lahmen,  what,  75. 

Lake,  bi.sbop.  507. 

,  general  (aft.  lord),  de- 
feats Irish  rebels.  666. 
Takes  Delhi,  etc..  717. 


INDEX. 

Lambert,  general,  oppoeetl 
the  crowning  of  Oomwell, 
444.  Intrigues  against  I 
Richard  Cmmwell,  449.1 
Expels  Long  Parliament,  j 
460.  Excepted  ftom  In-, 
demnlty,  464.  Trial,  467. 1 
Reprieved,  46m. 

Lancaster,  Thomas,  earl  of, 
conspires  against  Gaves- 
ton,  163.  Makes  war  on 
Edward  U.,  164.  Exe- 
cuted, 166. 

^  earl   of;  guardian   of 

Edward  m.,  167. 

^— ^  John  of  Gaunt»duke 
ot  espouses  the  daughter 
of  Peter  of  Ckstile,  180. 
Sells  his  pretensions  to 
that  crown,  187.  Influ- 
ence over  Richard  IL,  ib. 
Dt-ath,  188.  Enoooraged 
WickliflV},  190. 

^1  Henry  duke  ot  wm, 

hivades  Ekigland,  188.  De- 
poses Richard  II.,  189. 
Selxes  the  crown,  ib. 
Genealogy,  ib.  (8te 
Hkkrt  iV.) 

Land  Act,  Irish,  727. 

LanlVanc,  aidiblsbop  of  Oui- 
terbury,  87,  92,  96. 

Langdale,  dr  Marmadnke, 
420,  421. 

Langhome,  executed,  486. 

Ungside,  battle*  303. 

Langton,  cardinal,  elected 
primate,  136,  136.  Dla- 
covers  Henry  I.'s  charter, 
ib. 
\  Lansdown,  battle,  401. 
!  Lansdowne,  marqaeas  of, 
president  of  ooundL  70S. 

Latimer,  bishop,  imprisoned, 
266.     Burnt,  287. 

Latin  words  in  EngUah,  14. 

Laud,  bishop,  872.  Arch- 
bishop of  Cantertmrr,  373. 
Attacked  at  Lambeth,  379. 
Impeached.  409.  Exe- 
cuted, ib. 

I^udeniale,   eart    ot  466, 
:     486. 

Law,  common,  326. 
I  Law's  scheme,  676. 
I  Lawrence,  general,  720. 
I  Laws,  how  made,  227. 
I  Lawson,   admiral,   declares 
for  Lons  Parliament,  460. 
,  League,  Oathollc,  311.    Go- 
I     vemed  by  duke  of  May- 
enne.  330.    Dissolution  of, 
331. 

and  Covenant,  Solemn, 

403.    American,  618. 

,  Holy,  241. 

Leake,  sir  John,  admii^l, 
554. 

Leeds,  battle,  34 

,  duke  of  (see  Diabj> 


Undsoy. 

Legse,Heni7,  duBceiloral 
ezcbeqper,  697,  605. 

Legion  of  Honour,  661. 

Legislation,  Anglo-Nonaaii, 
127. 

Leioester,  earl  ot  118. 

,    Sinoon  de   MontiNi, 

earl  ot  calls  a  meeting  of 
the  barona,  146.  Defieate 
Henry  III.  at  Lewe^  147. 
Suiumons  a  parliament, 
ib.  Slahi  at  Evesham.  148. 

,  Dudley,  earl  ot  298. 

Commissioner  to  try  Mary. 
304.  Favours  the  puritans, 
306.  Forms  an  association 
to  deftnd  the  queen,  314. 
Commands  in  Holland, 
316. 

Leinster,  kingdom  ot  116- 

Ldpeic  battle,  687. 

Leith,  evacuated  bj  the 
French,  296. 

Lenox,  earl  ot  200.  Ac- 
cuses the  queeu  of  Soots, 
306.    Regent,  307. 

,coanteesot  imprisoned, 

209. 

Lenthal,  speaker,  380.  Re- 
pairs to  the  army,  417. 
^>eaker  again,  441,  460. 

Leo  X.,  pope  after  Julius 
II.,  242.     Dies,  247. 

TMOffHd,  what,  74. 

Leofric,  earl  of  Merda,  60, 
63. 

Leofwin,  son  of  Godwin,  63, 
68. 

Leopold,  duke  of  Aostria, 
arresta  Richard  I.,  12S. 

,  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg 

(afterwards  king  of  tt>e 
Belgians),  axwort  (^prin- 
cess (3iarlo(te,  604. 

Leslie,  Scotch  general,  431. 
Defeated  at  Dunbar,  432. 

Levellers,  418.  Put  down 
by  Cromwell.  419. 

Leven,  earl  ot  commands  the 
Scotch  Covenantera,  404. 
Joins  lord  FalrCax,  405. 

Lever  Manr,  or  t!^  Grea. 
Light  (LacliM\  16. 

Uwes,  battle,  1-7  Jfiseot 
ib. 

Lexington,  tkiimlah  at,  ciO. 

Llewelyn,  prince  of  Walea, 
163.  Conquered  by  Ed* 
ward  I.,  ib. 

L<^y,  battle,  690. 

Ligo  lier,  lord.  688. 

Lllla,  saves  Edwin,  3. 

Limerick,  siege  ot  629  Pact, 
flcation  ot  ib. 

Lliiiogi  A,  massacre  of  181. 

Lincoln,  battle,  141 

Lincoln,  John,  earl  oC  siip> 
ports  Simnet  332. 

lindisfame,  38. 

Unde^,  earl  otoonuuaadi 


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JAoA 

the  expedltloii  to  RocbeUe, 
369.  OomnuiidBCaiarles's 
Army*  399,  400. 

tio&,  50. 

Liprandi,  general,  714. 

Lisbon,  entered,  676. 

L48le,8ir  Oeorge,  executed, 
421. 

,  Mrs.,  beheaded.  603. 

Attainder  reTersed,  627. 

Litany  in  English,  269. 

Literature,  Anglo-Saxon, 
76.  Under  Edward  III., 
226.  EUsabeth,  342.  The 
Stuarts,  518.  Since  ReTo- 
lution,  744. 

Littleton,  solicitor-general, 
372. 

Uturgy,  Edward  Vl.'s,  276. 
Revised,  279.  EUxabeth's, 
293.  English,  imposed  on 
Scotch  church,  376. 

Liverpool,  lord,  secretary  at 
war.  679.  Premier.  682, 
698. 

Uoyd,  bishop  of  St.  Asaph, 
606. 

TxMn,  Oeneral,  366. 

.the  amicable,  249. 

fiocke,  John,  516. 

Lollards.  190, 197. 

LoLUns  Urbicns,  rampart  ot 
11. 

London,  under  the  Romans, 
10.  Burnt,  «>.  RebuUtby 
Alfred,  46.  Besieged  by 
the  Northmen,  54.  Early 
commerce  of,  76.  Fortified 
l^  the  Oonqueror,  84. 
Bridge,  98.  Charter,  ib. 
Franchise  secured  by 
Magna  Carta,  137.  An- 
nual mayor,  140.  First 
stone  bridge,  ib.  Pesti- 
lence, 176.  Plague,  297. 
Sides  with  parliament,  398. 
Trained  bands,  400.  Val- 
our ot  402.  Overawed  by 
Cromwell's  army,  417. 
Plague.  461.  Fire  of:  463. 
Improved,  ib.  Charter 
surrendered,  492.  In  the 
Gordon  riots,  627.  Effea 
of  French  Revolution  at, 
643. 

Londonderry,  siege  of,  526. 
Relic vHl.  ib. 

Longsword.Wllliam,  natural 
son  of  Henry  D.,  120. 

Lopex,  Roger,  conspires  to 
poison  queen  Elizabeth, 
331. 

Lords,  House  ot  226. 

iusilc>'8,  566,  574. 

——lieutenant  of  counties, 
instituted,  277. 

Lqni^borongh,  lord  (see 
Wedderbum). 

lionis  VI.,  the  Fat,  101. 

«»    Vll,    alliance   with 


INDEX. 

Henry  H,  108.  Supports 
Becket,  112. 
Louis,  prince  (Louis  Via), 
son  of  PhUip  IL,  assists 
the  English  barons,  139. 
Evacuates  England,  141. 

VIU.,  takes  RocheUe. 

142. 

DL,  St.,  repulses  Henry 

nL,  143.  Qenerous  treaty 
with  him,  147.  Arbitrates 
between  hhn  and  the 
barons,  ib.    Death.  149. 

XI.,  assists  queen  Mar- 
garet, 214.  Forwards  War 
wick's  invasion.  216. 
Treaty  with  Edwani  IV., 
218. 

Xn.,   marries   Mary, 

oueen  of  Scots,  244.  Death. 

^XnL,364. 

XrV..  character,  466. 

Invades  the  Netherlands, 
ib.  Invades  Holland,  468. 
Revokes  Edict  of  Nantes, 
603.  Reception  of  James 
U,  613.  Lends  him  a 
fleet,  525.  Abets  bis  in- 
▼asion,  631.  Acknow- 
ledges the  Pretender,  543. 
Sues  for  peace.  558.  Death, 
668. 

XV.,   accession,    569 

Invades  Flanders,  588. 

XVI.,  aids  the  Ameri- 

can^  623.    Beheaded,  643. 

XVin.,  restored,  687. 

Flies,  690.    Restored,  692. 

PhUippe,  king  of  the 

French.  701.  Expelled, 
711. 

Louis,  prince  of  Baden,  552. 

Louis  Napoleon,  prince,  728 
and  note. 

Louisbourg.  taken,  689.  601. 

Lovat.  lord,  temporizing 
conduct,  590,  592  Inter- 
view with  Charles  Edward. 
593.  Captured.  594.  Exe- 
cuted. 595. 

Level,  lord,  insurrection  of, 
231.     Fate,  232. 

I.<owe,  Mr,  reduces  the  in- 
come-tax, 730. 

Loyalists.  American,  indem- 
nified, 633. 

Lucas,  sir  Charles, executed, 

421. 
Lucius,  king,  15. 
Ludlow,  colonel,  421,  434. 
Lundy,  526. 
Lupus,  bishop,  15. 
Luther,  MarUn.  247. 
Lyndhurst,  lord,  chancellor. 

698,  709. 
Lynedoch.   lord  (Oraham), 

victory  at  BarrosM,  681. 
Lynn,  disaster  of  king  John 

at,  140. 


795 

Mansfield. 
Lyons,  admiral   lord.   716. 

Expedition  to  Kertch,  etc., 

ib. 
Lytton,    lord,     viceroy    of 

India,  TSl. 


MacAdam.  739. 

Macbeth,  64. 

Macclesfield,  lord  chancellor, 
fined  for  peculation,  577. 

,  carl  of,  695. 

MacDonald,  Flora,  594. 

Maclan  of  Glencoe,  530. 

M'Inioeb,  brigadier,  669. 

Macintosh,  sir  James,  Vin" 
dicta  Gallica,  642. 

Mack,  general,  defeated  at 
Ulm,  666. 

MacMabon,  marshal,  727. 
President,  728. 

Madras,  609. 

Maeatae.  U.  12. 

Magdala,  stunned.  726. 

Magna  Oirta,  137.  Annulled 
by  Innocent  III..  139.  Con- 
firmations of;  144,  149, 
169. 

Maida,  battle,  670. 

Jfain.  the,  plot,  347. 

Maintenon,  madame  de,  557. 

Maitland,  captidn.  carries 
Napoleon  to  England,  692. 

M(^or-generals,  Cromwell's, 
441. 

Malcolm  I.,  king  of  Scotland, 
vassal  for  Cumberland,  49. 

II.,  reduced  by  Canute, 

60. 

III.  rCanmore),  64  §q. 

Assists  £dwin  and  Morcar 
affainst  William  I..  85. 
Marries  Margaret,  sister  of 
Edgar  Atheling.  87.  Sub- 
dued by  duke  Robert,  96. 

,  sir  John.  718. 

Malmetibury.  lord,  embassy 
to  Paris,  649. 

Malpbqupt.  brittle,  568. 

Malta,  taken  by  the  Frendi. 
652.    Surrendered,  657. 

Malt- tax,  occasions  riots  in 
Scotland,  577. 

Manchester,  earl  of,  takes 
Lincoln.  405.  Defeats 
Charles  at  Newbury,  406, 
407. 

.  earl  of,  lord  chamber 

lain,  454. 

Manchester,  riots  at,  696. 

Mancut  (coin),  42. 

Mandeville.  226. 

Mandubratius,  7. 

Manfred,  king  of  Sldly,  144. 

Manners,  518,  743. 

Manny,  sir  Walter,  172. 

M.insfleld,  lord  (Murray), 
chief  Jufttictf,  599,  615 
Library  burnt,  626. 


Digitized  by 


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796 


Mantel,  buret,  93. 
MMioliKtara,  FleciMi,  tn- 

trodiic«d    into    EhkUikL 

309.     British,  proUbited 

in  Fnnoe,  645.  T40. 
Manwaring,  impeached,  398. 
Mar's  insaireouon,  669. 
Mardi,  earl  of:  (Isi),  Rofer 

Mortimer,  created  1328  («ee 

Mortimer). 
-  (3rd),  Euinuin,  great-  ^ 

E'son,  married  Plii- 
hHreas  of  Lionel' 
>f  Clarence,  third  eon  ' 
of  Edward  UI.,  189  ftoU, ! 
MT,  and  Qen.  Table  H. 

—  (4th),  Roger,  eon,  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
killed  there,  189  note. 

(5th),  Edmmid,    son, 

riditfU  heir  after  Richard ' 
uT.  189  fiole.  Oonspiracy  I 
in  his  fiivoor,  198. 

(ethX  Edward,  son  of 

Blcbard  duke  of  York, 
who  waa  son  of  Anne, 
sister  and  heiress  of  Ed- 
mund   (fUth     earl),   211 

dmKDWAKDlY.). 

Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar 
.Stheling.  marries  Mal- 
colm Canmore,  86. 

^— ,  the  maid  of  Norway, 
156.    Queen  of  Scotland, 

—  of  France,  marries 
Henry  n.,  108. 

^  rister  of  Philip  the 

Fair,  marries  Edward  I., 
160. 

*—  of  AzOoo,  marries 
Henry  VI.,  206.  Gains 
the  battle  of  Wakefield, 
211.  Of  St.  Alban'H.  ib. 
Army  defalked  at  Towton, 

214.  Twice  defeated,  ib. 
iilacapes  to  Flanders,  ib. 
Reconciled  with  Warwick, 

215.  Lands  at  Weymouth. 
217.  Captured  at  Tewkes- 
bmy,  ib.    Death,  218. 

,    daughter    of    Henty 

VTT.,  marries  James  Iv 
of  Scotland.  238  Regent 
of  Scotland.  243. 

Maria  Theresa  of  Austria, 
surcession  oppotted.  586. 
Fifes  to  Hungary,  ib. 
Supported  by  English  par- 
liament, 586. 

• —  Louisa,  ardidochess, 
marries  Napoleon  I.,  679. 

Marian  exiles,  308. 

Markham,  sir  Qriffln.  plots 
against  James  L,  347. 

Marlboroui^,  duke  of,  ex- 

PKlition  to  Ireland,  528. 
lota  the  restoration  of 
James,  531.  Committed 
to   the   Tower,  <b.     In 


INDBX. 


Janmof 
amwdttloii,  53S. 
Mneral,  660.  CampaJgn, 
fb.  Dokedom,  66L  Un. 
popolarfty  and  inkrigoea 
with  the  Pretender,  <b. 
faampajgn,  ib.  Victorloos 
at  menheim,  562.  Qm- 
dndes  a  treaty  with 
ProsBla,  563.  (^mpalgn, 
664.  Prince  of  the  em* 
Dire,  ib.  Victorions  at 
Ramillies,  ib.  Further 
rewaida,  ib.  Accused  of 
extortion,  667.  Victorious 
at  Ondenarde,  ib.  At 
Malplaqnet,  558.  In- 
fluence deolinee,  559.  Of- 
fended, 569.  Absents 
himself  tnm  court,  561. 
Last  campaign,  562. 
Charged  with  peculation, 
ib.  Censured  by  the 
commons,  563.  Retires 
to  Antwerp,  ib.  Returns, 
567.  Reinstated  as  cap- 
tain-general, etc.,  io. 
Sends  a  loan  to  the  Pre- 
tender, 668.  Death,  676. 
Outracter,  ib. 

Marlborou^  Charles,  2nd 
duke,  expedition  to  Cher- 
boaig,60l. 

,    duchess  of,   governs 

Anne,    650.     Decline  of 
her  Influence,  669. 

Marmont,  marshal,  68S. 

Marquess,  title  of,  227. 

Marriage  (feudal),  128. 

Act,  Royal  617. 

Marseilles,  siege  of,  S48. 

Marston  Moor,  battle,  406. 

Mary  de  Bohun,  wMb  of 
Heury  IV.,  196. 

,   daughter    of    Henry 

Vn.,  238.  Marries  Loois 
XIL,  244.  Marries  Bran 
don,  duke  of  Suflblk,  ib. 

Makt  I.,  daughter  of  Henry 
VIII.,  contracted  to  the 
dauphin,  245.  To  (Varies 
v.,  247.  Rejects  the 
Lltargy,  279.  Retires 
into  Norlblk,  282.  Queen, 
reign  oi;  282-290. 

,  queen  of    Scots,.  268. 

Sent  to  France,  >?6-  As 
sumes  the  arms  o*"  Eng- 
land, 294.  Returns  to 
Scotland,  296.  Corre- 
sponds with  Elisabeth, 
»8.  Marries  Damley, 
ib.  Bears  James,  300. 
Marries  Bothwell,  302. 
Surrenders  at  Oarberry 
Hill,  ib.  Confined  at 
Loohleren  oasUe,  t5.  Re- 
rigns  the  erown,  303. 
iScapea  to  England,  304 
Oonaenta   to  a  trial,   ib. 


Oarrfcd  to  Bo^on,  ft 
BeftKS  to  piead,  396. 
Removed  to  Tutbary,  396 
Entertains  NorfoUc's  pro- 
posals, ib.  Party  in  her 
niTonr,  ib.  BemoTed  to 
Coventry,  ib.  Renews  her 
oorrespwidepce  with  Nor- 
folk. 809.  Implicated  in 
Bablnffton's  cooniracy. 
818.  Conveyed  to  rbther^ 
him  castle.  319.  Trial. 
ib.  Condemned,  320.  Kxe- 
oation  and  character,  323 

Mart  n.,  daughter  of 
James  II.,  marries  prince 
of  Orange,  473.  Crown 
setUed  on,  516.  Reign, 
615-633.    Death,  633. 

Maaham.  Mrs.,  ingratiates 
herself  with  queen  Aime. 
569. 

Massachusetts  Bay,  cokioy 
planted,  376. 

Maawna,  666.  679,  680,  68L 

Masses,  private,  abolished, 
276. 

Massey,  dean,  606. 

Matndt,  wife  of  the  Con- 
queror, crowned,  85. 

,  duighter  of  Makolm 

III.,  marries  Hennr  I..  99. 

^— ,  daughter  ci  Eustace, 
oountof  Boulogne,  marries 
Stephen,  103. 

,  daughter  of  Henry  L, 

married  to  the  emperor 
Henry  V..  102.  Marrfea 
Qeolmj  of  Ai^on.  ib. 
Appotaited  HeniVs  suc- 
cessor, ib.  Invadea  Eng- 
land. 104.  Acknowledged 
as  queen,  106.  Flight,  tb. 
Retires  into  Normandy, 
ib. 

Maud  (aei;  Matilda). 

Maurice,  bishop  of  Loodoii, 
98. 

,  prince.  399,  40L 

Maxhnian,  emperor,  11. 

Maxhnilian,  emperor,  aervea 
under  Henry  Vm.,  243. 
Death,  946. 

Maximua,  usurper,  12. 

Maynard,  sergeant.  522. 

Maynooth  college,  endowed, 
709. 

Maxarin,  cardinal,  44X 

MaBtail,722. 

Meal-tab  plot,  486. 

Meatb.  kingdom  of,  116. 

Mechanics'  InsUtutes,  748. 

Medina,  sir  Solomon,  tttcnatja 
Marlboroufch,  562. 

Medina  Sidonia,  dnkeof.oaB- 
manda  thf  Armada.  83T. 

Meeanee,  battle,  719. 

Meer  Jafller,  637 

Melbourne,  lord,! 


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MeUitus. 
Ury.    702.    Prraiier,  106. 
Eapported   by   (yCunoell, 
906.  708    Resigns,  20a 

iCellitus  bishop,  32. 

Melvil  dr  Robert,  321. 

.  sir  Andrew,  322. 

Melvill,  sir  James,  evidence 
respecting  Uotbwell.  302. 

Melville,  lord,  charged  with 
peculation,  66S.  6«6. 

Mendoca,  Spanish  wmhama- 
dor.  318. 

Menon.  general,  66S,  669. 

MenschikofT,  prince,  714. 

.Merda.  22.  The  march,  28. 
HiHtory  of,  38. 

.Meres,  sir  Thomas,  speaker, 
483. 

Mesne  lords,  126. 

Methodists.  743. 

Middle  8axon^  or  Middlesex, 
27. 

Middlettox.  earl  of.  treasurer, 
inipeacliod,  360. 

Milan  Drcret',  673. 

Millennarians,427.  Conspire 
agaiiuit  (?rumwell,  446. 

Milton,  516.  518. 

Miiiden.  battle.  602. 

Minorca,  taken  by  Stan- 
hopp.  55H.  IJy  the  French. 
59H.  RcHtored  to  Great 
Rritaln.  608.  Lo;^  629. 
Reuiken,  663.  Given  up 
by  pence  of  Amiens,  660. 

Minute  men.  61  a 

Mirnbeau,  bot<ieged,  133. 

J/ueof  Lewe«,  147. 

Misprision  of  treason,  258 
and  note. 

Modena,  Mary  of,  marries 
Jamies,  duke  of  York,  471. 

MoMart,  bcven  men  of,  5«9. 

Mompesson,  bir  Giles,  im- 
peached, 356. 

Muna  (AngleK'y^,  9. 

Monarchy  abolished,  426. 

MonuKtcries  suppressed,  261, 
26.1,  292. 

Monckton,  general.  607. 

Monk,  general,  432.  Suc- 
ceMes  in  Scotland,  435. 
Commands  under  Blake, 
436.  Defeats  Tromp,  440. 
IV<>clulm«  Uiclmrd  Crom- 
wi'll  in  Scotland,  449.  Pro- 
t(^ts  against  the  expulsion 
of  the  purliamcnt.,  450. 
Kntpnliondon.tb.  SeiidHa 
meiwage  to  Charles  II.,  451 . 
Meett»  the  king  at  Dover. 
452.  CrfaUHl  duke  of 
Albemark',454  ($ee  Albe- 
marle). 

Monmouth,  birthplace  of 
Henry  V.,  196. 

,  duke  of,  483.    RoutA 

the  Scotch  Covenanters, 
486.  Triumphal  pn>ces- 
•fon,      493.        Coiihpircs 


IKBEX. 

against  the  duke  of  TorX, 
ib.  His  prqjects,  ib.  Ab- 
sconds, 494.  Recalled, 
496.  Banished,  ib.  In- 
vasion, 600.  Assumes 
the  title  of  king,  601. 
Defeat  and  flight,  ib.  Exe- 
cution, 502. 

Monopolies,  339. 

Montacute,  lord,  twice  de- 
feats queen  Margaret,  214. 
Deserts  Edward  IV..  216. 

,  lord,  executed,  264. 

Montague,  answers  sergeant 
Heyle,  340. 

,     admiral,    443,    461. 

Created  lord  SaiMlwicb,464. 
Killed.  468. 

,  ambassador  at   Paris, 

Informs  against  Danby, 
481. 

,  sir  James.  559. 

Montcalm,  marquis  de,  go- 
vernor of  Canada,  603, 

Monteith,  sir  J.,  betrays 
Wallace.  161. 

Montenegro,  736. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  earl  of 
lieicester.  145  («e«  Leices- 
ter, earl  of). 

.  count  de,  claims  Brit- 
tany, 172. 

Montmorency  .constable,  297, 
308. 

Montrose,  earl  of,  victories, 
410.  Routed.  412.  De- 
feated and  hanged,  431. 

Moore,  commodore,  665. 

,  gewrul  sir  John,  676. 

Invades  Spain,  a>.  Killed, 
676. 

.Morcar,  earl  of  Northtmi- 
berland,  66.  Proclaims 
Edgar  iEthellng,  82.  Sub- 
mits, H3,  84.  Rebels,  86. 
Joins  Hereward,  88. 

Mordaunt,  earl  of  Peter- 
borough, 522. 

,  general  sir  John,  600. 

More,  sir  Thomas,  chan- 
cellor, 252.  Resigns,  256. 
IMuses  the  oath  tothesnc- 
cefttion,  258.  Executed, 
260. 

,  Roger,  rebels,  387. 

Moreau.  general,  646,  667. 

Morgf^i-(/\fu,  morning  gifts 
(queen's  dowry),  71. 

Morley,  Mrs.,  assumed 
name  of  qneen  Anne,  550. 

Moriier,  marshal.  664,670. 

Mortimer's  Cross,  battle,  21 1. 

Mortimer,  Roger,  intrigues 
with  queen  Isabella,  165. 
Puts  Edward  II.  to  death, 
166.  Surprised  and  exe- 
cuted by  Edward  111., 
1 69.    {See  March,  earl  of) 

Mortmain,  (Statute  of,  153. 

Morton,  bishop  of  Ely,  222. 


797 

Napoleon. 

Archbishop  of  Ganterimry, 
231. 

Morton,  dumcellor  of  Scot- 
land, 300.  303. 

Morville,  Hugh  de.  ll& 

Moscow,  entend  by  Napo- 
leon, 684.    burnt,  ib. 

Moontcashel,  lord,  defeated 
and  captured,  526. 

Mounteagle,  lord,  warned  of 
the  gunpowder  plot,  349. 

Mowbray,  eari  of  Notting- 
ham, rebebi  against  Henry 
IV.,  194.    Executed,  ib. 

Municipal  Reform  Act,  706. 

Mnnro,  sir  Hector,  639. 

Mnnster,  kingdom  of,  116. 

Marat,  king  of  Naples,  674. 

Murray,  eon  of;  299.  Regent, 
303.  Submits  to  Elhsabeth, 
305.    Assastinated,  307. 

,    lord    George,    Joins 

Charles  Edward,  590,  592. 
59a    Escapes,  594. 

Muscovy,  trade  with,  290. 

Mnsgrave,  sir  Philip,  420. 

Mutiny  at  Splthead  and  the 
Nore,  650. 

Act,  origin,  624. 


Namnr  taken,  636. 

Nuites,  edict,  revoked,  603. 

Nontwich,  battle,  405. 

Napier,  admiral  sir  Charles, 
714. 

1  general    sir  Charleo. 

ouoquers  Scinde,  718. 

,  sir  Robert  (lord  N.), 

storms  Magdalo,  726. 

Naples,  taken  by  the  French, 
653. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  besk^es 
Toulon,  644.  Threatens 
hivasion  of  Emdand,  651. 
Expeditkm  to  E^ypt,  662. 
In  Palestine,  664.  Returns 
to  France,  655.  First  con- 
sul, ib.  Addresses  a  letter 
to  George  IIL,  657.  Power 
and  magnificence,  661.  In- 
sults our  ambas.sador,  664. 
Emperor  Napoleon  I.,  665. 
King  of  Italy,  666.  Occu- 
pies Vienna,  ib.  Seises 
Portugal,  673.  And  Spain, 
674.  Enters  Vienna,  678. 
Marries  Maria  Louisa,  t6. 
Ebccommunlcated,  ib.  Ex- 
peditkMi  to  Russia,  683. 
Defeat  in  Germany,  686. 
Abdicates,  688.  Lands  at 
Cannes,  689.  Campaign  in 
Belgium,  690.  Defpat  at 
Waterloo.  692.  Flight  on 
board  the  Belleropkan,  ib. 
Conveyed  to  St.  Helena* 
693.    Death,  in  1821.  ib. 

II.  (nominal),  692. 

III.,  emperor,  713.    A*- 


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4M.    Be- 


798 

tenpi  to  wuMBiMrte,  730. 
DecUrra  war  witb  Pnmia, 
7:27.    Taken  priacmer,  ib. 
De&th,  728. 
NiqioWn,    prince 

(IM  Louis  NapolcMi). 
Naflebj.  battle.  411. 
NaUonal  debt,  S17,  684v 

722,  741. 
Natl,  queen  Mury'i 

320. 
Navarino,  buttle.  ••». 
Xavarre.  king  of,  267. 
Navarrete,  battle,  IHO. 
Navigation  lawa, 
{Haled,  711,  747. 
Njivy,    increase    ot    uiMlMr 
Klisabeih,  341.   Dndertbe 
Sttiarts,  517. 
NelM>n,  at   siege   of  Galvi, 
647.    At  St  VincenU  650. 
Victory  at  Aboukir,  653. 
Miuin  a  peer,  ib.    Caplores 
I/i^hom,    ib.     Victory  at 
Co|Mnbagpn,      65M.      At- 
tempts    Boulogne,     659. 
Cha8«t  Um    French  fleet, 
667.     At  Trafalgar,  668. 
Hoatb,  ib.    Funeral,  669. 
Neutrality,  armed,  627,  667. 
Neville'.-*  Cross,  battle,  176. 
Neville,  e«rl  of  Westmore^ 

land.  194. 
Newark.   Scotch  Anny   M, 

413. 
Npwbum.  battle.  379. 
Newbury,  battles,  4«2.  406. 
Newcastle,  seized  by  Cove- 

nant«r«,  380,  406. 
NewcA.«<tle,  marquess  of, 
forms  a  league  for  Charles 
I.,  400.  Attempts  Hull, 
402  Retreats,  406.  Re- 
tires to  the  continentf  406. 

duke  of,  secretary,  682, 

6H6.    Prime  minister.  §07. 
Vdcillating    policy,     098. 
Itettifcns,  599.   Returns,  tb. 
Resigns,  607. 
Newfoundland^      eokmined. 

354. 
Newport,  riots  at.  708. 
N<'wspj»|)ers,  519,  534. 
Newton    Butler,  battle   of. 

526 

New  York,  acquired   flrwn 

the  Dutch,  464. 
Nov,  marshal,  690. 
Niiipira,  talcen,  602. 
Nicholas,  sir  Edward,  secre- 

Ury,  454. 
.   lar,  qtiarrels  with  the 

Porte,  713.    Death,  715. 
NiRhtingale,  Florence,  716. 
Nile,  battle  of  the.    53. 
Nimefruen,  peace  of,  473. 
Nithisdale,  lord,  escape  flpom 

the  Tower.  .'>7l. 
Nivelle,  iKittle  at  the.  066 
Noailles.  mombal,  586. 


KM4ts>    EaglM»  eofHlHkm| 

of;  125.    Segrees  of,  saf}     | 
Non  ■JdrciBSf ,  vote  of,  420. 

Repealed.    At.    Renewed. 

412. 
N<ocon<»rmiB»a.  MHa)  laws 

agaln^A,  sospended  tf  pro- 
clamation, 468. 
Nonjurors.   624.    DepriTed. 

629. 
Mon«rew*BUnt»*.  oath  of,  466. 
Nortolfc,  InMH  reetinn  fn.  277 
Norfotky  duke  of.  quells  an 
i— uneaten,  2&0.  An- 
other. 263.  Arrests  Crom- 
well. 266.  Prime  minister. 
267.  Coanwudo  agahin 
the  Scota,  26H.  Attaint 
and  oarmw  cmape,  271. 
Heatored,  284. 
— ,  duke  of,  oommis- 
siuner  to  try  the  queen  of 
Scots,  994^  Propoaeenmr- 
riage  lo  her,  306.  Com- 
mitled,  but  relewed.  ib. 
Conspires  wMi  Alva,  310. 
Executed^ift. 

Nonnanby^  marquess  of, 
privy  aeaU  549. 

Normandy  (Newtria).  seked 
by  the  Northmen.  41.  Uis- 
toiy  of,  79  N«me«  when 
first  osMlrHO.  Reduced  by 
Henry  I.,  100.  I^^tetion 
im*  127.  Retinited  to 
France^  134.  Lower,  sub- 
dued by  Henry  V.,  199. 

Normans,  influence  of,  fn 
Knglai«l,92.  Character  of 
tlK,r  81.  liHfigaage,  «b. 
Amalgamate  with  the 
Saxons*  132  and  note. 

Norris,  Mr  John,  329.  Com- 
mands in  Ireland.  388. 

,    sir    John,    admiral, 

573. 

North,  ln<d.  chancellor  of 
exche<nier,  919.  Prime 
rohiisier,  916.  McAsure 
respecting  tea,  A.  *t- 
tenipts  to  condliate  tie 
Americaitt*  623.  Resigns, 
•129.  Seoctary.  635.  I)i^ 
milled,  ib.  RegulaUng 
Act.  637. 

North  American  colonies,  de- 
■oribedf  613.  Discontents 
in.  ib^  616.  War  breaks 
out  foi,  619. 

y«rth  Brikm  paper,  607.  No. 
Forty-flve,  910.611. 

North  Foreland,  battte  off, 
462. 

Northamptoriv  oomidl  of,  112. 

.  battle,  219. 

Northcote,  rir  Stafford,  731. 

Northington*  ford  chancellor, 
614. 

Northmen  (Danes,  ett  t. 
Manaers,   ib.    Selxo 


Offlo6r8. 
maiKty,  ib.    Ravage  Eng* 
land.  42. 

NorthumbarUnd,  Percy,  earl 
of.  rises  agahist  Henry  IV., 
193.  194. 

.  Dudley,  earl  of  War- 
wick. become»  duke  of  (see 
Warwick),  2S0.  Ruins 
Somerset,  ib.  Attempts 
to  alter  the  succession,  ib. 
His  fhll,  283. 

,  Percy,  earl  of,  conspires 

for  the  queen  of  Scuts, 
306.     Kxecnted.  316. 

,   l>Tcy,  earl   of,    sides 

with  the  commons,  389. 

Nerthumbria,  kingdom  of. 
2«,  34. 

Norway.  Maid  of.  155. 

Norwegians  in  Scutland.  41. 

Nolt.  gineral,  718. 

Nottifigham.  royal  standard, 
etetud  at,  394. 

castle,  Isabella  and  Mor- 
timer seised  at,  168. 
Burnt,  703 

.    earl     of.    chancellor, 

471.  Secretary.  522,  550. 
Bill  to  prevent  occa- 
sionul  ct<nformity,  562. 
Presklent  of  cimndl.  967. 

Kovtl  di*$eiiin,  assise  of, 
150. 

Noy.  attorney-general,  372. 

Nnndo,  napaC  recri>xd  by 
James  ll.,  506. 

O. 

Oak,  royal,  433. 

Gates,  Titus,  hiatorr.  477. 
Pensioned,  48«.  Kvidmoe 
against  Stafford.  489. 
I-  tned  and  imprisoned,  496. 
Fined,  whipped,  and  pil- 
loried, 500.  Pensioned, 
527. 

Oaths,  judicial,  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  76. 

.parliamentary,  721. 

O'Brien.  Smith.  rebi-lUfm. 
711.   Transpr-rted,  ib, 

O'Cbnnell.  Daniel,  698.  Or- 
gHiices  Catholic  Associa- 
tion, ib.  Returned  for 
Cbre.  700.  Advocatrs  re- 
peal of  the  Union,  703. 
Supports  lord  Melbourne. 
706.  His"Tail.- 709.  Con- 
victed of  sediUoo,  ib. 
Death.  710. 

OctA,  son  of  Hengest.  35. 

Odin  (see  Woden) 

Odo,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, his  brutality  to 
Elgtva,  52. 

,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  84. 

Conspires  against  Ruf^ 
95. 

Ofr.«,  khig  of  Mercia,  38. 

Ofllc*-T«,  council  of,  44&   Ro> 


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atom  the  Lons  Parlla- 
wms^ib.    lCxpeliiH.450. 

(yHan,  genenl,  644. 

OUf  Off  Norway,  farandes 
Engiuid,54. 

OldcasUe,  ilr  J«bn  Qord 
Gbbham),  h«adB  the  Lol- 
Urdt,  117.    Exc^mted,  A. 

*'  Olive  Bnneb,"  tbe  Ameri- 
ran  petition,  920. 

Oltmitzo,  battle  ot  IIZ. 

OnurPaaha,  713. 

0'Neale,iir  Phelim,  rebels, 
387. 

Onalow,  tpeakpr^  hia  addiess 
to  qaeen  Elisabeth,  346i 

Opdam,  Dotch  admiral,  4Ct. 

Orange.  William  L^prlMce 
of,  founds  tba  Datch  re- 
piiblio,  311.  A  iiiMiiiiMted, 
316. 

.  William  n.,  4M  m(e. 

,    William  IIU  prtK* 

of,  469.  Maniee  prtnoraa 
Mary,  473.  Invitatioa  to 
KngUnd,  60».  Dedara- 
Uon,  611.  Lands  in  Tor. 
bay,  ib,  Marches  to 
London,  513.  Snnmions  a 
oonveniion,  &14.  Brilisb 
crown  settled  on,  61ft  {tee 
William  IIL). 

,  prince  of,  $4%. 

,  prince  of,  at  Qoatre- 

bras,690.  Wounded,  etS. 

Orangemen,  €5f  . 

Ordeals,  76.   Abolished,  12B. 

Ordovioes,  9. 

Orford,  earl  of  (RaneU\  S3f 
(Me  Russell). 

i$ee  Walpole> 

Orkney,  countpfw  of,  539. 

Orlean^  besiof;ed  by  RngHsh, 
202.  Relievod  by  Joan 
of  Arc,  2«3. 

,    Maid    of,    903    (fee 

Joan  of  Are). 

,  duchess  oi,  ne^odjrtes 

treaty  of  Dover,  466. 

,  duke  of,  regent*  692. 

Ormpsby,Ji»tfc4airy  of  Seoi" 
land,  160. 

Ormond,  marniMB  of^  lord* 
lieutenant  of  Trebnd,  4«4. 
Delivers  Dublin,  etc.,  to 
parliament,  414,  419. 
Procenls  to  France,  429. 
Successes  and  reverses  In 
In'land,  ib.  Leaves  it, 
430.  Conspires  against 
Cromwell,  446.  Created 
a  duke,  464.  Recalled 
from  Ireland,  504. 

,  duke  of;  attacks  Vigo. 

660.  Lord-Ue«teniint  of 
Ireland.  560.  Comanands 
in    Flanders,    663.       Im 

Koclied  and  attainted,  66R. 
vades  England.  670. 
Ortbes,  battle  of,  687. 


(/Rruan,  prfnco  of  Biiitej, 

116. 
Osbonwv  sir  Tbomai^  471 

(wt  Danby). 
Osman  PMhA,  las: 
Ostorivs,  %  (MS  8eapula> 
Oswald,  king  of  XorHrambrla 

and  fraCMNiMa,  Si.  Slain, 

lb. 
Oswy,  king  af  Nerthmnbria 

and  UrsimiMa,  34. 
Otho,  king  of  Qfcece,  <9». 
Otterbounw,  kattle,  18t. 
Oiide,  annezati<»koi;  lift. 
Oodenaide,  battle,  667. 
Overbury,  sir  Thomas^  ad« 

vises  Oirr,  358.   Ptoisomd, 

ib. 
Oxford,  ProvliioBS  oi;  145. 

Annvlled,     147.      Plurlia- 

roent  aaenbM  at,  363. 

Occap4cd  by   Charlea  I.. 

408.    Pfcrttament  at,  4<H. 

Invested  by  Fairfkx,  410. 

Parliament  at,  461,  490. 

Its  violence,  490. 
UniTersity,  47.    Discree 

of.    condemned    bf    the 

peers,  660. 
Oxford,    De  Vere,  earl   of, 

treats  with  James  II.,  512. 
,    Harley,  carl   of  (see 

Harley),     treasorar,    563. 

Dismissed,      666.        Im- 
peached  and  committed, 

668.    Interview  with  Or- 
mond, ib. 


Pack,  alderman,  444. 

PaiM,  ThomaSk  tM,  •4S. 

Pate,  EngtM  af  tke,  Jeia 
the  Irish  rebellion,  387. 

Palllscr,  sir  Hugh,  ootart- 
mariial  <io,  624. 

PalmerstMi,  lord,  679.  Sec- 
retary at  war,  69».  Foreign 
secretary,  702.     Premier, 

716.  Resigns,  721.  Second 
ministry,  722, 724.  Death, 
7^ 

Fampluna,  taken,  6S6. 

Pandulf,  papal  envoy,  139. 

Papists,  fire  of  London  as- 
cribed Uv  463. 

Parts,  evacuated  bgr  the  CkifN 
lish.  206.  Vtmn  or(l763> 
668.  Entered  by  allies, 
6H8,692.  Peace  of  (17R2\ 
633,  (1814),   693,   (1866), 

717.  hivMted  by  the  Ger- 
mans, 728. 

Parker,  arehblirftop  of  Canter- 

bory,  293,315. 
,  bishop  of  Oxford,  pml- 

dent  of  Magdalen  Cbn»ge, 

606w 
,  sir  Hyde,  admiral,  639, 

668. 

,  RIehafd,  ■ratiiMer,f5l. 


79& 


t^l  lament,  Angi»llnfi sn, 
126.  When  assembled.  A. 
Mad,  145.  Leicester's,  148. 
Advance  under  Edward 
lU..  183.  Progre8soi;936. 
DivWoB  into  tisa  honses, 
227.  Long,  389.  Act  for 
triennial,  393.  SM^eded 
Igr  army,  417.  Proposals 
to  the  king;  4I9l  Bwmp, 
422.  Dlsadssed  by  Crom- 
watl,438.  Ifareftsae'c.  439. 
Restored  ^  the  ottoeTB, 
46«  BxpeOed,  ib.  Re- 
stored, 461.  Renovnoes 
mltilarv  authority,  466. 
Act  for  triennial,  533. 
Act  for  septewnial,  671. 

,  Scotch,  meets  Edward 

I.  at  MorhauK  16C 

» Irish,  indepeadenee  ac- 
knowledged, 630. 

Parma,  duchess  of;  govtms 
the  Netherlands,  39*. 

,  d«ke  of,  commands  tbe 

Spanish  army  of  invasion, 
327,328. 

Parr,  Katharine,  marries 
Henry  Vllln  3«8.  WO. 
Marries  hmtSeymoar,  276. 

Parry,  design  to  assassinate 
4fneen  EUsabeih,  316. 

Parsons,  Jesuit,  316. 

Fhrtica,  at  ovtbreak  of  cfrA 
war.  397. 

Purtitlo*  treaty  (Spanish^ 
first,  587.  Second,  640. 
DiMpprovedby  pariiaawnt, 
543. 

P^^wal  n,  pope,  101. 

Passaras  action  oil;  674. 

Patrick,  St.,  116. 

Paul,  czar,  657.  As— si 
nated,95e. 

Panl's,  St.,  32. 

Paulinus,  Suettmlos,  •. 

,  archMsbop  of  York.  34. 
pemioaary,  43C. 
baUle,  24g 


Pavia,  baUle,  249. 

Pecquigny,  treaty  of,  21  a 
Vlokted  by  Louis  XI..  219. 

Peel,  rir  Robert,  695.  Home 
secretary.  697.  Resigns, 
998.  Returns,  700.  Intro- 
duces Catholic  Relief  Bni. 
ib.  Resigns,  702.  Short 
premiership,  796.  Premier 
agafai,  79».  Graduated 
eom^nties,  ib.  Income- 
tax.  i6.  Repeals  corn-law^ 
710.  Resigns,  711.  Deatb» 
ib, 

Peerage,  original  rl^t  oi;  by 
tenure,  226.  By  wrtt,<o. 
By  letters  patent,  ib. 

Peers,  house  ot  abolished, 
42&,  Restored  bv  Clrom- 
well.  445.  Resmne  their 
anthority,  452.  C^catton 
of  twelve  new.  569. 


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800 

pplagliu.  beresj  of,  16. 

Velham,  flrat  lord  of  treasiiry, 
687.  NegodAtM  with  Fftt, 
088.    Death,  597. 

i  ^Unier,  genenU  716. 

Peltier,  convicted  of  Ubelling 
Lonaparte.  663. 

Pembroke,  WiUiam.  eari  of. 
a  fotinder  of  English 
liberty.  136.  Protector,  140. 
RencwA  Mitgna  Carta,  141 . 

.  Aymw  de  Val(>nce,oarl 

of.  defhits  Bruce.  162.  Oon> 
^ires  aKa'nat  Gaveatun, 
163. 

,  Jasper  Tudor,  earl  of, 

201.211. 

.  Herbert,  earl  oC  sent  to 

Netherlands,  289. 

Penda,  king  of  Mert-ia,  34. 

Pendereils,  the.  conceal 
Charles  II..  433. 

Pendrtigon,  title,  30. 

Peninsular  war.  674.  685. 

Penn.  admiral,  436, 440.  Ood- 
qoers  Jamaica,  443. 

,  WlUlara.  51H. 

Pennsylvania,  618. 

Pepys.  secretary,  518. 

Perceval,  Spencer,  chancellor 
of  exchequer,  671.  Pre- 
mier, 679.  Assassinated, 
682. 

Percy,  earl,  defeats  David 
Bruce,  175 

,    feudn    with   Douj^lns. 

187.  Supp<»rls  WicklifTe. 
190.     Kebelts,  193. 

Percy,  Thomas,  in  the  gun- 
powder plot,  348,  350. 

Perkins,  sir  William,  exe- 
.  cuu^,  5.16. 

Perrers,  Alice,  181. 

Perw-culion  under  Mary,  287. 

Peter,  bi^^hop  of  Winchester, 
Justiciary,  142. 

Uie  OiieU  of  Castile, 

restored  by  Black  Prince, 
180. 

the  Hermit,  96. 

II.    of  P(*rtugal,  Joins 

the  Grand  Alliance,  551. 

Peterborough,  earl  of,  ex- 
pedition to  Spain,  554  («e« 
Mordaunt). 

"  Peterloo,"  695. 

Peter's-peiice,  37. 

Peters,  Hugh,  executed,  455. 

PeU'fhburg,  St.,  treaty  of,  658. 

Petition,  right  of,  228. 

of  Kight,  307,  394. 

Petre,  l(»r(l.  impeached,  490. 

Philadelphia,  congress  at, 
619.     I'aken,  622. 

Phillbert,  duke  of  Savoy, 
289. 

Philip  II.  of  France,  supports 
prince  Richnrd,  119.  Ac- 
companies him  in  crusade, 
121.    Quito  Palestine.  122.  < 


INDEX. 

Invades  Nonnandy,  <b. 
Supporta  Arthur  of  Brit- 
tany. 132,  133.  Condemns 
king  John,  ib.  Regains 
Normandy.  Aqjon,  etc, 
134.  Prepares  to  invade 
EngUnd,  136.  O^ol^l  ^ 
the  pope.  ib.  Victory  at 
Boovines,  136.  Assfsta 
the  English  barons,  139. 

PhiUp  lU.,  the  Hardy,  164. 

IV.,    the    Fair,    164. 

atea    Edward  L  as  his 
167. 
VI.,  170.    Peace  with 
Edward  III.,  171. 

Philip,  archdnke,  detained  by 
Henry  VII.,  238. 

PhlUpII.of  Sp«fai,propo«^  to 
Mary,  285.  Ifarriage,  286. 
Protects  princess  Eliiabeth, 
287.  Political  views,  289. 
Proposes  to  marry  Elisa- 
beth, 292.  Fomento  a 
rebellion  in  Ireland,  312. 
Prepares  to  invade  Eng- 
land, 3C5.  Again.  332. 
Di^th,  333. 

— —  V.of  Spain.dnkeof  An- 
jou,  i4>poinled  to  Spanish 
throne,  640,  563.  Driven 
fVom  Madrid,  564.  Offer  to 
relinquish  Spain.  658.  De- 
fatted, ib.  Hostile  designs 
of,  673.  Accedes  to  Quad- 
ruple Alliance,  ib. 

Phlllphaugh,  bottle.  412. 

lliilippa,  queen  (166),  inter- 
cedes for  burghers  of 
CaUis,  176. 

Philippine  IslandN  token.  607. 

Phoeniciara,  trade  for  tin  wKh 
Britoin.  2. 

Pichegm,  general,  646. 

iiekerinff,  in  popL4]  plot, 
478.     Executed.  482. 

Picton,  general.  G90.  Killed. 
692. 

nets,  12,  17. 

Picts'  wall.  11. 

IMetlmont,  united  to  France, 
G61. 

Pierre,  Eustace  de,  176. 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  the.  376. 

Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  262. 

Pilnitz,  conference  at.  643. 

Pinkie,  battle,  276. 
itt,  William.  583  («a 
Chatliam,  earl  of). 
— ,  William,  the  younger, 
enters  public  lire,  630.  Ad- 
vocates parliamenUry  re- 
form, lb.  Chancellor  of  ex- 
chequer, C31.  Prime  minis 
ter,  635.  Indto  bill,  ib 
Financial  reform,  ib 
Commercial  treaty  with 
France,  ib.  Reform  bill 
rejected,  636.  Speech  on 
impesriiroent  of  Hastings, 


Potteries. 
•40.  Aasiats  the  French 
k>yaUflta,  648.  Abandons 
parliamentary  reform,  666. 
Advocates  catholic  eman- 
dpatiun,  667.  Letter  to 
Oeorce  III.,  ib.  Rcrigns, 
ib.  Premter  agafai,  664. 
Pnpuhulty,  ib.  Death  and 
piibUc  funeral,  669. 

Pitt,  lady  Hester,  created 
baroneas  Chatham,  607. 

Pius  v.,  pope,  ezoommoni- 
catcs  Elisabeth.  307. 

VII.,  pope,  carried  to 

SavQna»   678.       Restored. 
688. 

Ptacemen.  tfaeir  election  to 
parliament  rrguUted.  642. 

Plague,  yellow.  35.  Gmt. 
(^London.  461. 

PUntagenet,  etymology,  167. 
House  ot  ib.  IVriod.  cfaa- 
racteristfcs  of .  22S. 

Plaasy,  baUle.  609. 

Plevna,  siege  of.  733. 

Plymouth,  batik;  off.  436. 

Poitiers,  battle.  177. 

Pole,  de  la,  earl  of  Suflolk 
and  diancellor.  186. 

,  cardinal  Reginald,  at- 
tacks Heniy  VIII.,  264. 
Abeto  a  rebellion.  267. 
Legate.  286.  Primate,  288. 
Death,  290. 

Police,  new.  703. 

IH)ll-taz,  under  Richand  II., 
184. 

Pollalore.  batUe,  639. 

Pollock,  general.  718. 

Pompadour,  madame  de,  60S. 

Pondicherry.  token.  606.  Re 
stored,  oni. 

Ponsonlnr,  general  air  Wil- 
liam, hilled.  693. 

Pont-i-chin,  baUle,  646. 

Pontefhict  castle,  e*rl  of  Lan 
caster  executed  at,  166. 

Poor-laws,  706,  746. 

Pope,  exactions  of  the,  144. 

Ptmhiun.  sir  Home,  expedi- 
tion to  Ostend.  663. 

Popish  ptot,  477  so. 

Population  at  the  Revolu  km. 
740.  At  the  last  census. 
ib. 

Portland,  battle  ofll  437. 

.earl of.  633.  Negociates 

peace  of  Ryswick,  536. 
—,  duke  of,  631.  Prpmler. 
636,  671.    Death,  679. 

Porto  BeUo,  takeu  684. 

Novo,  batttc,  639. 

Portomouih.  dodiess  of.  mis- 
tress of  Charles  lU  48& 

Portugal,  alliance  with,  467. 
Seised  by  French,  673 

Post,  estoblished,  617.  R» 
i<>rmed.  740. 

Pototo  roi,  T16i 

Potteries,  7391 


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Fonlet. 

Pbalet.  tit  Amyas,  318. 
Powys,  lord,  tmpttcbed,  480. 
PoTnii^  governor  of  Ire- 
Uad.  236.      HU  *«Law," 
ib.noU. 
I'ramunire,  statute  of^  191, 
252.   Wbulebodyofdergjr 
guUtjr  of,  2M. 
PngOMtk  Sanction,  585. 
Praioe,  baUle,  366.    Tnatj 

o(726. 
Pratt,  chief  Jnrttce,  declare* 
general   warrants    lUegal, 
611.    Bfadc  Lord  Ganoden, 
613.    Chancellor,  614. 
pTPacbing,    regulated,    275. 

SHenced,  284,  292. 
Pmidergast,    betrays    Bar« 

clay's  conspiracy,  536. 
Pretl^terians,  406. 
Pneeton  Pans,  battle,  501. 
Pretender      (James),      at- 
tempted    invasion,     557. 
Is8U(M  a   manifesto,  568. 
Invades     Scotland,     570. 
Character,  i6.    Flight,  571. 
Expdkd      FruK>\     572. 
Marries  princess  Sobleeld, 
ib.  Strange  manifesto,  576. 
Appoints  his  son  rpgent, 
587.    Death,  596. 
—  (Charles  Edward),  de- 
eoent    in    Scotland,    5H9. 
Erects  bis  standard,  590. 
Proclaims  James  VIII..  ib. 
Dpfipats  sir  J.  Cope.  591. 
Enters  England.  592.    Ad- 
vances to  Manchester  and 
Derby,  ib.     Retreats,  ib. 
Defeated  at  Culloden,  593. 
Escapes  to  Morlaix,  594. 
Expelled  from  France,  596. 
Sabseqoent  lift),  ib. 
thridc,  colonel,  422.    Petition 
against  office  of  king,  445. 
Priestley,  Dr.,  642. 
PHmer  Seisin,  128. 
Frimicerim^  title  ti,  70. 
Prince     Edward's 

taken,  601. 
Printing,    introduction    of, 

219,  226. 
Privy    ooondl,   remodelled. 

484. 
ProclamatioQ,  king's,    nade 
law,  265.    Penal  laws  sus- 
pended by,  468. 
Propbesjrings,  315. 
**  Protectionists,"  710. 
Protector,  title  of.  201. 
Protectorate,  Croniwell'a,  es- 

iabUshed,  439. 
lYovisions,  jpapal,  191. 
Pmvisors,   statute   of,    183, 

356. 
Prussia,  subsidisf-d.  645.   Ac- 
cedes to  armed  neutrality, 
658.     Seizes  Ilanover.  tb. 
Oonqueied  by  the  French. 


670. 


INDEX. 

against  France,  6h6.  An- 
nexes Schkswig,  724. 
Alliance  with  luly  against 
Austria,  726.  Annexations 
in  Uermany,  ib.  War 
with  France,  727.  728. 

Prynne,  pilloried  and  fined, 
373. 

Ptilteuey,  secretaij  at  war, 
667.  Earl  of  Bath,  585. 
Supports  inquiry  about 
Walpole,  ib. 

Punishments,  Anglo-Saxon, 
74. 

Purchase  in  the  army,  abo- 
lished. 729. 

Pnritam,  rise  cf  the,  307. 
Favoured  by  Cecil,  Leices- 
ter, and  otbeni,  308.  Dif- 
ferent kinds  of,  375.  &ni- 
grate  to  America,  376. 

Pym,  carries  up  StraiTord's 
impeachment,  380.  Cha- 
racter, 381.  Accused  of 
treason,  390.    Death,  404. 

Pyrenees,  battle*  of  the,  686. 

o. 

Quakers,  origin.  518. 

Quatrc  Bras.  batUe,  690. 

(Quebec,  taken.  603. 

Quentin.  St.,  battle,  289. 

Querouaillc,  497  (see  Ports- 
mouth, duchess  of). 

Quiberon.  battle  off,  602. 
Expedition  to,  648. 

Quo  warranto,  writ  of,  492. 

B. 

"  Radicals,"  695. 

Raglan,  lord,  commands  ex- 
pedition agatast  Ru^Mia, 
714.  Death.  716. 

Railways.  701,  739. 

Raleigh,  sir  Walter,  foandn 
Virginia,  317.  Impriaoned. 
332.  Expedition  to  Gui- 
ana, tfr.  Plot  against 
James  I.,  347.  Reprieved. 
ib.  Second  expeditiun  U) 
Guiana,  354.  Execution. 
355. 

Kamillies,  battle,  554. 

Ransom,  feudal.  128,  137. 

Rapes.  Saxon,  26. 

Rapparees,  529. 

Rastadt,  consresB  of,  653. 

Ratcliffe,  sir  Richard,  220. 

Ravaillac.  assassinates  Henry 
IV.,  351.  I 

Read,  alderman,  enrcUed  as  a 
soldier,  339. 

Reading,  taken  by  Essex,  400. ' 

Recognitors,  118,  160. 

Recusantjs  act  against.  331. 
Comncjsitiona  with,  372. 

Redwaid,  king  of  East 
Angles,  and  Bretwalda,  33. 


idtes      co«UtkmlB«fonii,  parUameottary,  ad- 


801 
Biohmond. 

vocated  by  lord  Chatham 
and  William  Pitt,  630. 
Partial,  effected,  ib.  PiU's 
bill  for,  lo8t,  635.  Be- 
comes a  national  question, 
693.  Lord  .John  KuBseU's 
bill,  702.  Riots  respecting, 
703.  Carried,  ib.  Provi- 
sions of,  ib.  Second  stdL 

I     726. 

Reformation,  progress,  247, 
269.274.  Opposed  by  Gar- 
diner, 275.  Scotch,  ib. 
Images,  etc.,  aboli8bed,276. 
Discontent  at,  ib.  Op- 
posed by  Mary,  284.  For- 
warded by  Elizabeth,  292. 
In  Scotland,  294.  In 
France,  297.  Finally  es- 
tablished hi  England,  298. 
Review  of,  341. 

Regalia,  Scotch,  carried  to 
Londun,  435. 

Rogcd,  kingdom,  30. 

Regency,  the,  681. 

Regicides,  late  of,  454,  455. 

Ranald,  elected  to  Bee  of 
Ointcrbury,  134. 

Reliefs,  128,  137. 

Remonstrance,  grand,  388. 

Representation,  parliamen- 
tary, 227. 

Restltutus,  bishop,  15. 

Revenue,  Anglu-Norroan, 
12K.  Under  Jamc8  II..  517. 

**Rex  Anglorum,"  title  as- 
sumed ny  Edward  the 
Elder,  49,  70. 

Rhine,  confederation  of  the, 
666. 

Ribaumont,  vanquished  by 
Kilward  III.,  176. 

Ridi,  lurd,  Cromwell's  son- 
in-law.  445. 

Richard  I.,  "Sans  Peur,"of 
Normandy.  80. 

11.  of  Normandy,  81. 

RiCHABD  I.,  rebels  against 
bis  father,  117,  119. 
Reign  of,  120-124. 

II.,  reign  of,  183-191. 

III.,  reign  of,  222-224. 

,  son  of  the  Conqueror, 

death,  92. 

,  earl  of  Cornwall,  king 

of  the  Romans,  144, 147. 

Richborough,  15. 

Richelieu,  cardinal,  besieges 
Rochelle,366.    Assists  the 
Covenanters,  377. 
Richmond,  Edbiund  Tudor, 
earl  of,  201. 

,  Henry,  earl  of,  descent, 

222.  Engages  to  marry 
ElizabeUi  of  York.  ib. 
liands  At  Milford  Ibven, 
224.  Defeats  Richard  m. 
at  Bosworth,  ib.  Saluted 
kiM^    230    («M    Uizm 


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Bkhmood.  4«ke  oC;  aw  of 

CbarlM  U^  4»t  «Mte. 
,  duke  «<  BMvei  addren 

for  pMoe  with  Amftio, 

MS. 
Ridk]r,faMMif«fLi»aomlM. 

B«nit,3Ht. 
Bichta,  Uedjoatfoa  oC  Mi. 

Bf  U  cC  ftS7»  §44. 
Rikenild     Street,    13     <«ie 

Rinaodni,  ftfti  Bnodo  in 
lrekiMl,429. 

Blot,  <m  hmndtm  «f  <be 
JTora  Ih^tftm  «!)•. 

(MeOoidaa). 

Ripoo,  treaty  of;  38«. 

.  eftH  of  (Me  OoAericfa). 

tUren,  cwl,  tutM^of  Edward 
v..  219.  Impi^oBed  t^ 
Gloucester,  d.  KP"  •  — 

RiBdo,    David, 
derpd,  300. 

RoadM,  517,  7St. 

RobeK  the  DhtU,  81. 

,Mii«r  WiUiamtheOan- 

queror,  i^beKSe.  OfatekM 
Normandjr  and  MaiDe,  92. 
Agreement  aitk  Rofii^ 
8ft.   SabdMw  Maleolm,  tc. 


ib.    lnvad< 


Invades 

Treaty  wilfa  Hewy  I^  <b. 

Ci^rtiired    by    bia,    lU. 

Di»«tGanlUrcairtte,<k. 
— — ,  earl  of  GkMioeiCer,  re- 

▼olu  frsa   Stephen,  1*4. 

Invades  England,  tEb.Qq>- 

tarea  atcuhea,  lift.    Oip- 

tared,  tb.  Exchanged,  4b. 
Robert  IIL  of  Soottand,  his 

niisfortUDes,  Itft. 
RolM«piMTe,  executed.  Ml 
Robinson,  dr  Tlwinas*  sa^ 

rptary.  69T. 

,  Mr.  (ste  Goderich). 

RocheUe,  Budringhsm'g  ex- 

pMlition    to,    3f6.      Sor- 

readered,  369. 
RochfH.  PH.pr  dea,  UAop  of 

Winchester,  142. 
RodMster,  hUiopric  fooBded, 

3S. 
castle,  besieged  bj  kiag 

John.  139. 
Rochester,  eari  af  <Hy4-), 

492.    Treasurer,  ft4NI.  IXb- 
Iiord-Ueu> 
iorirpUod.ft40.  Fra- 

ttidpnt  of  coondl.  640. 
Rochlbrt,   visouuBt,  hnther 

of  Anne  Boleyn,  26L 
,  viaoounleM,     accoaea 

Anne  Boleyii,  26L    Exa- 

aitcd,267. 
Raddngfaan,  aarqneas  oC 

prime  minister.  «ia.  Agrfs. 

«2».    I>a<b.«31. 
Roderick  OOwuer.  Um  sf 

Oounaugl^t,  lie,  117.  i 


HTDBX. 

Rsdney, 

Havre,  «tL    takes  Mar- 

Uakoo,  mi.      Violory  at 

Cape     Si.    Vkioeat,   «27. 

Takea  St.  Boatatitts,  «29. 

Deftata  De  Ofaaae,   i3l. 

Made  a  baraa,  A. 
Ro0er.  archblsbop  of  York. 

cffovns  nriuoa  Hewyf  ILS. 

,aartofBei«iBrd,88,«9. 

Rogers,  pntendsffy,  kwnt, 

287. 
Bokeby,    §k     T^ 

Northmnberland,  194. 
Rali9a.liBttte,«7ft. 
RoUo,  or  Rolf  the 

olHaiaa  NcuaUla,  99. 
RooMBS.   afaaadutt    Britain, 

U.    OriUalioBaiiiAertbe, 

Rome,  aadDed  tar 
Ev 
the 

37 


269.  Evaenaiedky 


<aa>  Feter^peBoe). 
RoBtfUy,  ilr  SamBel,  T4S. 
Rooke^  admiral  sir  G.,  633. 

AttackaVigawMO.    Takes 

Gibraitaiv  664. 
Rosen«  nurahal  d^  tafeeea 

LoDdonderrr.  626. 
Roses,  symbtds  of  Toik  and 

Lancaster,  210.    Wars  o^ 

212. 
RosetU  Stone.  MO  noU. 
Ross,  general,  689.  KUkxt  tb. 
Rouen,  peace  of,  81.    f^noe 

Arthur  mnrdered  at,  133. 

Surrendered  to  Philip,  134. 

Taken  by  Henry  V.,  199. 

Joan  of  Arc  bsnii  ««,  Mi. 
Romaaoia.  ta6. 
RoBBMlia,  S^BMn,  f  as. 
Roundheada,  389. 
Rouse,  speako-.  4S9. 
Ra«rcna,24.  I 

Roxbwgk.  oeded  Co&^laBd, 

lis.    Sou  kf  BkliaBd  I., 

121. 
ApIWI  Oemye,  iiaka.  «U. 
R(^  Society,  tamdad,  619. 
Aaam  (Tfaanet),  38. 
Rumbold,  engaged  in  Rye- 
house  plot.  494. 
Runuey,    «oloDd, 

Monmouth's 

494. 
RunnyneAs^    Mafaa   Carta 

signed  at,  137. 
RofKit.  prtoiN^  cavalry  battle 

nearworoester.399.  Takes 

Bristol,  401.    Defeated  aA 

Harston  Moor,  406.    Sor- 

itoders  Bristol.  412.    Dis- 

missod,   ib.     Ghsaad    by 

Dkke.434,  Commands  SB 

EfVUsh  fleet,  402.    High 

adminO.  479. 
RbmU,  kad,  ^bcUs  teaur- 

SKttM  MBwwMblra,  tn. 


Salisbury. 

RosaeU.  WiUiam.  kad.  oim- 
spifeB  against  duke  a4 
York,  493.  PnAeclM  an 
kiaarrection,  ib.  Trial  and 
execution,  494.  Attainder 
reversed,  627. 

,  lady,  pleada   flbr   her 

husband.  494. 

•^^,  •«<wi»»yJ,  a  Jacobite. 
ft31.  (laeen  Mary's  ieiler 
to,  632.  Defeats  the 
FTCBch  fleet  at  U  Ik^oe. 
ib.  Eari  of  OrfMd.  642 
(MsOrford). 

,    loid    JohB.     carries 

repeal  of  Teat  and  GDrpora- 
Uon  Aoi^  699.  Intntdiicea 
BarUaoMBtary  Reflwm 
BiU.  702.  Im  prorWons. 
703.  Dedarea  agaiaattbe 
ooTB-lawB,  719.  Ptvarier. 
711.  Foreign  secretary. 
722.  Earl  RasseU  (1861). 
Pkemier  again,  death.  725. 

Raaaia,  subsidiary  tnmties 
with.  698.  •46.  Le^nc 
vtth,  696.  «86.  Attacks 
the  Tnrkfab  domiBioos. 
713.  War  with. !«.,  732  so. 
Deaigna  a^duA  Tivhey. 
732.  War,  738.  telatkMis 
with  £i«laiid.  736. 

Ruth.  at«  629.    Killed,  ftft. 

Rtttbvcn,  laid,  morders 
&iado.a90. 

^,earlofBrentAjnt.499. 

Ratland,  earl  (^  betrays  a 
plot  agataat  Hemy  i  V..193. 

^— ^  eari  of.  kiUfd,  211. 

,  4iike  of;   privy  aeal, 

«». 

Rutaptaw  14. 

Ruyter,  4^  admkal.  439. 
DsflBBted  fay  Albemarle, 
492.  &iU  Dp  the  names, 

464. 
Ryder,  sir  DBdk7.  §99. 
,    boB.  R..  bSBM 

taiT.679. 
Rye-bouse  plot.  494. 
Rfswiok.  inaty  oi;  639. 


SschevervlU  Dr.,  ecrmon,  669. 

lB4>eacbed.      699.      Sus- 

pcndnd,   ib.    JowBey  to 

Wales,  66L 
Sackville,      kvd      George. 

misbehaviour  •»  Minden, 

602.    Diamtased.tfr. 
Sadkv.dr  Ralph.  a»4. 
Sadowa,  battle,  726. 
Saintes,    Gamier    das,    de- 

ooonoes  Pftt  446. 
Saladin.  takes  Jerusalem  .119. 

Richard's  tnioe  with.  122. 
SsbMBanca,  Frendi  barlMvity 

at.  683.    Batt]eoi;»6. 
SaKgettPTsl,  718. 
Salio^,  eart  «<   »ttMhB 


Digitized  by 


Google 


SalMmry. 

>e  Frnicb  barbovn,  i3i. 

/Vfeat8lx>uiB  VIIU  143. 
fiallsbury,  Nevil,  carl  of,  bc- 

beaded,2ll. 
1  ooonteM  oC  atuinted, 

264.     Executed.  367. 

,  earl  of  (ie«  OecU). 

^,     marquis     oC      t3t. 

Forrign  aecretary.  73ft. 
San  Roque,  lines  oi;  finS. 
Sanorofl,  arcbbiabo^  of  Omh 

Urbuiy,  607.    A  noqjoror, 

634.     DeprHfd,  629. 
Sandwich,  ierd,  ridiculed  by 

WiUCM.  ftll. 

Sandyn,  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
cfarquPT,  6H6. 

SaragotMa.  battle,  W8 

San^toga,  conveoUon  of,  433. 

Sardinia,  sends  an  arn/  to 
the  Crimea,  716. 
arsfWld,  629. 

Santre,  WilUam,  burnt,  193. 

Savage,  John,  st^  over  to 
assasidnate  queen  £Uza- 
beth,  317. 

SaviUe.  sir  George,  635. 

Saroy,  conference  in  the,  466. 

Savoy,  duke  of.  Joins  Grand 
Alliance,  t&L  Invades 
France,  667. 

Saxe,  marshal,  (88. 

Saxun  pirates,  11. 

Saxona,  called  in  by  the 
BrikniB,  13.  Tribni.  21. 
lieligion,  33.  Ships,  33. 
Arms,  ib.  Firat  settle- 
ment, 34.  Gooqoesft,  25. 
Uidtorical  vahie  ^f,  ib. 
note.  Seooad  ssttlement, 
26.  Third  settkm&t,  ib. 
Fourth  and  tiaii  settle- 
ments, 27.  Sixth  seUle- 
ment.  28.  Kingdoms  united 
by  Egbert,  38.  Saxons 
amalgamate  with  Nor- 
mans, 132  and  note. 

Hay.  lord,  privy  sral,  464. 

jaye  and  Sek%  lord,  refuses 
to  pay  tlie  ship-money,  376. 

Scandinavians,  41  (sec  North- 
men, Danes). 

Scapula.  OstoriuB,  9l 

Scaradale,  earl  oU  631. 

Sobism  Act.  662,  674. 

Srhleswig,  coded  to  Prussia, 
724,  726. 

Scbomberg,  roaniial,  633. 
Lands  in  Ineland.  636. 
Killed,  638. 

Sclhinbrunn,  peace  of,  67S. 

Shwartx,  Marthi,  832. 

Scindiah,  717. 

Seir-ftmot  ^shire-mote),  73. 

ger^a  (Hhoriff),  73. 

Scane,  Ghartes  IL  orowaed 
at,  433. 

Scotia  (Irehind),  13. 

So«tla«d,  cteims  «•  cromi  of, 
165     First   alUame  with 


onmL 

iVanse,  iM.  Oremw  ^i 
Edarard  L.  1M.  Affaln. 
IM.  Delivered  by  finioe, 
164.  Thms  with.  Ml. 
Part  at,  ceded  to  fiAward 
III.,  170.  Reteeed  Mder 
tk^  Oonmiowaalth.  436. 
Royal  authority  realored 
K  466.  IV^ttlkn  ilL  ac- 
knowMgvd  te.  636.  Par- 
liament v^eotM  biU  for 
Hanoverian  BDOPCsrtc^ 
fl66so.  iUSBCi te  ik«laiid, 
666.  Union  with.  666, 666. 
13.  ir.  Defeated  by 
Kdwand  L  at  FaUcirk.  160. 
Invade  England,  W7. 
Treaty  with  the,  168.  De- 
fmted  at  Halklsii  Jfill, 
176.  Aaaki  the  •daiuhta 
{Gbarles  VII4>  »0. 
Bo«ted  At  Solway.  M8. 
Impose  ocmditiaM  on 
Charles  L,  414.  Deliver 
him  up.  A.  Difisascd 
with  EnsUsh  parlUnnnt, 
436.  Protest  4gaiMt  the 
king's  trial,  434.  ftwUm 
Charlea  II.,  4aii. 

Scott,  sir  John,  Ml  <m 
iOdaa). 

Scr^gB,  chief  >Hlk6,  485, 

489. 
Scrope,  arcfabisbop  iA  York. 

rebeUicn  and   <»scudoK, 

194. 

,  lord,  execaled,  IM. 

Scutate  (ewiMve).  138, 131. 
ScbastUn,  San,  takea,  488, 
Sebaatlani.  marshal,  473, 677. 
Stbert.  king  of  Essex,  JS. 
Seci«t-«erMoe   boo^,  466. 

Limited,  630. 
Security,   Act  «r  <Soatah), 

656. 
Sedan,  battle.  727. 
SedgeuMor,  h«ttA«,  64L 
Segoatiaoi,  7. 
Selby,  battle,  44iw 
Selden,  363. 
Select  men,  at 
Self'denyinc 
Senlac  <i<M  of  UaaMiVA,  83. 
Septennial  Act.  ML 
Serfifc73. 

Sergeantry,  gruid  1J6. 
Seruigapatam,  talsen,  fit. 
Serrian  wsa;  T33,  786. 
SettleaeBt.  A<4«C  444. 
Sevastopol,     invwked,   113. 

Taken,  714. 
Seven  Years'  W«r.  406, 408. 
SevenMk  ovemms  CMedonia, 

IL    Dies  «t  Yortc.  A. 
Seville,  treaty  •aCiA3. 
I  Seymoir,  Jam.  Ahind  wife  of 

Henry    VIIL,    261.    363. 

Death.  966. 

,  F^wflr4(a0e  Soaefw«). 

*        *  lord.  tf6.  Mar- 


803 


ries  the  queen  do  waoer,  SM. 
fiBseiMed.d. 

Seirmoar,  Mr.,  impeaches 
lord  dareodon.  464. 

•  rir  Edward,  subparts 

the  priDoe  «rOrai«e.  611. 

Shaftesbory,  eart  of,  dis- 
missed, 471.  Abeto  the 
4ake  of  Monmovth.  483. 
President  of  the  council, 
484.  Adviass  the  Exolo- 
Bkm  BiU,  ib.  DIsmMMxl, 
484.  iMlkMS  the  duke  of 
Yoik.  487.  ladictMl  for 
treasim,  49  L  Oou^pirss 
4iiilnat  the  duke.  493. 
Retirement  and  death,  «b. 

Shah  Alum.  637. 

.Slannon,  frigate,  takes  Ike 
CAsaoyM(»(«.  6K9. 

Sharpe,  wchhishiy  of  ^ 
Andrew^467.  Jfusdered. 
486. 

— .Ot«nvUle,671. 
— ,  Dr.,  sermun,  604,  666. 

Shaw,  Dr.,  aermoa  «t  Paul's 
Cross.  321. 

Sheemess.  destra|nBd  }fj  Un 
Dutch.  464. 

SbelhunM.  earl  oC  secrataqr, 
414,429.  Prime  minteter, 
63L    Be8ignB,436. 

•SlMldon,  bishop,  458. 

Shsphord.  betray*  Mon- 
mouth's plot.  494. 

Sbere  AH,  737. 

Sheridan,  Riohanl  firinaky. 
430,  411.  641. 

Sherifftaiuir.  battle,  569. 

Shfp^lHMi^.  366,  374.     Op- 
*  by  Hamopden,  376. 
SaxoB  33. 

Shires,  or  counties.  73. 

Shore,  JAoe,  penance.  231. 

1,  lir    John.    lEovenMr- 

general  sC  India,  717. 

Shovel,  air  Cloudeeky,  654. 
Blockades  Toukin.  657. 
Lest  ataea,  ib. 

Shrewsbury,  battle,  194. 

Shrewabnry.  earl  oC  mper- 
in  tends  the  en<oution  of 
queen  Mary.  322. 

,     earl    ot,    aecretaiy, 

422. 

.  duke  of,  lord  chamhtr- 

lain,  560.  DeiBads  BaUng 
broke's  tclMines,  465. 
TrBa8urer,i6.  Aerigns,667 

Siddkouth,  lord  (ase  Adding- 
ton).  President  of  cooncUi 
665.    Retires,  697. 

Sklnqr,  sir  Philip,  317,  516. 

,  Ugeraen.  joins  Mon- 

■MMKtii's  contqiiracy,  493. 
Apprehended.  494.  His- 
tory, 496.  Kxeoutkm.  ib. 
Attainder  reversed,  62^ 

Sidsnius,  hiflhaiV  33. 

SiegTrid.  the  pirate,  44. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


804 


SiliUM. 


Sbnnel,  Lunbert*  pencmfH 
tiw  yoong  eui  of  War- 
wick, 232.  233. 

Sfmon,  RichArd,  Indtei  the 
pretender  Sirnnel,  281, 232. 

SfanpeoD,  general,  Yltt. 

8liiope,7l3. 

Slwani.  earl  of  Nortfaomber^ 
land,  63,  64. 

Sim  Artielu»\tLir  of;  266.  Re- 
pealed, 276. 

SUre-trade,  abolkfaed,  671. 

SUvery,  aboltabed,  706. 

Sledda.27. 

SUngBby,  dr  H.,  beheaded, 
446. 

Slaya,  battle,  171. 

8nietOD,26l. 

Staiitb.  flir  Syiteej,  at  Toulon, 
646.    Deftnoeof  Acre,664. 

fiknyma  fleet,  attacked,  632. 

8obraoQ,batUe,719. 

Sodetka,  religious,  743. 

SodetT.  Royal,  519.  For  the 
DliniflioD  of  UseftU  Know- 
ledge,  743. 

aoemaimd  (eocmen),  72, 129. 

Solebay,  battle,  460. 

Somen,  lord.  642.  649,  669. 

Somereet,  doke  oi;  minister 
of  Henrr  VI.,  209. 

k    duke     oC    protector 

(aee  Hertford).  Overtnms 
Hennr  VUI.'s  will,  274. 
Invades  Scotland.  276. 
Ambition  and  nnpopa- 
laritj,  278.  Executed, 
280. 

»  earl  and  ooontess  ot 

sentenced  for  poisoning 
OTerbwT.862.  Pardoned, 
863(te0Qtfr). 

Somerset  House,  bollt,  278. 

Sophia,  electrees  of  Hanover, 
641.  Soooeeeion  to  the 
British  crown  established, 
666.    Death,  666. 

Dorothea  of  Zell.  consort 

of  George  I.,  578. 

Sonlt,  marshal,  676  sg.,  679- 
683,686,686. 

South  Sea  Company,  674. 
GoUajwe  of,  676. 

Soath  Saxons  (Sussex),  26. 

Southampton,        ean       of 
(Wrlotheel^).      remoi 
by  Somerset.  274.    Helps 
to  overthrow  him,  278. 

— »  earl  of;  engaged  In 
Bnex's   cooqiiraqr,   336. 

887. 

— ^k  earl  of;  ambassador  to 
Om  parliament,  398. 

— — ,  earl  of;  hiidi  treasurer, 
464. 

SoothwdU  Biy,bataeln,  46«. 

'^    -elds  riots,  C94. 

.sfliaed  bj  liooaparte, 


UIDIUL 


.     887. 
War  of;  643,  663,  666. 

Speaker,  how  elected,  488. 

Spensers,  favourites  of 
Edward  IL,  164.  Exe- 
cuted, 166. 

Spinola,  invades  the  palati- 
nate, 366. 

Spmitar,  etymology  ci,  76. 

dtalford,  krd,  mipeached, 
480.    Execution,  489  tq. 

Stair,  earl  of;  686. 

Stamford  Bridge,  battle.  67. 

Stamo  Act  (North  Ameri- 
oank  611.  How  received 
in  America,  612.  Repealed, 
614. 

Omuiard.  battle  of  tbe,  or 
Northallerton.  104. 

Stanhope,  general,  expedition 
to  Sfiain,  668.  Secretary, 
667,  672.  First  lord  of 
treasoiy,  673.  Made  vis- 
count  and  earl,  <b.  Oon- 
dndes  Quadruple  Alliance, 
ib.    Death,  676. 

—^  earl,  chairman  of  Revo- 
Intko  Society,  642. 

Stanley,  lord,  declares  for 
Richmond,  224. 

,  sir  William,  services  at 

Bosworth,  234. 230.    Exe- 
cuted for  treason,  236. 

,  lord  (see  Derby). 

Star  Cbamber,  239. 341.  Ao- 
coanid;  842,  373.  Abo- 
lished, 386. 

Starenberg,  count,  668. 

Steam  engines,  739. 

veeseli^    increase    of, 

740. 

Stefimo,  Sen,  praUmlnaiy 
treaty,  734. 

Steinkirk,  battle^  682. 

SrxpuBM,  king,  idgn  o^  103- 
106. 

Stewart,  colonel,  828. 

Stigand.  Saxon  archbishop 
of  Osnterbmy,  82,84.  De- 
graded, 87. 

Stflioho,lS. 

Sdrlfaig,  taken  by  Monk,  436. 
Besieged  by  Pretender,  693. 

Stoke,  battle,  232. 

Stolborg.  Louisa  of,  marries 
the  netender,  696. 

Stonehenge,  4,  24. 

Storm,  great,  662. 

Straohan,  admiraldrUdiaid, 
669,678. 

Straflord.  earl  of  (Went- 
worth).  chief  minister  of 
Charles!.,  872.  Impeached. 
880.  Trial,  888.  Attainted, 
884.  Executed,  i&. 

Strahan,  defeats  Montrose 
436. 

etmthclyde,  kingdom,  80. 

Straw,  JtMk,uL 

Strod^accQcadoflWMSii,  890. 


Swift. 

8troi«bow,  116  (see  OareX 

Stuart,  Arabella,  pk>t  in  bet 
fkvour,  347. 
—  dynasty,  review  of;  618. 

,  sir  John,  invades  Italy, 

670. 

Sub-inflendatkm,  124. 

SuooeaskNi,  lineal,  when  esta- 
blished, 106.  Becpsl,  ques- 
tion respecting.  166, 338. 

Snetonlus,  9  (aes  PauUnns> 

Sues  (3snal,  732. 

Suffolk,  de  U  Pole,  earl  oC 
besieges  Orleans,  202.  Ne- 
godates  Heniy  VL's  mar- 
riage, 206.    Made  a  duke. 

207.  Accused  of  treason, 

208.  Murdered,  A. 

,  Edmund  de  la  Pole, 

earl  of;  surrendered  to 
Henry  VIL,  238.  Death, 
ib.note. 

~— >  Charles  Brandon,  duk 
oi;  marries  Mary  Tndor, 
dowager  queen  of  Fnoot, 
244. 

^— ,  house  ot  appointed  to 
sncceed  by  Henry  VUI.'s 
wtlL346. 

1  Heniy  Orey,  marqucas 

of  Dcnet,  made  duke  oC 
280.  Dedares  tar  queen 
Maiy,  283.  Rebels,  286. 
Executed,  286. 

Sunderland,  Robert  Spencer, 
earl  of;  secretary,  484.  Ad- 
▼ocates  the  Exclusion  HU, 
488.  Re-enten  the  min- 
istiy,  492.  600.  TuriM 
Roman  catholic  604.  0>r- 
responds  with  prince  of 
Orange,  609.  Oorresponds 
with  JaoM.  63a 

——,  Charles  &MDC6r,  earl  of; 
son-in-law  or  Marlborough, 
660.  Lord-lieuteoant  of 
Ireland,  667.  Secretary. 
673.    Death,  676. 

Supremacyt  Act  of;  293. 

Qvniah  Dowlah,  609,  638. 

Surinam,  oonqnered,  654. 

Surrey,  earl  ci,  minlstw  ot 
Henry  VUL,  241.  Defeats 
the  Soots  at  Flodden,  243. 
Lands  at  Calais,  247.  De- 
ists Albany,  i6.  (aee  Nor. 
folk,  dukeol). 

.  earl  of  (sonof  NorfUk)b 

executed,  271. 

Suspending  power,  468  noCa 

Sussex,  earl  of.  804. 

SuwaroT.  664. 

Sweyn  of  Denmark,  64, 66. 

,  son  of  Canute,  60. 

— — ,  sen  of  Godwin,  62,  6& 

,  Ung  of  Denmark,  takes 

partagunst  the  Oonqneroc^ 
86. 

Swift,  attacks  Wood's  half- 
6n 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC  ^ 


Sydenham. 

Qydeohain,  proposes  Crom- 

weU's  prut«ciorate,  439. 
Sydney,  lord,  eecretftry,  635. 

T. 

Tacitus,  account  of  Britons,  3. 
Taillefer,  count  of  Angou- 

l^me,  133  sq. 
TaUvera,  batUe,  67T. 
Talbot,  slain,  207. 
••Talents,"  party  so  called, 

665.    In  office,  669. 
Tallages,  128. 
Tallaiti,  marshal,  563. 
Talleyrand,  664. 
TaliiMsb,  general,  slain,  533. 
Tangier,  dowry  erf"  Catharine 

of  Braganza,  457. 
TasdoTanns,  8. 
TazescoUected  by  archbishop 

of  Canterbury,  171. 
Taylor,  parson,  bumt^  287. 
Tea,   Introduction   of,    519. 

Duties.     American,    617. 

Ships,   bow     treated     in 

America,  618. 
Telgnmouth,  burnt  by  the 

French,  528. 
Temple,  sir  William,  forms 

the  Triple  Alliance,  466. 

Recalled,    468.      Plans   a 

new  priv^  council,  484. 
Tenants    »n    capite,    125. 

Number  of,  ib. 
Tencin,  cardinal,  587. 
Tenison,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, 533. 
Tenures,    Anglo-Saxon,  72. 

Per  barcniam,  126. 
Test  Act,  470,  473. 
— ,  parliamonlary,  474, 480. 
—  and   Corporation  Acts 

repealed,  699. 
Tewkesbury,  battle,  217. 
Thanes,  71. 
Thanct,  Isle  of,  24.  38. 
Tbelwall,  prosecution  of,  647. 
Theobald,  archbishop  of  O&n- 

terbury,  109. 
llieodosius,  general,  12. 

I.,  emperur,  12. 

Tbeotwin,  Ic^ite,  115. 
Theouxu  (serfs),  72. 
Thiers,  M.,  728. 
ThisUewood,  plot,  696. 
Thomas,  ardioishop  of  Can- 
terbury,    impeached     by 

the  conunons,  187. 
,    St,    of    GanterbniT 

(Beckot)   shrine  pillaged, 

263. 
Thor,  23. 
ThrogmortoD,  rir  Nicholas, 

ambassador   to    Scotland. 

302. 
Thurlow,    lord    chancellor, 

624,  629,  635. 
Tiberius,  7. 

Tloondeix)^  takan,  602. 
%6 


INDEX. 

KefMRanna  tale,  74. 

Tilbuiy,  Ellxubetb  at,  327. 

Tillotson,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, 529.     Death,  533. 

Tilsit,  peace  of,  672. 

Thichfbray,  battle,  100. 

Tin-trade,  BriUsh,  2. 

Tippoo,  639.    Slain,  717. 

Titchfteld,  Charles  I.  at,  419. 

Tithe  Commutation  Act,  706. 

Tithes  in  £i)gUu)d.  42. 

Toleration  Act,  524. 

TollendaU  Lally,  610. 

Tomkinson,  colonel,  454. 

Tone,  Theoliald  Wolfe,  656. 

Tonge,  Dr.,  478,  488. 

Tonnage  and  poundage,  what, 
348  and  note.  How 
granted,  370.  Levied 
without  consent  of  parlia- 
ment, 372. 

Tonstal,  bishop,  284. 

Tories,  name,  487.  Support 
William  III.,  530.  Pre- 
dominance under  Anne, 
561  $q.  Adopt  name  of 
Conservatives,  705. 

Torres  Vcdnui,  lines  of,  680. 

Torrington,  tmrl  of  (  Herbert), 
conduct  at  Beachy  He  id, 
523. 

Tosti,  son  of  Godwin,  63,  64, 
66,  67. 

Toulon,  siege  of,  557.  Oc- 
cupied by  English  and 
Spanish,  644. 

Toulouse,  battle  of,  687. 

Tourville,  52H,  532,  533. 

Towns,  Roman,  in  Britain, 
18. 

Townsbend,  lord,  secretary. 
567.  Dismissed,  572.  Lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  ib. 
Dismissed,  573.  President 
of  the  council,  674.  tkx- 
retary,  576.    Resigns,  582. 

,  Charles,  chancellor  of 

exchequer,  615.  American 
taxes,  ib.    Death,  ib. 

,  Thomas,  secretary,  631 . 

Towton,  battle,  214. 

Tracy,  William  de,  113. 

rrade,  722.    Free,  740. 

Trafalgar,  battle,  668. 

Transtamare,  Heury  of,  180. 

Treason,  high,  law  of;  186, 
284.    Amended,  534. 

Treasurer,  lord  high,  office 
extinguished,  567. 

"hwling*  (ridings),  73. 

Trelawney,  bishop  of  Bristol, 
507. 

Treaham,  Francis,  Joins  gun- 
powder plot,  349,  350. 

Trevor,  sir  John,  speaker, 
expelled  the  house,  534. 

Triennial  Act,  first,  383. 
R<>pealed,459.  Second,  533. 
Repealed,  571. 

Trimwten,  partj  of,  *9i. 


805 

Urban. 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge^ 
founded,  272. 

Trinobantcs,  6. 

TVtnoda  necetsHat,  what,  73. 

Tromp,  admiral,  combats 
with  BUke,  436.  437.  His 
bravado.  436.    KiUed,  440. 

Trotter,  Mr.,  665. 

Troubadours,  124. 

Trowbridge,  captain,  650. 

Troyes,  treaty  of,  200. 

Tudor,  sir  Owen,  201.  Be- 
headed, 211. 

,  house  of,  225.    Period, 

review  of,  338. 

Tuisco,  22. 

Tunis,  dey  of,  chastised  by 
Blake,  443. 

Turcoing.  baUle,  646. 

Turkey,  war  with  Russia, 
672.  Expedition  against, 
ib.  War  of  Greek  Inde. 
pendeiioe,  699.  War  with 
Russia,  ib.  Again,  713 
Treaties  for  securing  its 
independence,  717.  Mis- 
government  In,  732.  War 
with  Russia,  ib.  sq. 

Turks,  take  Constantinople, 
230. 

Turner,  bishop  of  Ely,  507. 

Turnpikes,  517. 

Tyler,  Wat,  184.  Slain  by 
Walworth,  185. 

Tyndale's  New  Testament, 
259. 

TyrconneU  earl  of  (Talbot), 
violence  in  Ireland,  504, 
525.  Supports  James  II., 
525. 

Tyrone,  earl  of,  rebellion,  333. 
Surrenders,  337. 

Tyrrel,  shoots  Rufu^  97. 

,    sir    James,    murders 

Edward  V.  and  duke  of 
York,  221. 

Tythings.  74. 

U. 

UfEa.  king  of  East  Anglia,  28. 

Uffing<u,2S. 

Ulster,  kingdom  of,  116. 
Planted,  351. 

Uniformity,  Acts  of;  276, 
293,  456,  474. 

Union,  Scotch,  554.  Articles 
of,  555.  Carried  in  Scot- 
land, 556.    Act  of,  ib. 

,  Irish,  655,  656. 

United  Irishmen,  655. 

—  States  of  America, 
independence  recognized, 
633.  Pass  non-intercourse 
act,  684.    Declare  war,  ib. 

Universities,  European,  con- 
suited  on  Henry  VIII.'s 
divorce,  253. 

University  bill,  Irish,  730. 

of  London,  743. 

UrbM  VX,  pope^  97. 


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8M 

OftMB  VI U^  y«ipe,  obHirvcto 
the  Spanish  maloh.  361. 

Ushant,  action  off,  624. 

Utreokt,  oouferenoe  at, 
opened,  M2.  Peaoe  <€, 
M3. 

Ovedale,  sir  WlUlam,  398. 

Uxbrid^  oonferemoe  at^  408. 


yatendennes,  takeo,  Ui. 

Valentia,  13. 

irakntine.liold8  the  qmaker 
in  the  chair,  3Ta. 

ValenUnian  I.,  12. 

Fan  Puia,  bamt,  276. 

Vane,  sir  H.,  character.  381. 
NegodMca  the  Sokmn 
Lei^e,  403.  An  indepen- 
deat,  407.  Oommisaioner 
lor  ScotUid,  43i.  Ex- 
cepted from  tedtnnnity, 
464.  Trial,  467.  Execu- 
tion. A. 

Fansiuart,  Mr.,  admiuiatra- 
tk>n  of  India,  636. 

,  Mr.,  chanoeUor  of  the 

exchequer,  682. 

Varangians,  87. 

Vassalage,  Scotch,  06,  118. 
Sold  by  Riobard  U  121. 

Vassals,  condition  ol,  126. 

Vaudoia,  the,  soppgited  by 
Cromwell,  447. 

Venablcs,  admiral,  443. 

VeudOme,  marshal,  668. 

VcrdoD,  iuigysb  detained  at, 
664. 

Vere,  earl  of  Oxford,  governs 
£ichaid  U.,  186. 

,  sir  Horace,  defends  the 

palatinate,  366. 

VemoQ,  admiral,  takes  Porto 
BeUo,  584. 

Tersailleg,  treaty.  600.  Peace 
of,  633.  Unpopular,  635. 
Peace  of,  with  Prussia,  728. 

Verulamium,  taken  by 
Oanar,  t. 

Vespasian,  subdves  the  Isle 
ot  Wight,  8. 

Vicar-general.Thomas  <^ein- 
vellappMnted,  26  L 

Victor,  marshal,  677,  681, 

Emmanuel  IL,  722. 

Victoria,  reign  ot  707  *q. 
Assnmes  the  tide  of  em. 
press  <d  India,  732. 

Vidomar  of  Limofsea,  123. 

Vienna,  treaty  oC  6^^ 
i^Dtered  by  Napoleoi^  666. 
Congress  of.  689, 693. 

Vienne,  John  de,  176. 

Vioo.  taken,  329. 

yOeimgit,  41.     Flag.  A. 

vau  de  ParU.  the, 
631. 

Vmeins,  prstMsted  bf  Magna 
Ctfta,136. 


>  ilenane,      Angko-Mt^rMM, 

129.     ExdiMgiiiBlwd,  226. 
Villeaeuve,  admiral.  662. 
ViUen^i.   marshal,  636,  663. 

I)eft«ted  at  UamiUica,  664. 
Villiecs,  Barbara,  497  «e4e. 
,  George,  363  (see  Buok- 

ing^uun). 
Vimiera,  faalitie.  676. 
Vincent,  CapeSt.  batties  off. 

637,  660. 

,  earl  Sl,  666(.«s^enris). 

Vinegar  Hill,  battle,  666. 
ViiKinia,  oOaoy.  316.  864 
Vlites  Liipna,  li. 
Viscoui4.  title  of.  227. 
Visttom.  emtoriaiticaU  21». 
Vittoria,  battle  o(  686. 
Voitigem,  1^24. 
V» 


Wade,  Bwnhal,  592. 

Wagram,batUe,678. 

Wakefield,  battles,  211.  462. 

Wakemaa,  sir  Geoi;ge,  4T8. 
Trial,  486. 

Walcberen  «xpedltloB,  678. 

Wales,  oonquered,  163. 
United  with  England.  261. 

Wales,  prinoe  •U  Utie.  164. 

,  dowager  princess,  «p. 

pointed  regent,  607. 

Walker,  a  deiicrmaa,  de- 
iiRQds  Londonderry,  626. 
Killed  at  the  Boyw^  628. 

Wall,  Roman,  16. 

Wallace,  Williaa.  160, 161. 

WaUer,  Edmond,  the  poet, 
oooapliaCT,  40L 

,  sir   William,   parUa- 

mantaiy  general,  400,  401, 
406,  406.  Cowpiies 
againet  Cromwell,  446. 

WiOpole,  sir  Robert,  669. 
Expelled  ttia  osmmuM, 
663.  Restored.  666.  Psy- 
maater-general,  66t.  Re- 
signs, 673.  iVmaater 
again,  674.  Cb#noeUar  4tf 
cxobequer,  and  first  lord 
of  thetreaauiy,  576.  Qyatem 
of  corrv-ttioQ.  577.  Re- 
celTes  the  (barter,  Hk. 
ftrf^sppoinied  by  Qwr^ 
U.,  681.  AdmiBistration, 
682,  683.  Reaigna,  666. 
Made  earl  orOrfbid.  ik. 

,       Horaoe,       motoric 

Doubtt,  221  «atc  686  note. 

waUch  (Welsh),  30. 

Wafadi^iam,  floereti 
324. 

Waltera,Liu7.46S. 

Waltham  AUey.  66. 

Waltheoi;  eait,  84,  86,  89. 

Walworth,  loud  maj«r.  skys 
Wat  Tyler,  165. 

Wa]idtwaah.tettJ^6l«. 


,318, 


H'qpenlote.  73. 

Warbeck,  Perktai,  i 
Richard,   duke   of  York. 
234-237. 

Warburton,  blsbop,  611. 

Wanlle,  oaluoel,  676. 

Wanisfaip  (feudal).  128. 

Warehousing  eyatian,  740. 

Waivaum.  battle,  639. 

Warbam,  archbidlop  uf  Can- 
terbuij  and  chanodlor, 
244. 

Warrenne,  iBri,  162.  Gover- 
nor of  SooUand,  158.  De- 
feated by  Wallace,  160. 

Ware,  priTate,  126. 

Warw^  Qhj  de  Bt>as- 
dump,  earl  oC  163. 

— ,  carl  of,  gnoidHWA, 
hairiahad  by  Rkbaid  11, 
188. 

,   Rlohard    Nevil,   eart 

^,  tutor  of  Ueaiy  VL. 
201.  The  Kinawimker, 
207.  FUes  to  Calais,  210. 
Defeated  at  Sl  Atbans, 
211.  Victorious  at  Towton, 
214.  Alienated  by  Edward 
lV.'smarriaae,2l5.  Agm.- 
ment  with  queen  Margaret, 
ib.  Invades  Ei«laiMi.  216 
Prodataw  Hemy  VL,  ib. 
fiegeyt.  Hk  Slain  at  Bar. 
net,  217. 

- — .  Edward  Planti^eMt, 
earl  oC  impriaooed,  231. 
Led  tfarouc^  Loadoo,  232. 
debeaded.  237. 

,  eari  of  <Diidlcy),  op- 
poses Soneiaet,  278.  Eari 
mandial,  ib.  Becoows 
duke  af  NorthuaiberlaQd, 
280  (see  Northumberlaad). 

,  Robert  Riok.  eari  <it, 

parUamratary  general,  re- 
signs. 406.  Uls  gxaadsoo 
asaniea  Cruaweil'sdau|^- 
ter.  446. 

Washington,    Oeorse,     ap- 
pointed     com 
chief  by  the  < 
619.  621,  621. 

Washington,  An 
ital,  taken,  689. 

Waterkm,  battle,  690. 

Watliitt&rart,13,46. 

Watt,  Jamea.  739. 

WealatC^  Welsh kted  '').36. 

W«dderbam.  BoUcttor-geae- 
nl,  617.  Made  chirf 
Justice  and  lord  Lough- 
borough. 627.  Betkti^ 
667. 

Wedgewood,  736. 

Weights  and  measures,  137. 

Weliesl^,  maiqueas  (tad 
Momington),toreiguaecTc- 
taiy,  679,  682.    G^vei 

Ut. 


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WelllBeton. 

WcIUi^n.  dnke  of  (sir  Ar- 
thur Wellesley),  at  ("upen- 
hageo,  472.  In  Peninsula, 
«74.  Supersakd.  675. 
Resuiuee  comnund,  677. 
Invaties  Spain,  ib.  At 
Talavi'ra,  ib.  Made  vis- 
cuunt  WcUingUm.  ib.  Oo 
cupiee  Torres  Vwirae,  6«0. 
Defeuta  MoHseDa,  6h2. 
I>ukc  of  Ciudad  Uodrigo, 
683.  Advance  into  Spain, 
ib.  Defeats  Marmonl,  ib. 
En  ton  Madrid,  ib.  Rc- 
tireti,  6H4.  Grant  to,  ^5. 
Re-enters  Spain,  ib.  En- 
ters France,  6H6.  Pursues 
Soult,  ib.  Made  duke, 
•89.  Grant  to,  ib.  Opinion 
on  Bonaparte's  escape, 
690.  Defeats  him  at 
Waterloo,  691.  Muster- 
n'ueral  of  ordnance,  694. 
Resigns,  698.  Premier, 
699.  Duel  withearlof  Win- 
cbeleea,  701.  Death  and 
character,  712.  Achieve- 
menta  in  India,  717. 

*  Welsh  kind  "  (  Wealoi),  35 

Wends,  or  Slav<mian8,  59. 

Wentworth,  Peter,  sent  to 
the  Tower,  330. 

,  sir  Thomas,  leader  of 

the  commons,  363.  Made 
earl  of  .Strafford  and  minis- 
ter, 37S  («ee  StraflFord). 

,  general,  584. 

Wet-aUd,  what,  74. 

Wesley,  John,  743. 

West,  admiral,  598. 

-^—  Saxons  (Wesoex), 
kingdom  of,  27. 

Westminster  Abbey,  33,  66. 

Hall,  98. 

Westmoreland,  earl  of,  con- 
spires to  liberate  the  queen 
of  Scots,  307  (see  Neville). 

Wharton,  earl  oi;  560,  663. 

,  duke  of,  576. 

Whig,  origin  of  name,  487. 

Wbilbread,  Mr.,  665.  Im- 
peaches lord  Melville,  666. 

White,  colonel,  ejects  the 
Harebone's  parliament,  439. 

1  bishop  of  Peterborough, 

807. 

Whitcbread.  Jesuit,  485 

Whitelock,  account  of  Straf- 
ford's behaviuur,  384. 

Whitfield,  Rev.  G.,  743. 

Whitgift,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  character,  315. 

WhHworth.  lord,  insulted 
by  Bonaparte,  664. 

Wibbandun,  battle,  31. 

Wic-gerffa  (town  -  reeve), 
76. 

Wlcklllfe,  John,  190  «g. 

Wiglaf;  king  of  Herda.  37. 

Wihtgar,  ST. 


UfDBX. 

Wilbfrforce,  William,  CTl 
WUkw,  writes  against  lord 
Bute.  667.  Arrested.  610. 
Duel,  611.  Outlawed,  ib. 
Returned  for  Mkklleeex. 
616.  Sentence  and  riot, 
t6.  Popularity,  ib.  Ex- 
pelled, tb.  Active  against 
th*-  Gordon  rioters,  626. 
William  I.,  duke  of  Nor- 
mandy (the  Conqueror), 
63,  8L  ObUUns  an  oath 
from  Harold,  65.  De- 
mands the  crown  fh»n 
him,  67.  DefeaU  Harold 
at  Hastings,  69.  Enters 
Ix>ndon,    82.      Reign   of, 

81-93. 

II.,  reign  of,  9S-98. 

III.,  reign  of,  521-544. 

IV..  ri'lgn  of.  701-706. 

William  Longsword,  duke  of 
Normandy,  80. 

,  son  of  Robert  of  Nor- 
mandy, 101. 

,  sou  of  Henry  I.,  101. 

AVilliam,dukeof  Guienne,  97. 

William  of  Poitiers,  account 
of  English  nobility,  85. 

William  the  Lion,  of  Scot- 
land, invades  England,  118. 

William,  archbishop  of  (Can- 
terbury, 103. 

William  I.  of  Prussia,  elected 
German  emperor,  728. 

Williams,  general,  defends 
Kara,  716. 

WilUs,  Dr.,  641. 

Wilmington,  lord  (jue 
Compton). 

Wilson,  sir  Robert,  677. 

,  general,  720. 

Winchelsea,    lord,    resigns, 

588. 

,  earl  of.  duel  with  Wel- 
lington, 701. 

Winchester  palace,  93. 

Windebank,  sir  F.,  secretary 
absconds,  381. 

Windsor  castle,  bow  built, 
182. 

Winter,  Thomas,  engages  bi 
gunpowder  plot,  348,  360. 

Winton  Geaster  (Vento  Bel- 
garum),  Winchester,  27. 

Wiseman,  cardinal,  712. 

Wishart,  burnt,  275. 

Witena^gemdt,  72. 

Witnesses,  Judicial,  when 
first  summoned,  150. 

Witt,  de,  admiral,  436. 

1  pensionary,  461.    Ne- 

sodates  with  Temple,  466. 
Murdered,  469. 

Wlencing,  26. 

Woden,  23. 

Wodesbeorg,  battle,  31. 

Wolfe,  general,  601.  Expe- 
dition against  Quebec,  603. 
Dies  victoriooa.  ib. 


807 

Ywrk. 

Wolsetey.  sir  Oaniet,  93«. 

Wolscy.  cafdlaaU  342 
Obtaina  the  reveaoea  «f 
Touruy,  343.  Ardi- 
bishop  of  York,  etc.,  344. 
Magnificence  of,  i6.  Treaty 
with  FYaads,  345.  Legate. 
etG.,;6.  U«iDedbyCharka 
v.,  347.  Expoatulatea 
with  the  coimaona,  %M. 
Inclines  to  Franoia  I.,  34A. 
Tries  the  king's  dhrorae 
oaae,  351.  Dia^soed,  352. 
Condemned,  bot  pardoned, 
353.  ClurBBd  with  hiA 
treason,  254.  Death,  tb, 
Founded  (Christ  Church, 
Oxoa,  373. 

Wolves,  extirpated,  53. 

Wood's  half^ce,  576. 

Woodstock,  manor  of,  oon> 
ferred  on  Marlborou^^.  553. 

WoodviUe.  EUzabeth  (lady 
Grey),  marries  Edward  1 V., 
315.  Takes  sanctuary, 
330. 

Wool,  grant  of,  173. 

Woollen  manuiE&cture,  336. 

Worcester,  earl  of,  revolts 
agahist  Henry  IV.,  194 
Beheaded.  a> 

,  battles,  399,  433. 

Wotton,  Dr.,  295. 

Wren,  sir  Christopher,  CI9L 

Wriothesley,  chancellor, 
370.  Executor,  273.  Cro 
ated  earl  of  Southampton, 
274  (see  Southampton). 

Writs,  established  by  Magna 
Carta,  137. 

Wulstau,  bishop  of  Worces- 
ter, 87. 

Wiirtemburg,    a    kingdom, 

Wyatt'a  faisu-rection,  385- 
Executed,  386. 

Y. 

Yarmouth,  countess  of  (So- 
phia de  Walmoden),  583. 

^  lord,  670. 

Yonge,  sir  WilliaD,  688. 

York,  archbidiopric  founded, 
34.  Cathedral,  ib.  Coun- 
cil at,  380.  Taken  by  the 
Roundheads,  406. 

,  archbishop  of,  rebels 

against  Henry  VII.,  363 
(jesScrope). 

,  duke  of,  guardian.  Jofais 

Hen^  of  Lancaster,  188. 

s  Richard,  duke  of,  re- 
gent of  France,  205.  His 
claim  to  the  English  crown, 
307.  Marches  on  London, 
309.  Gains  the  baUle  of 
St  Albans,  ib.  Killed  at 
Wakefield,  311. 

,  Edward,  duke  of  (Ed- 

waid  rV.),  gaina  tbebattts 


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808 

York. 

of  Mortimer's  Cnm,  911. 
Proclaimed  king,  ib. 

York,  Ricbard,  duke  of,  fion 
of  Edward  IV.,  murdered. 
231.  Inquiry  into  his 
death,  236. 

,  duke  of   (James  TI.), 

marries  Anne  Hyde,  465.  A 
Roman  catholic,  458.  Im- 
proves naval  tacUcs.  460. 
Defmts  the  Dutch  atSoulh- 
wold  Bay,  468.  R<«ign8 
command,  470.  Marries 
Maryof  ModeDa,471.  Ex- 
•mpted  &x>m  fwrHainwit- 


INBEX. 

«I7  test,  4Sl,  Retires  to 
Bnueebs  483.  High  com- 
mii«ioner  in  Scothmd.  486. 
Cruelty,  ib.  Consfrfracy 
against,  493.  Restored  as 
admiral,  496  (Me  James 
II.). 
York,  Frederick,  duke  of, 
lands  at  Ostend,  644.  Nar- 
row escape,  646.  Resigns 
command,  ib.  Expedition 
to  Holland,  and  capitula- 
tion, 654.  Colonel  Wardle's 
charges  against,  676.  Re- 
signs oommandership,  ib. 


Zntphen. 

Reinstated,  681.    His  oally 

698.     Death.  Q>. 
fork,    cardinal,    the  yonng 

Pretender's  brother.  596. 
York  Place,  Wolsey's  pahKe 

(Whitehall).  263. 

Town,  capituUtes,  629. 

Young,  gives  evidence  against 

Marlborough,  631. 


i|Zuleisteln.609.  623. 
•  Zurich,  treaty  of,  722- 
.  I  Zutpbtt.  battle.  317. 


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It  explains  the  nature  of  historical  evidence,  and  records 
only  well  established  judgments  respecting  persons  and 
events. 

It  delineates  the  progress  of  peoples  and  nations  in 
civilization  as  well  as  the  rise  and  succession  of  dynasties. 

It  connects,  in  a  single  chain  of  narration,  events 
related  to  each  other  in  the  contemporary  history  of 
different  nations  and  countries. 

It  gives  special  prominence  to  the  history  of  the 
Mediaeval  and  Modern  Periods,  —  the  eras  of  greatest 
import  to  modern  students. 

It  is  written  from  the  standpoint  of  the  present,  and 
incorporates  the  latest  discoveries  of  historical  explorers 
and  writers. 

It  is  illustrated  by  numerous  colored  maps,  genealogical 
tables,  and  artistic  reproductions  of  architecture,  sculpture, 
painting,  and  portraits  of  celebrated  men,  representing 
every  period  of  the  world's  history. 


Copies  of  Fisher's  Brief  History  of  the  Nations  will  he  sent^  prepaid^  to 
any  address  on  receipt  of  the  price  by  the  Publishers  : 

American  Book  Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  ♦  Chicago 

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Outlines  o(  GeneTal  History 

For  High  Schools^  AcADitMiESy  and  Normal  Schools, 
AND  FOR  Special  Students  and  General  Readers. 

By  frank  MOORE  COLBY,  M.A. 
Professor  of  Economics  in  New  York  University. 

Half  morocco,  12mo,  610  pagBs.     IHustrated     .        .        ,        .    $1.50 


This  General  History  posftesses  certain  features  and  zdr 
yantages  which  distinguishes  it  from  all  other  text-boc^s  of 
its  class.  While  designed  primarily  for  use  as  a  text-book, 
it  presents  such  a  conspectus  of  the  history  of  the  whole 
world  as  admirably  adapts  it  for  the  use  of  special  students 
and  of  general  readers.  The  special  feature  which  char- 
acterizes the  book  most  is  the  interesting  style  in  which  it  is 
written,  the  story  from  beginning  to  end  being  told  simply 
and  clearly,  and  yet  in  a  most  attractive  manner.  The 
book  gives  in  brief  compass  a  comprehensive  outline  of 
the  history  of  the  whole  world,  but  a  larger  proportional 
space  is  given  to  mediaeval  and  modern  history  than 
in  most  other  text-books  in  recognition  of  the  relation  of 
those  later  periods  to  the  present  status  of  the  world's 
history.  To  this  end  also  the  great  events  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  arc  especially  emphasized.  Throughout 
the  book  the  author  has  sought  to  point  out  the  signifi- 
cance of  events  so  that  they  should  clearly  explain  later 
historical  developments. 

The  book  is  well  supplied  with  useful  accessories.  The 
different  historical  phases  and  periods  are  shown  by  well 
designed  and  accurate  maps,  many  of  which  are  printed 
in  colors.  The  illustrations  are  numerous  and  finely 
executed.  These  include  portraits  of  the  world's  greatest 
historical  characters.  The  chapters  are  followed  by  brief 
summaries  for  reviews.  The  pronunciation  of  difficult 
proper  names  is  indicated  as  they  occur.  Dynastic  gene- 
alogies and  successions  are  given  in  convenient  tables. 
The  index  is  very  complete  and  well  arranged. 


Copies  sent,  prepaidy  on  receipt  of  the  price  by  the  Publishers  : 

American   Book  Compaay 

M«w  York  •  Cincirwiati  *  Chicago 


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Mythology 

GUERBER'S  MYTHS  OF  GREECE  AND  ROME 

aothJ2mo,  428  pages.    Illustrated $1.50 

GUERBER'S  MYTHS  OF  NORTHERN  UNDS 

Cloth,  12mo,  319  pages.    Illustrated 1  50 

GUERBER'S  LEGENDS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

Cloth,  12mo,  340  pages.     Illustrated 1.50 

By  H.  a.  GUERBER,  Lecturer  on  Mythology. 


These  companion  volumes  present  a  complete  outline 
of  Ancient  and  Mediaeval  Mythology,  narrated  with 
special  reference  to  Literature  and  Art.  They  are  uni- 
formly bound  in  cloth,  and  are  richly  illustrated  with 
beautiful  reproductions  of  masterpieces  of  ancient  and 
modern  painting  and  sculpture. 

While  primarily  designed  as  manuals  for  the  use  of 
classes  in  schools  where  Mythology  is  made  a  regular  sub- 
ject of  study  and  for  collateral  and  supplementary  reading 
in  classes  studying  literature  or  criticism,  they  are  equally 
well  suited  for  private  students  and  for  home  reading. 
For  this  purpose  the  myths  are  told  in  a  clear  and  charming 
style  and  in  a  connected  narrative  without  unnecessary 
digressions.  To  show  the  wonderful  influence  of  these 
ancient  myths  in  literature,  numerous  and  appropriate 
quotations  from  the  poetical  writings  of  all  ages,  from 
Hesiod's  **Works  and  Days"  to  Tennyson's  **Oenone,** 
have  been  included  in  the  text  in  connection  with  the 
description  of  the  different  myths  and  legends. 

Maps,  complete  glossaries,  and  indexes  adapt  the 
manuals  for  convenient  use  in  schools^  libraries,  or  art 
galleries. 

Copies  of  the  above  books  wili  be  sent^  prepaid^  to  any  address  on  receipt 
of  the  price  by  the  Publishers  : 

Anfierican  Book  Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  ♦  Chicago 


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